CAMBRIDGE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

K.R. PURAM, BANGALORE – 560 036, Ph: 080-2561 8798 / 2561 8799
Fax: 080-2561 8789, email: [email protected]
Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi| Approved by AICTE, New Delhi| NAAC& NBA Accredited| UGC 2(f) Certified| Recognized
by Govt. of Karnataka
DEPARTMENT OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE & MACHINE
LEARNING ENGINEERING 2024
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF ALGORITHMS
LAB MANUAL
(BCSL404)

Compiled by:

Prof. Asha Latha C R

Dr. Varalatchoumy Dr. G.Indumathi

HOD, AI&ML, CITECH Principal, CITECH
 CAMBRIDGE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
K.R. PURAM, BANGALORE – 560 036, Ph: 080-2561 8798 / 2561 8799
Fax: 080-2561 8789, email: [email protected]
Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi| Approved by AICTE, New Delhi| NAAC& NBA Accredited|
UGC 2(f) Certified| Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka

Accredited by NBA & NAAC

Vision
To become a premier institute transforming our students to be global
professionals.

Mission
M1: Develop competent Human Resources, and create state-of-the-art
infrastructure to impart quality education and to support research.

M2: Adopt tertiary approach in teaching – learning pedagogy that transforms

students to become competent professionals and entrepreneurs.

M3: Nurture and train students to develop the qualities of global professionals.
 CAMBRIDGE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND MACHINE LEARNING

Vision

To enrich the academic acumen in the field of artificial intelligence and machine
learning coupled with providing sustainable solutions to global challenges.

Mission

M1: Adhere to Indian pedagogy of Guru Shishya Parambara in modern technological

endeavors

M2: Design and develop adequate infrastructure for patentable technologies resulting in
useful products

M3: Equip the students in fulfilling duty of serving the nation by ensuring self-reliance in
technological prowess
 CAMBRIDGE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND MACHINE LEARNING

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OUTCOMES (PEOs)

PEO1: To provide students learn skills in the domain of artificial intelligence and machine learning.

PEO2: To strengthen students’ knowledge for higher studies in premier institutes in India and abroad.

PEO3: To equip students to become entrepreneurs by solving challenging global problems.

PEO4: To augment new frontiers of research in artificial intelligence and machine learning
throughsystematic process.

PEO5: To enable the academic community to render its service to the nation by reducing technological
barriers in the domain.

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)

PSO1: To gain fundamental knowledge of computing paradigms with the intricacies through laboratory
experiments

PSO2: To design and develop artificial intelligence systems such as mobile robots, drones and intelligence
software systems

PSO3: To use intelligence system with machine learning to solve challenging problems in defence, healthcare
and industrial applications.
TABLE OF CONTENTS:
S.NO EXPERIMENTS
1 Design and implement C/C++ Program to find Minimum Cost Spanning Tree of a given
connected undirected graph using Kruskal's algorithm.

2 Design and implement C/C++ Program to find Minimum Cost Spanning Tree of a given
connected undirected graph using Prim's algorithm.

3 a. Design and implement C/C++ Program to solve All-Pairs Shortest Paths problem using Floyd's
algorithm.
b. Design and implement C/C++ Program to find the transitive closure using Warshal's
algorithm.
4 Design and implement C/C++ Program to find shortest paths from a given vertex in a weighted
connected graph to other vertices using Dijkstra's algorithm.

5 Design and implement C/C++ Program to obtain the Topological ordering of vertices in a given
digraph.

6 Design and implement C/C++ Program to solve 0/1 Knapsack problem using Dynamic
Programming method.

7 Design and implement C/C++ Program to solve discrete Knapsack and continuous Knapsack
problems using greedy approximation method.

8 Design and implement C/C++ Program to find a subset of a given set S = {sl , s2,.....,sn} of n
positive integers whose sum is equal to a given positive integer d.

9 Design and implement C/C++ Program to sort a given set of n integer elements using Selection
Sort method and compute its time complexity. Run the program for varied values of n> 5000 and
record the time taken to sort. Plot a graph of the time taken versus n. The elements can be read
from a file or can be generated using the random number generator.
10 Design and implement C/C++ Program to sort a given set of n integer elements using Quick Sort
method and compute its time complexity. Run the program for varied values of n> 5000 and
record the time taken to sort. Plot a graph of the time taken versus n. The elements can be read
from a file or can be generated using the random number generator.

11 Design and implement C/C++ Program to sort a given set of n integer elements using Merge Sort
method and compute its time complexity. Run the program for varied values of n> 5000, and
record the time taken to sort. Plot a graph of the time taken versus n. The elements can be read
from a file or can be generated using the random number generator.

12 Design and implement C/C++ Program for N Queen's problem using Backtracking

Course outcomes (Course Skill Set):

At the end of the course the student will be able to:
1. Develop programs to solve computational problems using suitable algorithm design strategy.
2. Compare algorithm design strategies by developing equivalent programs and observing running
times for analysis (Empirical).
3. Make use of suitable integrated development tools to develop programs
4. Choose appropriate algorithm design techniques to develop solution to the computational and
complex problems.
5. Demonstrate and present the development of program, its execution and running time(s) and
record the results/inferences.

Assessment Details (both CIE and SEE)

The weightage of Continuous Internal Evaluation (CIE) is 50% and for Semester End Exam (SEE) is
50%. The minimum passing mark for the CIE is 40% of the maximum marks (20 marks out of 50) and for the
SEE minimum passing mark is 35% of the maximum marks (18 out of 50 marks). A student shall be deemed
to have satisfied the academic requirements and earned the credits allotted to each subject/ course if the
student secures a minimum of 40% (40 marks out of 100) in the sum total of the CIE (Continuous Internal
Evaluation) and SEE (Semester End Examination) taken together

Continuous Internal Evaluation (CIE):

CIE marks for the practical course are 50 Marks.
The split-up of CIE marks for record/ journal and test are in the ratio 60:40.
● Each experiment is to be evaluated for conduction with an observation sheet and record write-up.
Rubrics for the evaluation of the journal/write-up for hardware/software experiments are designed
by the faculty who is handling the laboratory session and are made known to students at the
beginning
of the practical session.
● Record should contain all the specified experiments in the syllabus and each experiment write-up
will be evaluated for 10 marks.
● Total marks scored by the students are scaled down to 30 marks (60% of maximum marks).
● Weightage to be given for neatness and submission of record/write-up on time.
 ● Department shall conduct a test of 100 marks after the completion of all the experiments listed in
the syllabus.
● In a test, test write-up, conduction of experiment, acceptable result, and procedural knowledge will
carry a weightage of 60% and the rest 40% for viva-voce.
● The suitable rubrics can be designed to evaluate each student’s performance and learning ability.
● The marks scored shall be scaled down to 20 marks (40% of the maximum marks).
The Sum of scaled-down marks scored in the report write-up/journal and marks of a test is the total
CIE marks scored by the student.
Semester End Evaluation (SEE):
● SEE marks for the practical course are 50 Marks. SEE shall be conducted jointly by the two
examiners of the same institute, examiners are appointed by the Head of the Institute.
● The examination schedule and names of examiners are informed to the university before the
conduction of the examination. These practical examinations are to be conducted between the
schedule mentioned in the academic calendar of the University.
● All laboratory experiments are to be included for practical examination.
● (Rubrics) Breakup of marks and the instructions printed on the cover page of the answer script
to be strictly adhered to by the examiners. OR based on the course requirement evaluation
rubrics shall be decided jointly by examiners.
● Students can pick one question (experiment) from the questions lot prepared by the examiners
jointly.
● Evaluation of test write-up/ conduction procedure and result/viva will be conducted jointly by
examiners.
● General rubrics suggested for SEE are mentioned here, writeup-20%, Conduction procedure and
result in -60%, Viva-voce 20% of maximum marks. SEE for practical shall be evaluated for 100
marks
and scored marks shall be scaled down to 50 marks (however, based on course type, rubrics shall be
decided by the examiners)
● Change of experiment is allowed only once and 15% of Marks allotted to the procedure part are to
be
made zero.
●The minimum duration of SEE is 02 hours
Solutions:
1.Design and implement C/C++ Program to find Minimum Cost Spanning Tree
of a given connected undirected graph using Kruskal's algorithm.

#include<stdio.h>
int cost[10][10],n;
void kruskal()
{
int par[n];
int a=0,b=0,u=0,v=0,min, mincost = 0, ne = 0;
for(int i=0;i<n;i++)
par[i]=-1;

printf("the minimum spanning tree edges are...");

while(ne < n-1)
{
//Find the least cost edge
min = 999;
for(int i=0;i<n;i++)
for(int j=0;j<n;j++)
if(cost[i][j] < min)
{
min=cost[i][j];
a=u=i;
b=v=j;
}

//Check if edge select cause

cyclicity? while(par[u]!=-1)
u=par[u];

while(par[v]!=-1)
v=par[v];

if(u!=v)
{
printf("From vertex %d to vertex %d and the cost = %d\n",a,b,min);
mincost+=min;
par[v]=u;
ne++;
}
//edge included in MST should not be considered for next iteration
cost[a][b]=cost[b][a]=999;
}
printf("Cost of MST = %d", mincost);
}

void main()
{
printf("Enter the no. of vertices:");
scanf("%d",&n);
 printf("Enter the cost matrix\n");
for(int i=0;i<n;i++)
for(int j=0;j<n;j++)
scanf("%d",&cost[i][j]);
kruskal();
}

Sample Input and Output:

Enter the no. of vertices:4 Enter

the cost matrix

999 2 3 1
2 999 4 999
3 4 999 5
1 999 5 999
the minimum spanning tree edges are... From
vertex 0 to vertex 3 and the cost = 1 From
vertex 0 to vertex 1 and the cost = 2 From
vertex 0 to vertex 2 and the cost = 3 Cost of
MST = 6

2. Design and implement C/C++ Program to find Minimum Cost Spanning Tree
of a given connected undirected graph using Prim's algorithm.

#include<stdio.h>
int cost[10][10],n;
void prim()
{
int vt[10]={0};
int a=0,b=0,min, mincost = 0, ne = 0;
//start from the first vertex
vt[0] = 1;
while(ne < n-1)
{
//Find the nearest neighbour
min = 999;
for (int i = 0; i<n; i++)
{
if(vt[i]==1)
for(int j = 0;j <n; j++)
if(cost[i][j] < min && vt[j]==0)
{
min = cost[i][j];
a = i;
 b = j;
}
}
//Include nearest neighbour 'b' into MST
printf("Edge from vertex %d to vertex %d and the cost %d\n",a,b,min);
vt[b] = 1;
ne++;
mincost += min;
cost[a][b] = cost[b][a] = 999;
}
printf("minimum spanning tree cost is %d",mincost);
}

void main()
{
printf("Enter the no. of vertices: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Enter the cost matrix\n");
for(int i=0;i<n;i++)
for(int j=0;j<n;j++)
scanf("%d",&cost[i][j]);
prim();
}
Sample Input and Output:

Enter the no. of vertices: 4 Enter

the cost matrix
999 2 3 1
2 999 4 999
3 4 999 5
1 999 5 999
Edge from vertex 0 to vertex 3 and the cost 1
Edge from vertex 0 to vertex 1 and the cost 2
Edge from vertex 0 to vertex 2 and the cost 3
minimum spanning tree cost is 6
3a. Design and implement C/C++ Program to solve All-Pairs Shortest Paths problem
using Floyd's algorithm.
#include<stdio.h>
int min(int a, int b)
{
return(a < b ? a : b);
}

void floyd(int D[][10],int n)

{
for(int k=1;k<=n;k++)
for(int i=1;i<=n;i++)
for(int j=1;j<=n;j++) D[i][j]=min(D[i][j],D[i][k]
+D[k][j]);
}

int main()
{
int n, cost[10][10];
printf("Enter no. of Vertices: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Enter the cost matrix\n");
for(int i=1;i<=n;i++)
for(int j=1;j<=n;j++) scanf("%d",&cost[i]
[j]);
floyd(cost,n);

printf("All pair shortest path\n");

for(int i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
for(int j=1;j<=n;j++)
printf("%d ",cost[i][j]);
printf("\n");
}
}

Sample Input and Output:

Enter no. of Vertices: 4
Enter the cost matrix 999 8
4 999
999 999 1 999
4 999 999 999
999 2 9 999
All pair shortest path
8 8 4 999
5 13 1 999
4 12 8 999
7 2 3 999

3b. Design and implement C/C++ Program to find the transitive closure using
Warshal's algorithm.

#include<stdio.h>
void warshal(int A[][10],int n)
{
for(int k=1;k<=n;k++)
for(int i=1;i<=n;i++)
for(int j=1;j<=n;j++)
A[i][j]=A[i][j] || (A[i][k] && A[k][j]);
}

void main()
{
int n, adj[10][10];
printf("Enter no. of Vertices: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Enter the adjacency matrix\n");
for(int i=1;i<=n;i++)
for(int j=1;j<=n;j++)
scanf("%d",&adj[i][j]);
warshal(adj,n);

printf("Transitive closure of the given graph is\n");

for(int i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
for(int j=1;j<=n;j++)
printf("%d ",adj[i][j]);
printf("\n");
}
}
Sample Input and Output:

Enter no. of Vertices: 4 Enter

the adjacency matrix 0 1 0 0
0001
0000
1010
Transitive closure of the given graph is
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1

4.Design and implement C/C++ Program to find shortest paths from a given
vertex in a weighted connected graph to other vertices using Dijkstra's
algorithm.
#include<stdio.h>
int cost[10][10],n,dist[10];
int minm(int m, int n)
{
return(( m < n) ? m: n);
}

void dijkstra(int source)

{
int s[10]={0};
int min, w=0;

for(int i=0;i<n;i++)
dist[i]=cost[source][i];

//Initialize dist from source to source as 0

dist[source] = 0;

//mark source vertex - estimated for its shortest path

s[source] = 1;
for(int i=0; i < n-1; i++)
{
//Find the nearest neighbour vertex
min = 999;
for(int j = 0; j < n; j++)
{
 if ((s[j] == 0 ) && (min > dist[j]))
{
min = dist[j];
w = j;
}
}
s[w]=1;
//Update the shortest path of neighbour of w
for(int v=0;v<n;v++)
{
if(s[v]==0 && cost[w][v]!=999)
{
dist[v]= minm(dist[v],dist[w]+cost[w][v]);
}
}
}
}

int main()
{

int source;

printf("Enter the no.of vertices:");

scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Enter the cost matrix\n");
for(int i=0;i<n;i++)
for(int j=0;j<n;j++)
scanf("%d",&cost[i][j]);
printf("Enter the source vertex:");
scanf("%d",&source);
dijkstra(source);

printf("the shortest distance is...");

for(int i=0; i<n; i++)
printf("Cost from %d to %d is %d\n",source,i,dist[i]);
}

Sample Input and Output:

Enter the no.of vertices:5

Enter the cost matrix
0 3 1 999 999
30751
1 7 0 2 999
999 5 2 0 7
999 1 999 7 0
Enter the source vertex:0
the shortest distance is...Cost from 0 to 0 is 0 Cost
from 0 to 1 is 3
Cost from 0 to 2 is 1
Cost from 0 to 3 is 3
Cost from 0 to 4 is 4

5.Design and implement C/C++ Program to obtain the Topological ordering of

vertices in a given digraph.

//Solved using Source removal Method

#include<stdio.h>
int cost[10][10],n,colsum[10];
void cal_colsum()
{
for(int j=0;j<n;j++)
{
colsum[j]=0;
for(int i=0;i<n;i+
+)
colsum[j]+=cost[i][j];
}
}

void source_removal()
{
int i,j,k,select[10]={0};
printf("Topological ordering is:");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
//Calculate the outdegree for each vertices
cal_colsum();
for(j=0;j<n;j++)
{
if(select[j]==0 && colsum[j]==0)//source vertex
break;
}
printf("%d ",j);
select[j]=1;
//Remove source vertex j from cost matrix
for(k=0;k<n;k++)
cost[j][k]=0;
}
}

void main()
{
printf("Enter no. of Vertices: ");
 scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Enter the cost matrix\n");
for(int i=0;i<n;i++)
for(int j=0;j<n;j++)
scanf("%d",&cost[i][j]);
source_removal();
}

Sample Input and Output:

Enter no. of Vertices: 5

Enter the cost matrix
01100
00011
00010
00001
00000
Topological ordering is:0 1 2 3 4

6. Design and implement C/C++ Program to solve 0/1 Knapsack problem using
Dynamic Programming method.

#include<stdio.h>
int n,m,p[10],w[10];

int max(int a, int b)

{
return(a>b?a:b);
}

void knapsack_DP()
{
int V[10][10],i,j;
for(i=0;i<=n;i++)
for(j=0;j<=m;j++)
if(i==0 || j==0) V[i]
[j]=0;
else if(j<w[i])//weight of the item is larger than
capacity V[i][j]=V[i-1][j];
else
V[i][j]=max(V[i-1][j],p[i]+V[i-1][j-w[i]]);//maximization

for(i=0;i<=n;i++)
{
 for(j=0;j<=m;j++)
printf("%d ",V[i][j]);
printf("\n");
}
/* tracking back the optimal solution vector */
printf("Items included are:");
while(n > 0)
{
if(V[n][m] != V[n-1][m])
{
printf("%d ",n);
m = m - w[n];
}
n--;
}
}

int main()
{
int i;
printf("Enter the no. of items: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Enter the weights of n items: ");
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
scanf("%d",&w[i]);
printf("Enter the prices of n items: ");
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)

scanf("%d",&p[i]);
printf("Enter the capacity of Knapsack: ");
scanf("%d",&m);
knapsack_DP();
}

Sample Input and Output:

Enter the no. of items: 4
Enter the weights of n items: 7 3 4 5
Enter the prices of n items: 42 12 40 25 Enter
the capacity of Knapsack: 10
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 42 42 42 0
0 0 0 12 12 12 12 42 42 42 0
0 0 0 12 40 40 40 52 52 52 0
0 0 0 12 40 40 40 52 52 65 65
Items included are: 4 3
7.Design and implement C/C++ Program to solve discrete Knapsack and
continuous Knapsack problems using greedy approximation method.

#include<stdio.h>

int n,m,p[10],w[10];
void greedy_knapsack()
{
float max, profit=0;
int k=0,i,j;
printf("item included is :");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
max=0;
//choose the item which has highest price to weight ratio
for(j=0;j<n;j++)
{
if(((float)p[j])/w[j] > max)
{
k=j;
max=((float)p[j])/w[j];
}
}
//kth element has highest price to weight ratio
if(w[k] <= m )
{
printf("%d",k);
m = m - w[k];
profit=profit+p[k];
p[k]=0;
}
else
break;//unable fit item k into knapsack
}
printf("Discrete Knapsack profit = %f\n",profit);
printf("Continuous Knapsack also includes item %d with portion: %f\n", k, (float)m)/w[k]);
profit = profit + ((float)m)/w[k] * p[k];
printf("Continuous Knapsack profit = %f\n",profit);
}

int main()
{
int i;
printf("Enter the no. of items: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Enter the weights of n items: ");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
scanf("%d",&w[i]);
printf("Enter the prices of n items: ");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
scanf("%d",&p[i]);
 printf("Enter the capacity of Knapsack: ");

scanf("%d",&m);
greedy_knapsack();
}
Sample Input and Output:
Enter the no. of items: 4
Enter the weights of n items: 2 1 3 2
Enter the prices of n items: 12 10 20 15 Enter
the capacity of Knapsack: 5
item included is :1 3
Discrete Knapsack profit = 25.000000
Continuous Knapsack also includes item 2 with portion: 0.666667
Continuous Knapsack profit = 38.333332

8.Design and implement C/C++ Program to find a subset of a given set S = {sl ,
s2,.,sn}of n positive integers whose sum is equal to a given positive integer d.

#include<stdio.h>
int x[10], w[10], count, d;
void sum_of_subsets(int s, int k, int rem)
{
x[k] = 1;
if( s + w[k] == d)
{
//if subset found
printf("subset = %d\n", ++count);
for(int i=0 ; i <= k ; i++)
if ( x[i] == 1)
printf("%d ",w[i]);
printf("\n");
}
else if ( s + w[k] + w[k+1] <= d )//left tree evaluation
sum_of_subsets(s+w[k], k+1, rem-w[k]);

if( ( s+rem-w[k] >= d) && ( s + w[k+1]) <= d)//right tree evaluation

{
x[k] = 0;
sum_of_subsets(s,k+1,rem-w[k]);
}
}

int main()
{
int sum = 0,n;
printf("enter no of elements:");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("enter the elements in increasing order:");
for( int i = 0; i < n ; i++)
{
scanf("%d",&w[i]);
 sum=sum+w[i];
}
printf("eneter the sum:");
scanf("%d",&d);

if ( ( sum < d ) || ( w[0] > d ) )

printf("No subset possible\n");
else
sum_of_subsets(0,0,sum);
}
Sample Input and Output:

enter no of elements:5
enter the elements in increasing order:1 2 3 4 5
enter the sum:10
subset = 1
1 2 3 4
subset = 2
1 4 5
subset = 3
2 3 5
9. Design and implement C/C++ Program to sort a given set of n integer elements using
Selection Sort method and compute its time complexity. Run the program for varied values of
n> 5000 and record the time taken to sort. Plot a graph of the time taken versus n. The
elements can be read from a file or can be generated using the random number generator.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
#include<time.h>
int a[10000],n,count;
void selection_sort()
{
for(int i=0;i<n-1;i++)
{
int min = i;
for(int j=i+1;j<n;j++)
{
count++;
if(a[j]<a[min])
min=j;
}
int temp=a[i];
a[i]=a[min];
a[min]=temp;
}
}

int main()
{
printf("Enter the number of elements in an array:");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("All the elements:");
srand(time(0));
for(int i=0;i<n;i++)
{
a[i]=rand();
printf("%d ",a[i]);
}
selection_sort(); printf("\
nAfter sorting\n"); for(int
i=0;i<n;i++)
printf("%d ", a[i]);
printf("\nNumber of basic operations = %d\n",count);
}
Sample Input and Output:
Enter the number of elements in an array:5 All
the elements:
24152 32742 28304 4804 22274
After sorting
4804 22274 24152 28304 32742
Number of basic operations = 10
Enter the number of elements in an array:10 All
the elements:
24243 6017 4212 23217 16170 24802 1085 24280 9847 6392
After sorting
1085 4212 6017 6392 9847 16170 23217 24243 24280 24802
Number of basic operations = 45

10.Design and implement C/C++ Program to sort a given set of n integer elements using
Quick Sort method and compute its time complexity. Run the program for varied values of n>
5000 and record the time taken to sort. Plot a graph of the time taken versus n. The elements
can be read from a file or can be generated using the random number generator.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
#include<time.h>
int count=0;
int partition(int a[], int low,int high)
{
int pivot=a[low],temp,i=low+1,j=high;
while(1)
{
//Traverse i from left to right, segregating element of left group
while(i<=high && a[i]<=pivot)//a[i]<=pivot used for avoiding multiple duplicates
{
i++; count++;
}
//Traverse j from right to left, segregating element of right group
while(j>0 && a[j]>pivot)
{
j--; count++;
}
count+=2;
//If grouping is incomplete
if(i<j)
{
temp = a[i];
a[i] = a[j];
a[j] =temp;
}
else if(i>j)//If grouping is completed
{
temp = a[low];
a[low] = a[j];
a[j] = temp;
return j;
}
else //Duplicate of Pivot found
return j;
}
}
void quicksort(int a[],int low, int high)
{
int s;
if(low<high)
{
//partition to place pivot element in between left and right group
s = partition(a,low,high);

quicksort(a,low,s-1);
quicksort(a,s+1,high);
}
}
int main()
{
int a[10000],n;
printf("Enter the number of elements in an array:");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("All the elements:");
srand(time(0));
for(int i=0;i<n;i++)
{
a[i]=rand();
printf("%d ",a[i]);
}
quicksort(a,0,n-1); printf("\
nAfter sorting\n"); for(int
i=0;i<n;i++)
printf("%d ", a[i]);
printf("\nNumber of basic operations = %d\n",count);
}
Sample Input and Output:
Enter the number of elements in an array:5 All
the elements:
24442 6310 12583 16519 22767
After sorting
6310 12583 16519 22767 24442
Number of basic operations = 18

Enter the number of elements in an array:10 All

the elements:
24530 1605 3396 10868 6349 9906 12836 28823 21075 22418
After sorting
1605 3396 6349 9906 10868 12836 21075 22418 24530 28823
Number of basic operations=44
11.Design and implement C/C++ Program to sort a given set of n integer elements using
Merge Sort method and compute its time complexity. Run the program for varied values of
n> 5000, and record the time taken to sort. Plot a graph of the time taken versus n. The
elements can be read from a file or can be generated using the random number generator.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
#include<time.h>

int count=0;
void merge(int a[], int low,int mid,int high)
{
int i,j,k,c[10000];

i=low, j=mid+1, k=0;

while((i<=mid) && (j<=high))
{
count++;
//choose the least element and store in Temporary array 'C'
if(a[i]<a[j])
c[k++]=a[i++];
else
c[k++]=a[j++];
}
Sample Input and Output:
Enter the number of elements in an array:5 All
the elements:
24759 329 8704 24132 7473
After sorting
329 7473 8704 24132 24759
Number of basic operations = 8

Enter the number of elements in an array:10 All

the elements:
24854 17121 2477 1072 11684 5437 26057 1167 17322 3583
After sorting
1072 1167 2477 3583 5437 11684 17121 17322 24854 26057
Number of basic operations = 22

12.Design and implement C/C++ Program for N Queen's problem using Backtracking.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<math.h> //for abs() function

int place(int x[],int k)

{
for(int i=1;i<k;i++)
{
if( (x[i] == x[k]) || ( abs(x[i]-x[k]) == abs(i-k)) )
return 0;
}
return 1; //feasible
}

int nqueens(int n)
{
int x[10], k, count=0;

k=1;// select the first queen

x[k]=0; //no positions allocated
while(k != 0) // until all queens are present
{
x[k]++; // place the kth queen in next column
while((x[k] <= n) && (!place(x,k)))
x[k]++; // check for the next column to place queen

if(x[k] <= n)
{
if(k == n) // all queens are placed
{
printf("\nSolution %d\n",++count);
for(int i=1;i <= n;i++)
{
 for(int j=1;j <= n;j++)
printf("%c ",j==x[i]?'Q':'X');
} printf("\n");
else }
{
++k; //select the next queen
x[k]=0; // start from the next column
}
}
else
k--; // backtrack
}
return count;
}

void main()

{
int n;
printf("Enter the size of chessboard: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("\nThe number of possibilities are %d",nqueens(n));
}

Sample Input and Output:

1. Enter the size of chessboard: 4

Solution 1
XQXX
XXXQ
QXXX
XXQX
Solution 2
XXQX
QXXX
XXXQ
XQXX
The number of possibilities are 2
1. Enter the size of chessboard: 3

The number of possibilities are 0

1. Enter the size of chessboard: 1

Solution 1
Q

The number of possibilities are 1

Viva Questions:

1. What is an algorithm? What is the need to study Algorithms?

2. Explain Euclid’s Algorithm to find GCD of two integers with an e.g.
3. Explain Consecutive Integer Checking algorithm to find GCD of two numbers with an e.g.
4. Explain Middle School Algorithm with an e.g.
5. Explain the Algorithm design and analysis process with a neat diagram.
6. Define: a) Time Efficiency b) Space Efficiency.
7. What are the important types of problems that encounter in the area of computing?
8. What are different ways of measuring the running time of an algorithm?
9. What is Order of Growth?
10. Define Worst case, Average case and Best case efficiencies.
11. Explain the Linear Search algorithm.
12. Define O, Ω, Ө notations.
13. Give the general plan for analyzing the efficiency of non-recursive algorithms with an e.g.
14. Give an algorithm to find the smallest element in a list of n numbers and analyze the efficiency.
15. Give an algorithm to check whether all the elements in a list are unique or not and analyze the
efficiency
16. Give an algorithm to multiply two matrices of order N*N and analyze the efficiency.
17. Give the general plan for analyzing the efficiency of Recursive algorithms with an e.g.
18. Give an algorithm to compute the Factorial of a positive integer n and analyze the efficiency.
19. Give an algorithm to solve the Tower of Hanoi puzzle and analyze the efficiency.
20. Define an explicit formula for the nth Fibonacci number.
21. Define a recursive algorithm to compute the nth Fibonacci number and analyze its efficiency.
22. What is Exhaustive Search?
23. What is Traveling Salesmen Problem (TSP)? Explain with e.g.
24. Give a Brute Force solution to the TSP. What is the efficiency of the algorithm?
25. What is an Assignment Problem? Explain with an e.g.
26. Give a Brute Force solution to the Assignment Problem. What is the efficiency of the algorithm?
27. Explain Divide and Conquer technique and give the general divide and conquer recurrence.
28. Define: a) Eventually non-decreasing function b) Smooth function c) Smoothness rule d) Masters
theorem
29. Explain the Merge Sort algorithm with an e.g. and also draw the tree structure of the recursive calls
made.
30. Analyze the efficiency of Merge sort algorithm.
31. Explain the Quick Sort algorithm with an example and also draw the tree structure of the recursive
calls made.
32. Analyze the efficiency of Quick sort algorithm.
33. Give the Binary Search algorithm and analyze the efficiency.
34. Give an algorithm to find the height of a Binary tree and analyze the efficiency.
35. Give an algorithm each to traverse the Binary tree in Inorder, Preorder and Postorder.
36. Explain how do you multiply two large integers and analyze the efficiency of the algorithm. Give an
e.g.
37. Explain the Strassen’s Matrix multiplication with an e.g. and analyze the efficiency.
38. Explain the concept of Decrease and Conquer technique and explain its three major variations.
39. Give the Insertion Sort algorithm and analyze the efficiency.
40. Explain DFS and BFS with an e.g. and analyze the efficiency.
41. Give two solutions to sort the vertices of a directed graph topologically.
42. Discuss the different methods of generating Permutations.
43. Discuss the different methods of generating Subsets.
44. What is Heap? What are the different types of heaps?
45. Explain how do you construct heap?
46. Explain the concept of Dynamic programming with an e.g.
47. What is Transitive closure? Explain how do you find out the Transitive closure with an e.g.
48. Give the Warshall’s algorithm and analyze the efficiency.
49. Explain how do you solve the All-Pairs-Shortest-Paths problem with an e.g.
50. Give the Floyd’s algorithm and analyze the efficiency.
51. What is Knapsack problem? Give the solution to solve it using dynamic programming technique.
52. What are Memory functions? What are the advantages of using memory functions?
53. Give an algorithm to solve the knapsack problem.
54. Explain the concept of Greedy technique.
55. Explain Prim’s algorithm with e.g.
56. Prove that Prim’s algorithm always yields a minimum spanning tree.
57. Explain Kruskal’s algorithm with an e.g.
58. Explain Dijkstra’s algorithm with an e.g.
59. What are Huffman trees? Explain how to construct a Huffman trees with an e.g.
60. Explain the concept of Backtracking with an e.g.
61. What is state space tree? Explain how to construct a state space tree?
62. What is n-Queen’s problem? Generate the state space tree for n=4.
63. Explain the subset sum problem with an e.g.
64. What are Decision Trees? Explain.
65. Define P, NP, and NP-Complete problems.
66. Explain the Branch and Bound technique with an e.g.
67. What are the steps involved in quick sort?
68. What is the principle used in the quick sort?
69. What are the advantages and disadvantages of quick sort?
70. What are the steps involved in merge sort?
71. What is divide, conquer, combine?
72. xplain the concept of topological ordering?
73. What are the other ordering techniques that you know?
74. How topological ordering is different from other ordering techniques?
75. What is transitive closure?
76. Time complexity of warshall’s algorithm?
77. Define knapsack problem?
78. What is dynamic programming?
79. hat is single-source shortest path problem?
80. What is the time complexity of dijkstra’s algorithm?