MODULE 01 INTRODUCTION OF CIVIL ENGG SHOBENI H

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION OF CIVIL ENGINERRING

MODULE 01
1. CIVIL ENGINEERING DISCIPLINES AND BUILDING SCIENCE.

1.1 INTRODUCITON OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: SURVEYING,

STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING, GEOTECHNICAL
ENGINEERING, HYDRAULICS & WATER RESOURCES,
TRANSPORATATION ENGINEERING, ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING, CONCTRUCTION PLANNING & PROJECT
MANAGEMENT.

1.2 BASIC MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCITON: BRICKS, CEMENT

& MORTARS, PLAIN, REINFORCED & PRE-STRESSED
CONCRETE, STRUCTURAL STEEL, CONSTRUCITON
CHEMICALS.

1.3 STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS OF A BUILDING: FOUNDATION,

PLINTH, LINTEL, CHEJJA, MASONRY WALL, COLUMN, BEAM,
SLAB AND STAIRCASE.
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING:
Civil engineering is the oldest branch of the profession of engineering. Many
of the things in our lives that we take for granted are the product of civil
engineering.
Civil engineering looks into the public needs to meet the necessary
infrastructure demands of the society by keeping our social and cultural heritage.
It deals with improving the quality of life standards.
Civil engineering involves number of operation right from surveying,
planning, analysis, design, estimate, execution of work and maintain the structures
for its life time.
Civil engineering has created scope by providing great diversity within itself
leading to many specialization. Among them construction is the largest field
involving building of small home to high-rise building( skyscrapers).
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Civil engineering helps to elevate the standards of living and adds to the
comforts of life.
Civil engineering gives scope for irrigation by constructing barrages, dams,
canals, distributaries. This helps to control the flood.
IMPACT OF INFRASTRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT
The overall development of any country is directly dependent on the
infrastructural facilities made available to the people of the country.
The positive impact of developing good infrastructural facilities can be
summarised as indicated below.
• Self sufficiency in food sector can be achieved
• Foreign exchange can be saved
• Export of surplus food products industrial products is possible.
• Unemployment can be reduced through increased job opportunities.
• Prevention of unhealthy urbanisation can be prevented, which in turn solves
many problems such as urban congestion, acute housing shortage, traffic
problems, crimes, pollution etc.
• Per capita income is increased.
• The living standards of people can be enhanced.
• Public health can be improved Inflation can be reduced.
• Draught and flood related problems can be controlled / minimized.
• Pollution can be controlled.
• Literacy level of people can be increased.
• Public awareness gets improved
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THE ROLE OF CIVIL ENGINEERS IN INFRASTRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT OF A

COUNTRY
The role of Civil Engineers lies in planning the work meticulously and carrying out
the designed works systematically to achieve the most optimal and efficient
output that help the common people to lead a satisfactory life.
They are also responsible for the regular maintenance of the works carried out by
them.
Following illustrations explain the complexities involved in the works to be carried
out by a civil engineer.
 Civil Engineering constructions vary from very simple routine works to very
complicated, huge structures.
 Everything depends upon the prevailing site conditions which may or may
not be favourable for the construction.
 Environmental conditions, location of the site, site & soil conditions and the
like may contribute to all kinds of problems, in addition to unforeseen
circumstances which may suddenly creep in.
 A civil engineer has to think calmly and take judicious and practicable
decisions, considering all alternates and their pros and cons.
 Civil engineering is much more than erecting skyscrapers or bridges.
 The civil engineers must have a thorough understanding of the interaction
among the various units of construction, among the various structural
elements, between the structure and the complex environment.
 Since constructing a large building or public-works project can involve
elaborate planning, civil engineers can be outstanding project managers.
 They sometimes manage thousands of workers.
 They also develop advanced computerization and planning policies.
 In addition, many civil engineers are also involved with preserving,
protecting, or restoring the environment.
 A growing number of civil engineers are involved in many sensitive and
hazardous projects involving huge money such as cleaning up toxic
industrial or municipal wastes at abandoned dump sites, reclamation of
unsuitable sites for construction, rehabilitation of old / heritage structures,
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maintaining national forest parks, and restoring the land around mines, oil
wells, or factories

ROLE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING IN INFRASTRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT ON

SOCIO ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF COUNTRY.
Infrastructure may be divided into economic infrastructure and social
infrastructure
1. ECONOMIC INFRASTRUCTURE:
It includes the progressive growth of the country and its economic
condition in generating revenue
a) Well-developed cities, towns and village: The master plan of cities
and towns are prepared by civil engineers by using town planning
procedures. The plans for each house will be planned by civil
engineering and it will be constructed under the supervision of civil
engineers.
b) Transportation facilities: transportation facility play a crucial role
in the economic and commercial progress of a country by the effort of
civil engineers like i. Providing road ways and railways connecting every
corner of a country ii. Providing airways, where enormous time can be
saved iii. Providing water ways for transporting ores, petroleum
products food, grains etc.
c) Water supply and drainage systems: providing a good and assured
water supply scheme for drinking, industries, agriculture and other
purpose and also an efficient drainage system by collecting the waste
treating it properly and final disposal in the form liquid with the help of
civil engineering technique.
d) Power supply: it is an essential factor for development of country.
It includes power plants, solar energy, wind energy, etc. all these can be
managed and constructed by civil engineers.
e) Irrigation facilities: The economy of the country depends on the
agricultural output. Agriculture depends upon the water supply and
power. Irrigation includes construction of dams, proper distribution of
water through canals and distributaries etc.
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2. SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURE:
It includes provides
a) Good health can by providing primary health centres, hospitals
with sophisticated instruments and veterinary hospitals for animals health.
b) Education facilities: it includes providing education at primary,
higher college and professional courses, and technical courses with
interdisciplinary education as a new concept.
c) Other facilities: wild life conservation, agriculture, industries,
communication, agriculture, fire stations for emergency and safety purpose
are constructed by the effort of civil engineering Thus the civil engineers
play a vital role in contributing the socio-economic development of the
country.

SCOPE OF DIFFERENT FIELDS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING:

PROJECT SURVEYING
MANGEMENT

CONSTRUCTION STRUCTURAL
PLANNING ENGINEERING

CIVIL
ENGINEERING

ENVIRONMENTAL GEOTECHNICAL
ENGINEERING ENGINEERING

TRANSPORTATION HYDRAULICS &

ENGINEERING WATER
RESOURCES
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1.1.1 SURVEYING:
It is the art of determining the relative position of points on the earth’s
surface by measuring the horizontal between them.
Levelling is the process of determining the position of points in a
vertical plane Surveying are of two types
1) Geodetic survey: the survey in which the shape of the earth is taken
in to account is called geodetic surveying
2) Plane survey: the survey in which the shape (or) curvature of earth
is not taken in to account is called plane surveying.
The scope of surveying and levelling are:
a) To prepare plan and map which help in project implementation
(setting out the alignment for a road or railway track or canal, deciding the
location for a dam or airport or harbour)
b) To determine the dimensions and contours of any part of the earth
surface
c) To establish boundaries of land
d) To measure the areas and volume of land
e) To select suitable site for an engineering project
f) To conduct engineering survey, topographical survey, military
survey, mine survey, geological survey, archaeological survey, hydro
graphic survey, environmental survey etc..
The Knowledge of surveying is essential in many phases for every
engineering project such as buildings, roadways, railways, dams, bridges,
tunnels, harbours, mines, water supply and sanitation, pipe line laying,
airports etc..

1.1.2 GEO-TECHNICAL ENGINEERING (Soil Mechanics):

The load from the structure is to be safely transferred to soil, for this safe
bearing cap
acity of soil is to be properly assessed. This branch of study in civil engineering
is called geotechnical engineering, which deals with the study of the properties ,
behaviour and use of earth materials (soil and rocks) in engineering works.
Geotechnical engineering has much wider scope that:
a) It is concerned with the properties of earth materials
b) To investigate the soil and bed rocks below the structure and study the
soil structure interaction.
c) To select the type of foundation earth works for particular structure.
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d) To design foundation of building, dams, retaining walls, bridges, road

pavement, railway lines etc.
e) To design foundation for underground structure like tunnels, power
houses etc.
f) To design foundation for machines such as turbines, compressors etc. to
transmit vibrations to foundation soil
g) To study the effect of soil as a medium for blasts during mining,
earthquake, landslides and nuclear explosions.
h) They include various types of foundations like shallow foundation, deep
foundations. Pile foundation, well foundation etc.
1.1.3 STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING :
A building or a bridge or a dam consists of various elements like
foundations, columns, beams, slabs etc. These components are always subjected to
forces.
Depending upon the materials available the components of the building
should be safely and economically designed.
A structural engineer is involved in such a designing activity Scope of
structural engineering:
a) The structural engineering plays a vital role in planning, designing and
building the structure
b) The structural analysis and structural design are the components of
structural engineering
c) The structural engineering should take the responsibility about the safety
and serviceability of the structure for its life time
d) The structural engineer should be prepared for to accept the natural
calamities like earthquake, wind, landslide etc. and provide remedial
measures
1.1.4. HYDRAULICS ENGINEERING :
Water is an important need for all living beings, study of mechanics of water
and its flow characteristics is another important field in civil engineering and its
known as hydraulics.
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Hydraulics mainly deals with the practical problems of flow of water. The
concept of fluid pressure, fluid statics, and flow pattern helps in engineering to
design the structures like dams, reservoirs, bridges, culverts, sewage system etc.
this concept is also used for flow through pipes, pumps, turbines, hydraulic
machines etc. Hydroelectric power generation facilities are also included under this
aspect.
1.1.5. WATER RESOURCES AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING :
Water is to be supplied to agricultural fields and for drinking purposes,
hence suitable water resources are to be identified and water is to be stored.
Identifying, planning and building water retaining structures like tanks and dams
and carrying stored water to agricultural fields through irrigation channels is
known as water resources and irrigation engineering.
Scope of water resources and irrigation engineering:
a) It facilitates to control, regulate and utilize water to serve wide variety of
purposes.
b) It gives scope for utilization of water in beneficial purpose by providing
water supply, irrigation, hydroelectric power development and navigational
improvement.
c) Water quality management.
d) Scope for recreational use of water resources.
e) To protect fish and wild life.
f) India being an agricultural country, irrigation will definitely help in the
overall development of our country, citizen and improve the civilization.
1.1.6. TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING:
Transportation means the movement of the men and goods from one point to
another. It is as old as civilization The Transportation system includes road ways,
railways, airways and water ways, design, construction and maintenance of railway
lines, signal system are part of the transportation engineering.
Scope of water resources and transportation engineering:
a) It contributes to the economic, industrial. Social and cultural development
of any country
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b) To optimise the transportation cost, maintenance and administrative

overheads
c) Planning the transport process with respect to survey and analysis of
existing condition and forecasting the future condition
d) It involves accident study for safe and comfort transport system e) For
traffic performance and control
1.1.7. ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING :
People in every village, town & city need potable water. The water available
(surface water & ground water) may not be fit for direct consumption.
In such cases, the water should be purified and then supplied to the public.
For water purification, sedimentation tanks, filter beds, etc. should be designed.
If the treatment plants are for away from the town or city, suitable pipelines
for conveying water & distributing it should also be designed.
In a town or city, a part of the water supplied returns as sewage. This sewage
should be systematically collected and then disposed into the natural environment
after providing suitable treatment.
The solid waste that is generated in a town or locality should be
systematically collected and disposed of suitably.
Before disposal, segregation of materials should be done so that any material
can be recycled & we can conserve our natural resources.
Scope of environmental engineering:
a) The study of importance of protection and conservation of our
environment
b) The proper distribution of water supply with water treatment facility
c) Solution of problems of environment sanitation with waste water
treatment
d) The proper disposal of / recycle of waste water and solid waste
e) Adequate drainage of urban, rural and recreational areas
f) Control of air pollution and provide healthy environment to public.
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1.1.8. CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY:

As land cost is going up there is a demand for tall structures in urban areas,
while in rural areas need for low cost construction, one has to develop technology
using locally available materials.
Construction technology comprises of different techniques of construction
for different materials under site different condition. The study of construction
machinery comes under its purview.
The management or organization of men (labour), material, method in
relation to site, money and time is the backbone of construction management.
It involves almost every branch of engineering, commerce and economics,
for; its ultimate aim is to ‘achieve the desired construction in the most economical
way.
A clear knowledge of following points is necessary for reliable construction
and its management.
a) Money, Materials, Machines, Manpower, Methodologies,
b) Maintenance, Modernization, Monitoring, Motivations,
c) Managements of all types.
1.1.9 PROJECT MANAGEMENT:
Project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools and
techniques to project activities in order to meet or exceed stakeholders needs and
expections from a project.
Needs of balancing competing demands among scope, time, cost, quality,
stakeholders with different needs and expectations.
Responsibilities of project manager.
 Planning thoroughly through all the aspects of the project.
 Controlling the manpower of the organization.
 Optimize the technical versus cost trade offs in specific areas where
optimization is required.
 Monitor performance, costs and efficiency of all elements of the project.
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 Completing the project on schedule and within costs.

QUALITITES OF A PROJECT MANAGER:
 Planning/organizing
 Controlling.
 Stress tolerance.
 End customer orientation.
 Personal chemistry.
 Analytical skills
 Leadership quality/ managing people.
 Managing performance.
 Sensitivity.

1.2 BASIC MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCITON:

1.2.1: BRICKS:
The artificial material of construction in the form of clay bricks of uniform
size of shape are known as bricks.
Traditional brick: 23cm * 11.4cm * 7.6cm.
Modular brick; 19cm * 9cm * 9cm.
CONSTITUENTS OF BRICKS:
1. SILICA:
 PERCENTAGE: 50% TO 60%
 FUNCTION: PREVENTS BRICK FROM SHRINKAGE, CRACKING
& WARPING.
 EFFECT OF EXCESS: MAKES BRICK BRITTLE AND USELESS
2. ALUMINA:
 PERCENTAGE: 20% TO 30%
 FUCNTION: ABSORBS WATER AND IMPARTS PLASTICITY TO
CLAY SO THAT IT CAN PROPERLY MOLDED.
 EFFECT OF EXCESS: SHRINK AND WARP DURING AND
BURNING.
3. LIME:
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 PERCENTAGE: SHOULD NOT EXCEED 5%.

 FUCNTION: BINDING PARTICLES TOGETHER, IT ALLOWS
SAND TO FUSE OR TO MELT DURING BURNING.
 EFFECT OF EXCESS: CAUSE TO BRICK MELT AND LOOSE IT’S
SHAPE.
4. OXIDE OF IRON:
 PERCENTAGE: 5% TO 6%.
 FUNCITON: IMPARTS COLOUR, IT HELPS TO FUSE THE LIME
AND SAND DURING BURNING, BIND PARTICLES TO GIVE
HARDNESS AND STRENGTH.
 EFFECT OF EXCESS: BRICKS BECOMES DARK BLUE.
5. MAGNESIA:
 PERCENTAGES:- ABOUT 1%
 FUCNITON: DECREASE SHRINKAGE, GIVES YELLOW TINT
TO BRICK.
 EFFECT OF EXCESS: DECAY OF BRICK
CHACTERISTICS OF A GOOD BRICK:
 Brick should have sharp edges.
 Brick shall not break in to pieces when dropped from height about 1 meter.
 Brick shall have low thermal conductivity.
 Brick shall be sound proof.
 Brick when broken shall show a homogeneous and uniform compact
structure, free from voids.
 When soaked in water for 24 hours, brick shall not show deposit of white
salt when allow to dry.
 Brick shall not have crushing strength less than 55 kg/cm2.
CLASSIFICATON:
a. First class bricks
b. Second class bricks.
c. Third class bricks.
d. Silica bricks.
e. Fire bricks.
f. Fly ash bricks.
USES OF BRICKS:
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a. The first class and second class bricks are widely used for all sorts of sound
work especially of permanent nature. Eg building, dams, roads, sewers,
bridge piers, tunnels, pitching works etc.
b. The use of first class bricks is specified for obtaining the architectural effects
on faces of structures where they are to be kept exposed for beauty.
c. The masonry with second class bricks is generally plastered to make the
smooth surface obtained due to the irregular shape and size of bricks.
d. The third class and sun-dried bricks are used for construction work of
temporary nature.
e. The fourth class bricks are used as used as road metal and as aggregates in
the foundation concrete.
1.2.2: CEMENT:
Cement is a fine, soft, powdery-type substance.
It is made from a mixture of elements that are found in natural materials such as
limestone, clay, sand and/or shale.
When cement is mixed with water, it can bind sand and aggregates into a hard,
solid mass called concrete.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CEMENT:

OXIDE PERCENT CONTENT
CaO ( lime) 60-67%
Silica ( SiO2) 17-25%
Alumina (Al 2O3) 5-8%
Iron oxide (Fe2O3) 0.5-6%
Magnesia (MgO) 0.1-4%
Alkalies ( K2O, Na2O) 0.2-1%
Sulphur trioxide (SO3) 1-3%

CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Strength – stleast 175 kg/cm2.
2. Fineness
3. Colour
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4. Resistant to moisture.
5. Setting time.
TYPES OF CEMENT:
1. Ordinary Portland cement.
2. Rapid hardening cement.
3. High alumina cement.
4. Blast furnace slag cement.
5. Super sulphated cement.
6. Low heat cement.
7. Air entraining cement.
8. Quick setting cement.
9. Coloured cement.
10. White cement.
11. Acid resistance cement.
12. Hydrophobic cement.
GRADES OF CEMENT:
Before 1987 only one grade of cement. After 1987 higher grades were introduced.
Grades signifies the strength of cement after 28 days.
Grade 33 attains 33 N/mm2 in 28 days
Grade 43 attains 43 N/mm2 in 28 days.
Grade 53 attains 53 N/mm2 in 28 days.

ADVANTAGES:
1. It cost effective.
2. It offers immense strength and durability.
3. Hardens easily.
4. Can be molded effortlessly.
5. Low energy consumption during production.
6. Impeccable water resistance.
7. Temperature resistance.
1.2.3: MORTAR
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 Mortar is a workable paste used to bind construction blocks together and

fill the gaps between them.
 Mortar may be used to bind masonry blocks of stone, brick, etx.
 Mortar becomes hard when it sets, resulting in a rigid aggregate structure.
 Mortar can also be used to fix, or point, masonry when the original
mortar has washed away.
 Mortars are usually named according to the binding material used in their
preparation.
 They are essentially required for masonry work, plastering and pointing
etc.
Properties of Mortar
Mortar has different properties based on the ingredients used to make the
mortar. Generally, it is a mixture of cement, sand, lime and water. Its
properties can be described below based on the ingredients used to make
mortar.
 A good mortar should develop proper adhesion with the bricks or
stones.
 It should also be capable of withstanding the designed level of stress.
 A good mortar should have the least possible cost.
 It should be durable so that it can sustain the joined material.
 It should be working properly.
 It should be set properly in sufficient time.
FUNCTIONS OF MORTAR:
The following are the major functions of mortar:

1. To bind building materials such as bricks and stones into a solid mass.
2. To carry out pointing and plasterwork on exposed surfaces of masonry.
3. To form an even and soft bedding layer for building units.
4. To form joints of pipes.
5. To improve the general appearance of a structure.
6. To prepare moulds for coping, corbels, cornice, etc.
7. To serve as a matrix or cavity to hold the coarse aggregates, etc.

USES OF MORTAR:
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1. Use where high strength is required and in structures which are subjected
to wet condition such as piers, dams , deep foundation etc.
2. Use for external plastering and pointing work.
3. Use for damp proof course below ground level.
4. Use in exposed work such as exterior walls and parapets, engineering
construction with bricks of high strength.
5. Use in concrete as cement mortar binds the particles of coarse aggregate
into one solid mass.

1.2.4: PLAIN CEMENT CONCRETE:

Plain cement concrete is the mixture of cement, fine aggregate(sand) and coarse
aggregate without steel. PCC is an important component of a building which is laid
on the soil surface to avoid direct contact of reinforcement of concrete with soil
and water.

Material Used in Plain Cement Concrete

The general specifications of materials used in PCC are –
1. Coarse Aggregate
Coarse aggregate used in the PCC must be of hard broken stone of granite or
similar stone, free from dust, dirt and other foreign matter. The stone ballast shall
be 20 mm in size and smaller. All the coarse material should be retained in a 5mm
square mesh and should be well graded so that the voids do not exceed 42%.
2. Fine Aggregate
Fine aggregate shall be of coarse sand consisting of hard, sharp and angular
grains and shall pass through a screen of 5 mm square mesh. Sand shall be of
standard specifications, clean and free from dust, dirt and organic matter. Sea sand
shall not be used.
3. Cement
Portland Pozzolana cement (P.P.C) is normally used for plain cement
concrete. It should conform to the specifications and shall have the required tensile
and compressive stresses and fineness.
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4. Water
Water used shall be clean and reasonably free from injurious quantities of
deleterious materials such as oils, acids, alkalis, salts and vegetable growth.
Generally, potable water shall be used having a pH value not less than 6. The
maximum permissible limits for solids shall be as per IS 456:2000 Clause 5.4,
Page No 15.

Proportioning of Plain Cement Concrete

1. The proportioning is done based on the requirement or given specification.

Generally 1:2:4 or 1:3:6 mix is used.
2. The measurement of material can be done by weight batching or volume
batching.
3. In volume batching, coarse aggregate and sand shall be measured by
measuring box of 30cmx30cmx38cm of a suitable size equivalent to one bag
cement of 1/30 m3or 0.035 m3.
4. Sand shall be measured on the basis of its dry volume.
5. While measuring the aggregate, sacking, ramming or hammering shall not
be done.
Curing of Plain Cement Concrete

1. Freshly laid concrete shall be protected from rain by suitable covering.

2. After the concrete has begun to harden- that is about one to two hours after it
has been laid- it shall be protected with moist gunny bags, sand or any other
materials against quick drying.
3. After 24 hours of laying of concrete, the surface shall be cured by flooding
with water of about 25mm depth or by covering with weight absorbent
materials.
4. Curing shall be done for a minimum period of 14 days.

1:2:5 REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE(R.C.C)

Concrete is strong under compression but weak under tension and

shear. Whenever concrete members are likely to be subjected to tension,
they are reinforced with steel.
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RCC is a construction material made up of small pieces of concrete, usually

less than 6 inches square, embedded in a steel rebar mesh. The mesh acts as
a reinforcing agent, which makes the concrete stronger and more resistant to
damage.

RCC is a popular choice for construction projects because it is lightweight

and easy to work with, making it a good choice for bridges and other large
construction projects.

ADVANTAGES OF RCC.

1. RCC has very good strength in tension as well as compression.

2. RCC structures are durable if designed and laid properly. They can
last up to 100 years.
3. RCC sections can be given any shape easily by properly designing the
form work. Thus, ir is more suitable for architectural requirement.
4. The steel reinforcement imparts ductility to the RCC structures.
5. RCC is cheaper as compared to steel and prestressed concrete. There
is an overall economy by using RCC because its maintenance cost in
low.
6. The raw materials which are required for RCC i.e., cement, sand,
aggregate, water and steel are easily available and can be transported
easily.
7. RCC structures are more fire resistant than other commonly used
construction materials like steel and wood.
8. RCC is almost impermeable to moisture.
9. Properly designed RCC structures are extremely resistance to
earthquakes.

DISADVANTAGES OF RCC:

1. The tension stengrh of reinforced concrete is about one-tenth of its

compressive strength.
2. The main steps of using RC are mixing; casting and curing. All of this
affects the final strength.
3. Foe multi-storied building, the RCC column section for is larger than
steel section as the compressive strength is lower in the case of RCC.
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1:2:6 PRESTRESSING
Prestressed concrete is basically concrete in which internal
stresses of a suitable magnitude and distribution are introduced so that
the stresses resulting from the external loads are counteracted to a
desired degree.
Prestress is defined as a method of applying pre-compression to
control the stresses resulting due to external loads below the neutral
axis of the beam.

TYPES OF PRESTRESSING
Prestressed concrete structures can be classified are as follows
1. Pre-tensioning: In which the tendons are tensioned before the concrete is
placed, tendons are temporarily anchored and tensioned and the prestress is
transferred to the concrete after it is hardened.
2. Post-tensioning: In which the tendon is tensioned after concrete has
hardened. Tendons are placed in sheathing at suitable places in the member
before casting and later after hardening of concrete.
ADVANTAGES –
1. The Use of high strength concrete and steel in Pre-stressed members.
2. In fully Pre-stressed members the member is free from tensile stresses
underworking loads, thus whole of the section is effective.
3. In Pre-stressed members, dead loads may be counter-balanced by eccentric
prestressing.
4. Pre-stressed concrete member possess better resistance to shear forces.
5. Use of high strength concrete and freedom from cracks, contribute to
improve durability under aggressive environmental conditions.
6. It is economical in structure.
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7. Factory products are possible.

8. Prestressed members are tested before use
9. Prestressed concrete structure deflects appreciably before ultimate failure,
thus giving ample warning before collapse.
DISADVANTAGES
1. The availability of experienced builders is scanty.
2. Initial equipment cost is very high.
3. Availability of experienced engineers is scanty.
4. Prestressed sections are brittle
5. Prestressed concrete sections are less fire resistant

1:2:10: Steel reinforcement:

Steel reinforcement are steel bars that are provided in combination with plain
cement concrete to make it reinforced concrete. Hence these structures form steel
reinforced cement concrete structure (R.C.C). Steel reinforcement is commonly
called as ‘rebars’.
The steel reinforcement used in concrete construction is mainly of 4 types. They
are:

1. Hot Rolled Deformed Steel Bars

2. Cold Worked Steel Bars
3. Mild Steel Plain Bars
4. Prestressing Steel Bars
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1. Hot Rolled Deformed Bars:

Hot rolled deformed bars are most commonly used steel
reinforcement for R.C.C structures. As the name says, the hot rolling of the
reinforcement is undergone leaving certain deformations on its surface in the
form of ribs. These ribs help to form a bond with the concrete. The typical
yield strength of hot-rolled deformed bars is 60000psi.

Fig.1: Hot Rolled Steel Bars; Image Courtesy-RIVA Stahl Gmbh

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2. Cold Worked Steel Bars:

A cold worked reinforcement bar is obtained by letting the hot rolled
steel bars to undergo cold working. In the cold working process, the bars
will undergo twisting and drawing. The process is performed at room
temperature. The cold worked steel bars do not undergo a plastic yield thus
have less ductility when compared with hot rolled bars.
3. Mild Steel Plain Bars:
The mild steel plain reinforcement bars do not have ribs on their
surface. They have a plain surface. These bars are used for small projects
where the major concern is the economy. The tensile yield strength of these
bars has a value of 40000psi.

Fig.2: Mild Steel Bars; Image Courtesy: Vision Alloys

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4. Prestressing Steel Bars:

The prestressing steel reinforcement are steel bars used in the form of
strands or tendons. Multiple strands are employed in concrete in order to
perform the prestressing action. The strands are made of multiple wires
either 2 or 3 or 7 wire strands. The wires used here are cold formed and have
a high tensile strength ranging from 250000 – 270000 psi. This high strength
helps to effectively prestress the concrete.

Advantages of Steel Reinforcement

Steel reinforcement is a reinforcing choice compared to other reinforcing
materials due to its unique advantages. They are:

1. Compatibility with Concrete: The fresh concrete is placed on the

formwork mold already prepared with reinforcement. The steel
reinforcement won’t float in concrete during the concrete placing procedure.
Hence, steel reinforcement does not demand special tying up with
formworks.
2. Robustness of Steel Reinforcement: The steel bars are robust in nature that
they have the ability to withstand the rigors, the wear and tear during the
construction activities.
3. Bent Property of Steel Reinforcement: The steel bars once manufactured
to standard size, it can be bent to the required specifications. Hence
fabricated steel bars are delivered easily at the site.
4. Recycling Property: The steel reinforced left over after the service life of a
structure is recycled again and used for new construction.
5. Easily Available: Every region of a country will have a steel supplier or
manufacturer. Hence steel reinforcement is easily available.
Disadvantages of Steel Reinforcement
The main disadvantages of steel reinforcement are mentioned below:

1. Reactive Nature of Steel Reinforcement: In concrete structures where the

cover is small and subjected to external moisture and salt action, the
reinforcement undergoes reaction and starts to corrode. These can lessen the
strength of concrete and finally to failure.
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2. Expensive: The cost of steel reinforcement in high. This will increase the
cost of construction
3. Melts at high temperature: At higher temperatures, the steel reinforcement
may melt. This is the reason why the steel reinforcement are tied up and not
welded.

1:2:11 CONSTRUCTION CHEMICALS:

 Construction chemicals are compounds that are added to concrete and

mortar to enhance compatibility with the structure of buildings.
 These chemicals improve properties such as durability, surface finish,
compressive strength and resistance to undesirable working
conditions, and climatic and are expected to drive the industry growth.
 In addition, the property of these chemicals to minimize the quantities
of water and cement required during the construction is anticipated to
boost the demand for this product in the upcoming years.
 Construction chemicals have always been playing important roles in
virtually all sorts of construction projects, be it industrial projects,
residential building projects, commercial building projects and so on.
 Increasing demand for public, commercial and residential buildings
combined with an increasingly urban population is driving the global
construction chemical market. Demand for buildings, roads, bridges,
tunnels and dams is further driving the market.

Different types of construction chemicals used on hardened concrete either as

surface application, coating or as repair materials.

1. Concrete curing compounds:

Concrete curing compound consists essentially of waxes, natural and

synthetic resins, and solvents of high volatility at atmospheric temperatures.
The compound forms a moisture retentive film shortly after being applied on
a fresh concrete surface. White or gray pigments are often incorporated to
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provide heat reflectance, and to make the compound visible on the structure
for inspection purposes.

2. Polymer bonding agents;

Polymer Bonding Agent is an aqueous emulsion of a polymer and

chemical admixtures. It is designed for use as a bonding agent with concrete
and cement-based products in interior or exterior applications. Polymer
Bonding Agent is also designed for use as a polymer modifier in mortars and
concretes to develop increased tensile, flexural and bond strengths.

3. Mould releasing agents

Mould release agents come in handy when you have materials that are
shaped and constructed in moulds. Without the releasing agent, your mould
may become damaged or even break when it is time to remove it. Mould
release agents come in a variety of textures with the most commonly used
one being an oil type base. If you have never used a releasing agent before, it
is similar to placing oil or butter in the bottom of a dish to remove your final
baking product.

4. Form release agents:

These compounds are applied on the inner surfaces of forms, not only
facilitate stripping of formwork but also render concrete surfaces smoother.
They also help enhance the life-span of the forms. Form releasing agents can
be oil based, resin based, water based, organic chemical based etc.

5. Protective and decorative coatings:

A protective coating is a layer of material applied to the surface of

another material with the intent of inhibiting or preventing corrosion. A
protective coating may be metallic or non-metallic. Protective coatings are
applied using a variety of methods, and can be used for many other purposes
besides corrosion prevention. Commonly used materials in non-metallic
protective coatings include polymers, epoxies and polyurethanes.

1:3 STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS OF A BUILDING:

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1:3:1 FOUDNATION:

A structure essentially consists of two parts, namely the super structure

which is above the plinth level and the substructure which is below the plinth level.
Substructure is otherwise known as the foundation and this forms the base
for any structure. Generally about 30% of the total construction cost is spent on the
foundation.
The soil on which the foundation rests is called the “ foundation soil”.

OBJECTIVES OF A FOUNDATION:

1. To distribute the total load coming on the structure on a larger area.

2. To support the structures.
3. To give enough stability to the structures against various disturbing forces,
such as wind and rain.
4. To prepare a level surface for concreting and masonry work.
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TYPES OF FOUNDATION:

The two main types of foundation:

1. Shallow foundation
a. Isolated footing(single footing, column footing)
b. Combined footing
2. Deep foundation
a. Pile foundation
b. Pier foundation

1:3:2 PLINTH:

 Plinth beam is a reinforced concrete beam constructed between the wall and
its foundation.
 Plinth beam is provided to prevent the extension or propagation of cracks
from the foundation into the wall above when the foundation suffers from
settlement.
 Plinth beams distributes the load of the wall over the foundation evenly.


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 It is mandatory to provide plinth beam in areas that prone to earthquake.

 Construction of plinth beam above the natural ground is another application
of this type of beam.
 Strength of plinth bema concrete shall not be smaller than 20MPa.
 If concrete is mixed manually, then an extra of 20% cement need to be
added to the mixture.
 A minimum depth of plinth beam is 20cm whereas its width should match
the width of final course of the foundation.

1:3:3 LINTEL:

 A lintel is one type of beam which used to support the above wall when
openings like doors, windows etc. are necessary to provide a building
structure.
 It is used to take loads coming from above wall and transfer its load to the
side walls.
 The lintel beam generally ends into the masonry wall so as to convey the
weight carried by them to the masonry walls and its width is same to the
wall width.

Function of lintel:

1. It supports the walls above the openings like doors, window etc.
2. It provide a safeguard of the windows and doors.
3. It withstands the imposed loads coming from above bricks or block
including the roofing members.
4. It is used to transfer all imposed loads to the side walls.
5. Sometimes they are used as decorative architecture element.

TYPES OF LINTEL:

1. Timber lintel.
2. Stone lintel.
3. Reinforced concrete lintel.
4. Brick lintels.
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5. Reinforced brick lintel.

6. Steel lintel.

1:3:4 CHEJJA:

 Chajjas are provided on external wall opening to

get protection from rain, snow and het.
 They are weather sheds.
 Their thickness tapers from 100 to 75 mm and
project is 30, 45, 60, 75, 90 cm.
 The purpose of chajja or sun shade is to prevent
direct entry of sun light into the room to a certain
extent.

1:3:5 MASONRY WALL:

The term masonry refers to a construction material formed by combining

masonry unit5s such as stone and brick with a binding materials called mortar.

Masonry is used to build masonry wall, which is a vertical strucuture, thin in

proportion to its length and height, that serves to enclose or divide a space other
elements.

The constituent masonry materials: concrete block, mortar, grout, and steel,
each contribute to the performance of a masonry structure. Concrete masonry units
provide strength, durability, fire resistance, energy efficiency, and sound
attenuation to a wall system.

Types of masonry walls:

 Load-bearing Masonry Walls. Bricks, concrete blocks or stones are

used to build load-bearing masonry walls. ...
 Reinforced Masonry Walls. Reinforced masonry walls are either load-
bearing or non-load bearing. ...
 Cavity Masonry Walls. ...
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 Composite Masonry Walls. ...

 Post-tensioned Masonry Walls.

1:3:6 COLUMN:

A structural member subjected to axial compressive force is called a column.

Normally, columns carry heavy compressive loads. Columns are used in concrete
and steel buildings.

Classification of Column Based on Construction Materials

1. Reinforced Concrete Column

 Reinforced concrete columns are the most widely used columns for framed
structure.
 This type of column is composed of concrete as a matrix.
 The steel frame is embedded in concrete. Concrete carries the compressive
load and reinforcement resists tensile load.
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 The reinforcing =materials can be made of steel, polymers, or alternate

composite materials.

2. Composite Column
 Composite columns are constructed using various combinations of structural
steel and concrete.
 The interactive and integral behavior of concrete and the structural steel
elements makes the composite column a very stiff, more ductile, cost-
effective, and consequently a structurally efficient member in building and
bridge construction.
 This type of column has great fire and corrosion resistance also.

3. Steel, Timber, Brick Column

 Steel columns are made of steel entirely.
 These columns are used in aircraft manufacturing warehouses, indoor
shipyards, etc.
 Timber columns are made of wood timber.
 They provide an aesthetic appearance creating a feeling of space and
openness.
 Timber columns are designed for housebuilders, reception areas, and
refurbishment properties.

1:3:7 BEAM:

o Beam is a horizontal member spanning an opening and carrying a load

that may be a brick or stone wall above the opening, in which case the
beam is often called a lintel.
o Beams support the weight of a building’s floors, ceilings and roofs
and to move the load to the framework of a vertical load bearing
element.
o Beams are traditionally descriptions of building or civil
engineering structural elements, where the beams are horizontal and
carry vertical loads.
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o However, any structure may contain beams, for instance automobile

frames, aircraft components, machine frames, and other mechanical or
structural systems.
o In these structures, any structural element, in any orientation, that
primarily resists loads applied laterally to the element's axis would be
a beam element.
TYPES OF BEAM STRUCTURE:

1. Continuous beams: a continuous beam is one that has two r more

supports that reinforce the beam. These supports are used under and
between the beams and are typically vertical in nature.

2. Simply supported beam: simply supported beams are those that have
supports at both end of the beam. These are most frequently utilized in
general construction and are very versatile in terms of the structures.

3. Fixed beams: a fixed beam is one that is fixed on both ends of the
beam with supports. This type of beam does not allow for bending
moment production and will not have any vertical movement or
rotation.

4. Overhanging beams: an overhanging beam is one that is supported at

two different areas, typically at one end and in the middle of the
beam, but does not have a support at the other end of the beam,
leaving it hanging.

5. Cantilever beam: a cantilever beam is one that is free-hanging at one

end of the beam and fixed at the other. This type of beam is capable of
carrying loads with both bending moment and shear stress.
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1:3:8 SLAB:

 A concrete slab is a common structural element of modern buildings,

consisting of a flat, horizontal surface made of cast concrete. Steel-
reinforced slabs, typically between 100 and 500 mm thick. A slab is a
flat, two-dimensional planar structural component of building having a
very small thickness compared to its other two dimensions

 Reinforced concrete slabs are used in roofs, floors, ceilings and as the
decks of bridges

 The slab may be supported by walls or by reinforced concrete beams

usually cast monolithically with the slab or by structural steel beams or
by columns, or by the ground

Functions of Slab:

 To provide a flat surface

 To act as sound, heat and fire insulator
 It provides a covering shelter or working flat surface in buildings
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 Its primary function is to transfer the load by bending in one or

two directions
 The upper slab becomes the ceiling for the storey beneath it

1:3:9 STAIRCASE:

A staircase is one or more flights of stairs leading from one floor to another, and
includes landing, newel posts, handrails, balustrades and additional parts.
A stairwell is a compartmne extending vertically through a building in whichh
stairs are placed.

Parts of a Staircase
The basic components of a staircase are the tread, the horizontal surface we walk
on; the riser, the vertical part between each tread; and the stringer, a structural
support that holds the treads in place and provides stability.
Other optional parts of a staircase include the nosing, banister, and balusters.
Nosing is a small part of a tread that overhangs the riser.
The banister, which is also called a railing or a handrail, is both a decorative and a
safety feature that prevents people from falling off the side of a staircase.
When they are on the open part, the banister is held up by balusters, or vertical
supports attached to a tread at the bottom and the banister at the top.
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Sometimes to break up a long, straight staircase or to provide a space to turn when

the steps change direction, a wide platform step called a landing is used.
In some staircases, designers include an elegant feature called a bullnose step.
This is when the first step off the ground floor is wider than the rest of the steps.

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