Basic Electronics (BBEE103/203)

Module – 5 Introduction to Transducers and Communication

Introduction to Transducers
Introduction,
Resistive Transducers,
Inductive Transducers,
Capacitive Transducers,
Thermal transducers,
Optoelectronic transducer, and
Piezoelectric transducers
(Text 4: Chapter 18: 18.1, 18.2, 18.3, 18.4,
18.5)

Communications :
Introduction to communication,
Communication System,

Modulation (Text book 5: 1.1, 1.2

E ,

1
A .3)

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INTRODUCTION
A transducer is any device that monitors a quantity and converts one form of energy into another for
measurement or for controlling.
Transducers basically classified according to --
Quantity Force, pressure, displacement, temperature, humidity, liquid level, velocity,
monitored Mode of etc,.. Resistive, inductive, capacitive, thermal, optical, etc,.
operation

5.1 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS

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1. Sensors:
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Based on input/output device, the transducers a r e c l a s s i f i e d into two types: Sensors and actuators

Sensors are also called as input transducers or information based on input/output device.
Input transducers converts physical signal quantity into electrical energy (voltage, current, resistance form).
Example: i) A microphone converts sound into electrical impulses and a loudspeaker converts electrical
impulses into sound.
ii) A solar cell converts light into electricity and a thermocouple converts thermal energy into electrical
energy.
iii) An incandescent bulb produces light by passing a current through a filament. Thus, a light bulb is a
transducer for converting electrical energy into light energy.
2. Actuators:
Actuators are also called as output transducers or power transducer.
They convert electrical energy into physical form of energy.
An electric motor is an actuator used for conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy or motion.
Other examples: Loud speaker, Electric lamp, LED, electric heater, etc.

Based on the operation or energy source, transducers once again classified into two types
1. Modulating transducers: also called as PASSIVE transducers
External energy is required for their operation.
Used to measure pressure, temperature flow rate and liquid level.
Example: strain gauge resistance, thermistor, LVDT, hall-effect sensor, photomultiplier etc.
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2. Self –generating transducers: also called as ACTIVE transducers

External powered devices, they produce the energy required for their operation.
Example: • Resistance type: Strain gauge, Potentio-metric device, Thermistor
• Inductive type: LVDT
• Capacitive type: Hall effect transducer Applications of transducers:
Based on quantity monitoring transducers are classified as
Force, pressure, displacement, temperature, humidity, liquid level, light intensity, velocity, etc..

5.2 PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS

5.2.1 Resistive Transducers

POTENTIOMETRIC TRANSDUCER
A potentiometer is a resistive-type transducer that converts either linear or angular displacement (Physical
quantity) into electrical parameter, resistance. A potentiometer is also called as pot, consists of three
terminals. Two fixed terminals and one variable terminal. In this device the current flow is controlled by
varying the resistance. Fig 5.1(a) shows the construction of linear variable potentiometer.
Working Principle: An input voltage source is applied across the resistive coil between points A and B of
potentiometer. Thus a voltage divider circuit is formed (see fig. 5.1(b)). When the wiper comes across any
displacement, it slides across a fixed resistive coil. As the resistance changes, the current flowing through
circuit also changes.

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Fig. 5.1 (a) Potentiometer construction (b) Equivalent circuit

The resistance between the wiper and right end of the coil depends on the position of the object may
connected to the shaft. The output voltage (Vout) is measured between X and B is proportional to the
distance travelled by the wiper.
Advantages:
1. Device can be a smaller or a larger as required
2. Provides linear sensitivity (ratio of Vout to displacement)
Disadvantages:
1. Output voltage changes in steps (wiper moved between successive turns of the coil)
2. Resolution depends on number of turns of resistive coil used

SRAIN GAUGES
Strain: Strain is the amount of deformation experienced by the body in the direction of the force applied,
divided by the initial dimensions of the body. The strain is a dimensionless quantity that defines the relative
change in shape.

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The strain gauge is a sensor whose resistance will vary when any force is applied. A strain gauge converts
force, pressure, tension, weight, etc., into a change in electrical resistance which is then measured.
Strain gauge working principle: When a force is applied on the wire, there occurs a strain that increases
the length and decreases its area. Thus, the resistance of the wire will be changed due to changes in its
length, diameter and resistivity.
Resistance (R) = ρL /A
Where, R = Resistance, L = Length, A = Cross-Sectional Area, ρ = Resistivity of the material
This change in the resistance will be in proportional with the strain produced which can be easily measured
using Wheatstone bridge.
There are two types of wire strain gauge: 1. Unbonded metal strain gauge and 2. Bonded strain gauge
Unbonded metal strain gauge

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Fig. 5.2 Unbonded strain gauge

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The unbonded metal strain gauge is based on the principle that the electrical resistance of a wire changes
due to the change in the tension of the wire. This type of strain gauge consists of four nickel alloy wires
(25µm in diameter) which are tightly stretched between a fixed metallic frame A and a movable platform X
as shown in the fig. 5.2.
When external force is applied to the movable frame X, increases the tension in the two loops. This causes
extension in the length of wires (say wires 1 and 4 in the fig 5.2). While decreases the tension in the other
two loops. This cause makes shorten in the length of wires (say wires 2 and 3 in the fig.5.2). If these wires
are appropriately connected to the four arms of Wheatstone bridge, the change in the resistance can be
measured. Proportionally change in the force can be measured as shown in the fig. 5.3.
This type of strain gauge is used to measure acceleration, pressure and force.
 In unbonded gauges range of resistance can be typically 120 Ω to 1000 Ω.
 Normal operating voltage range 5V to 10V

Fig. 5.3 Wheatstone bridge to avoid temperature errors

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Bonded strain gauge

These gauges are directly bonded (that is pasted) on the surface of the structure under study or investigated.
Hence they are termed as bonded strain gauges. See the fig. 5.4. These are made for high temperature
sensitivity and they are superior in terms of hysteresis, creep, elevated temperature, performance, stability
and current carrying capability. A resistance wire strain gauge has a wire of diameter 0.25mm or less.
When any external force is applied to an object, deformation occurs in the shape of the object. The
deformation observed in the shape can be both compressive and tensile. This is called strain. This strain is
measured by a strain gauge setup using Wheatstone bridge.

Fig. 5.4 Bonded strain gauge

SW A
We know that

As a result of the strain, two physical parameters are of particular interest.

The change in gauge resistance.
The change in length. M
The measurement of the sensitivity of a material to the strain is called the gauge factor (GF). It is the ratio
of the change in the resistance ΔR/R by changes in the length Δl/l,

Since strain is defined as the change in length divided by the original length,

Putting the value of strain in equation(1), we get

where σ is a strain in the lateral direction. The resistance of the conductor of a uniform cross-section is

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Since

where
 ρ= specific resistance of the conductor
 l = length of the conductor
 d= diameter of the conductor
When this conductor is stressed due to the strain, the length of the conductor increases by Δl and
simultaneously decreases by Δd in diameter. Hence the resistance of the conductor can be written as

Applications of Strain Gauge transducer

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It is used in various applications some of them include the measurement of pressure, temperature, acceleration, force

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Example: 1) A strain gauge with a gauge factor of 2 is subject to 0.28mm strain. The wire dimensions are 50 cm length an
Solution: Given: GF =2, ∆l / l = 0.28mm, l = 50cm = 0.5 m, d = 30µm, R = 55Ω GF = (∆R/R) / (∆l / l)
∆R = GF x (∆l / l) x R
∆R = 2 x 0.28mm x 55Ω = 30. 8 mΩ µ = GF - 1 / 2
µ = 2 - 1 / 2 = 0.5
∆d / d = µ x (∆l / l)
∆d = d x µ x (∆l / l) = 30µm x 0.5 x0.28mm = 4.2nm

Example: 2) A strain gauge with 40 cm wire length and a 25 µm diameter has a resistance of
250 Ω and gauge factor of 2.5. Calculate change in the length and change in the diameter when
the resistance change is measured as 0.5Ω. Assume the complete length of the wire is strained
positively.
Solution: Given: GF =2.5, ∆R = 0.5Ω, l = 40cm = 0.5 m, d = 25µm, R = 250Ω
GF = (∆R/R) / (∆l / l)
(∆l / l) = (∆R/R)/GF = (0.5Ω/250Ω)/2.5 = 8x10-4

∆l = l x (∆R/R)/GF = 0.4m x 8x10-4 = 0.32mm

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µ = GF - 1 / 2
µ = 2.5 - 1 / 2 = 0.75
µ = = (∆d/d) / (∆l / l) or
(∆d/d) = µ x (∆l / l) = 0.75 x 8x10-4 = 0.6 x 10-3
∆d = d x µ x (∆l / l) = 25µm x 0.6 x 10-3 = 15nm or ∆d = 0.015µm

5.2.3 INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCERS

VARIABLE RELUCTANCE TRANSDUCER

This transducer is used for the measurements of acceleration, sensing force, displacements and velocities.
Principle: When the displacement to be measured is applied, the air gap changes, causing a change in the
reluctance, which in turn causes a change in inductance, L.
Working: The device consists of a coil that is wound on a core made up of ferromagnetic material as
shown in the fig.5.5. Displacement to be measured is given to the core through a target that makes it an
upward and downward movement. Care must be taken in such a way that target does not touch the core of
the coil and a smaller air gap is made between them.

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Fig. 5.5 Variable reluctance Transducer

When the target moves closer to the coil due to the displacement, the air gap becomes less causing the
reluctance of the magnetic field to reduce and thus the coil inductance to increase. The value of inductance
keeps on varying according to the variation in target movement.
Magnetic path reluctance is given by
Rm = l/µoA............................................................................(1)
l = air gap length, µo = permeability of free space and A = air gap cross sectional area
Inductance L is inversely proportional to reluctance, Rm
L= N2/ Rm = N2µoA/ l................................................................(2)
N = number of turns on the coil
Numerator quantity in equation 2, is constant
L=K/l
Example: 3) The coil in a variable reluctance transducer has 1 mH inductance when the total
area gap length is 1 mm. Calculate the inductance change when the air cap is reduced by 0.2
mm.

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Solution: Given:l1 = 1mm, ∆l1= 0.2mm, L1 =1mH, new air gap l2 =? ∆L =? New air gap length , l2 = l1 - ∆l1 =1mm – 0.2 m
We know that, constant, K = L1x l11mH x 1 mm = 1x10-6 Similarly, K = L2x l2 or L2 = K/l2 = 1x10-6 /0.8 mm = 1.25mH Ch

LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSDUCER (LVDT)

LVDT is an electromechanical sensor used to convert mechanical motion or vibrations into a variable
electrical current.
Principle: The working principle of LVDT is based on mutual induction. When an AC excitation of 5-15
V at a frequency of 50-400Hz is applied to the primary winding, a magnetic field is produced. This
magnetic field induces a mutual current in the secondary windings, S1 and S2. Hence, the net output
voltage is the difference between the induced voltages in the secondary windings.
An LVDT consists of two elements:
i) a moving core – made of ferro - magnetic material and
ii) a fixed coil assembly - A hallow tube surrounded by one primary winding, P in the centre and the
two secondary windings S1 and S2 are equal, but they are opposite to each other. Because, the
net output voltages will be the difference in voltages between the two secondary coils.
A core is free to move within the tube and affects the magnetic coupling between the primary and the

two secondary coils as shown in the

fig E A
.5.6 .
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Fig.5.6 Linear variable differential transducer (a) construction (b) circuit setup
The output voltage in the secondary coil is proportional to the displacement of the core. Therefore, a
displacement can measure in terms of voltage.
Case (1): When the core is in the centre: See fig. 5.7(a)
Due to equal magnetic flux linked, equal voltages are induced in S1 and S2, so that V1 = V2, which
results in net output is equal to zero, Vo = (V1 - V2) = 0 V
Case (2): When the core move towards S1: See fig. 5.7(b)

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More magnetic flux is linked with S1 than S2. As a result, more EMF is induced in S1.
Hence, V1 > V2, then Vo increases.

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(a) (b) (c)

Fig.5.7 Illustrations of the core of LVDT at different positions

Case (3): When the core move towards S1: See fig. 5.7(c)
More magnetic flux is linked with S2 than S1.As a result, more EMF is induced in
Hence, V2 > V1, then Vo decreases.
Conclusion: The amplitude of output voltage is a function of displacement of the core. If an arm of the
core is attached to the moving object, output voltage of LVDT can be measured the position of the object.

Example: 4) A 50mV output is produced by an LVDT when the core displacement is 10 mm

from its zero position. Calculate the core displacement when the output is 35 mV.

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Solution: Given: VO =50mV, displacement, d =10mm, new VO =35mV
Sensitivity, S = VO/d = 50mV/10mm = 5mV/mm
Core displacement, d = VO/S =35mV /5mV/mm = 7mm
5.2.4 CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS

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Capacitance transducers are passive transducers that work on the principle of change of capacitance, C. A
capacitor consists of two parallel conducting plates of area A, placed at a distance d from each other with
any material (insulator) between them. The dielectric constant ε is unique for different medium.
Principle: Capacitance is defined as the function of the geometric quantities, such as the area of the
conducting plate and the distance between them, and the permittivity of the dielectric medium.

Where εr is the relative permittivity of the dielectric medium. ε o is permittivity of air or free space (8.85 X
10-12F/m) , A is the cross sectional area of the plates, d is the distance between the two parallel plates.
Capacitance, C can change with change in any one of the above parameters. Its constructional details are
shown in the fig.5.8. Capacitance transducer can be used for displacement measurements.
The capacitance of the capacitor can be changed by three parameters as shown in the fig. 5.8.
1. Change in overlapping area, A
2. Change in the distance between the capacitor plates, d
3. Change in dielectric constant, ε

Fig.5.7 Construction of capacitive transducer

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Fig.5.8 Capacitance changed by area, distance and dielectric

Here one of the plates of the capacitor is fixed while the other is movable, depending on the nature of the
movement; there may be variation in the area A or the distance d. The change in capacitance is given as,
In case of change in the area, one of the plates moves a distance of x, thus area wx changes.

In case of change in the distance, one of the plates moves a distance of x, without changing its area, thus
distance (d + x) changes.

Example: 5) A parallel plate capacitor transducer has a plate area l x w= 40mm x 40mm and
the plate spacing d = 0.5 mm. Calculate the device capacitance and displacement that causes

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the displays capacitance to change by 5pF. Also determine the transducer sensitivity.
Solution: Given: l x w= 40mm x 40mm, d = 0.5 mm, ∆C = 5pF, εo =8.84x10-12, εr =1
displacement, ∆d =? Sensitivity =?
C = (εr εo A)/d
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C = (8.84x10-12 x 40 x 40 µm2) / 0.5mm = 28.3pF
C - ∆C =(εr εo A)/d+∆d

or d+∆d = =(εr εo A)/ C -

∆C
d+∆d = 8.84x10-12 x 1 x 40 x 40 µm2) / (28.3 – 5)pF = 0.607mm
∆d = d + ∆d – d

CAPACITIVE PRESSURE TRANSDUCER

Capacitive transducer has a fixed plate and a metal coated movable diaphragm with a dielectric enclosed in
an airtight container as shown in the fig.5.9 (a). The diaphragm is used as one plate of the capacitor. When
the pressure is applied to the outer side of the diaphragm the distance between the diaphragm and the fixed
plate changes. This produces a capacitance which is measured using an AC bridge circuit, see fig.5.9 (b).
Capacitor charge equation is Q = CV
Here, C varies with varying pressure.
The varying current in the circuit causes varying voltage drop across R, which can be amplified and further
processed. The frequency of pressure input can vary between 40Hz – 15KHz, which approximately
matches human hearing. Pressure transducers are used in many control and monitoring applications, such
as displacement, flow, level, etc.

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Fig.5.9 (a) (b)

Cross section of capacitive pressure transducer Capacitance detector circuit
5.2.5 THERMAL TRANSDUCERS

Resistance thermometer (RTD - Resistance Temperature Detector)

A Thermometer is a device that is used in the measurement of temperature. The temperature is

wire, to attain high accuracy. EASWARA

measured by measuring the change in resistance. The thermometer consists of a high resistive platinum

Resistance of the material increases with increase in temperature. Therefore, metals are said to have a

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Positive Temperature Co-efficient (PTC) of resistivity. But in semiconductors the resistance decreases with
increase in temperature. Therefore, they are said to have a Negative Temperature Co-efficient (NTC) of
resistivity.
With rising temperature, an RTD’s resistance rises. An electrical circuit is constructed to measure a change
in the resistance of the RTD, which is proportional to the change in temperature.
Principle: When temperature changes considerable length of wire is free to expand. In turn, both its
length L and resistivity ρ changes.

R=
Where, R = Resistance of the material in Ω, = resistivity of the material in Ω - m and
a = area of cross section of wire in m2.

Fig. 5.10 Construction of RTD

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Fig.5.10 shows the simplest type of open wire construction of platinum resistance thermometer. The
platinum wire is wounded in the form of spirals on an insulating material such as mica or ceramic. The
whole arrangement placed in an evacuated tube which is made of stainless steel.
When this assembly is brought to in contact with the substance (say, liquid) whose temperature is to be
measured, the resistance of the platinum wire changes with the change in temperature. The two leads of the
assembly are connected with Wheatstone bridge for measuring the change in resistance and so the
temperature is measured is as shown in the fig.5.11.

Fig. 5.11 Wheatstone bridge arrangement with 2-wire RTD

The temperature resistance ratio caused by the change in the resistance, R is defined as
R = R0 [1+  T]

Where,  =

Used in automotive to measure the temperature of engine oil, in food processing, power electronics, and
aerospace engineering.
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Example: 6) The resistance of a coil of nickel wire is 25Ω at 20oC. This rises to 37Ω when the coil has been subme
Assume temperature co-efficient of nickel is 0.006.
Solution: Given: R0 = 25Ω, α = 0.006, ∆R = 37Ω, T1 = 20 oC, new temperature, T2 =? We have, ∆R = R0 [1+ α ∆T]
∆T = 1/ α ((∆R/ R0)-1) = 1/0.006 ((37/25)-1) = 80oC
New temperature , T2 = 20 oC + 80oC =100 oC

THERMISTERS

Thermistor is a thermally sensitive resistor, hence is termed as thermal resistor. Thermistors are
negative type temperature dependent resistors, within a small temperature range and with high degree of
precision. That means, their resistance decreases as their temperature increases. Various common types of
thermisters are bead, probe, disc and rod types are shown in the fig.5.12.
Working principle: When temperature changes, the resistance of the thermistor changes.
Temperature is measured by connecting the thermistor in series with a battery, V and a calibrated micro
ammeter. The calibrated micro ammeter is used to read the temperature directly with the help of a battery
V, as shown in the fig. 5.13. The resistance at any given temperature T, is measured as below

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Where, RT = the resistance at any given temperature T, R0 = resistance at reference temperature To

(Kelvin) , T0 = the temperature at 273 Kelvin and β = material constant at 273 Kelvin

Fig.5.12 Types of thermistors

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Fig. 5.13 Temperature measurement using
thermistor
THERMOCOUPLE THERMOMETERS

Thermocouple consists of a junction of two dissimilar wires, selected in such a way that a small e.m.f (mV)
is generated at the junction. This is termed as seebeck effect. E.m.f produced is directly proportional to the
heating effect of the material. Example of dissimilar metals -- copper and constantan.

Fig.5.14 Basic thermocouple setup

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The arrangement shown in the fig.5.14, requires reference junction (cold) and compensated cables for
accurate measurement. The equation for the thermocouple junction voltage is
v = a ∆T
a = metal constant used in the thermocouple and ∆T is the difference between the junction temperature.
5.3 OPTOELECTRONIC TRANSDUCERS

Light is a type of radiation that moves through space. Radiation of light consists of particles or packets of
energy called photons. Light is only part of the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible. Light is not a
physical quantity, and therefore, cannot be measured.
Optoelectronics is the communication between optics and electronics in which a hardware device that
converts electrical signal into light and vice versa. Majority of the optoelectronic devices include laser,
optical fiber, LED, photo diodes and solar cells.
Three main types of unit of lights are as follows: Candela, Lumen and Lux

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Fig.5.15 Illustration of light units

Luminous intensity (emits light evenly in all direction) Es= φs/4π, where, φs = luminous flux

Luminous flux (light spreads over spherical area) EA= φs/4πr2 , r = distance in m2

Velocity of light, frequency and wavelength relation c = f λ, c = 3x108 m/s

Example: 7) Calculate the light intensity 3m from a lamp that emits 25W of light energy.
Determine total luminous flux striking the area of 0.25 m2 at 3 m from the lamp.
Solution: Given: Luminous flux, φs= 25W, r =3m, light striking area =0.25 m2
Light intensity is given by, EA = φs/4πr2
EA = 25W/ 4π(3m)2 = 221W/ m2
Total flux = EA x light striking area = 221W/ m2 x 0.25 m2 = 55mW

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Fig.5.16 Light is defined as a form of electromagnetic radiation emitted by hot objects like lasers, bulbs, and the sun.
Visible light has a wavelength range from ~400 nm to ~700 nm.

Photoconductive cell

A photoconductive cell (PC) is a light-sensitive semiconducting device whose electrical conductivity varies
with the amount of light falling on it. This is often referred to as an LDR (light-dependent resistor).
If voltage is applied across the cell it is found to vary with the light intensity.
The photoconductive cell is working based on the principle of photoconductive effect. The photoconductive
effect is a process in which the conductivity of a semiconductor material changes according to the

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wavelength and intensity of the radiation.

Fig. 5.16 Photoconductive cell

The resistance value in an LDR is inversely proportional to the intensity of the light falling on it. That is
the material has high resistance in the absence of light, and the resistance drops when the material
is illuminated. Cadmium sulfide (CdS) and cadmium selenide (CdSe) are the materials that are normally
used in photoconductive cell manufacture.
The cadmium sulphide is deposited as a thread pattern on an insulator, the shape is usually a
zigzag strips with their ends being attached to external pins. The whole assembly is enclosed in a glass
cover or protected in transparent plastic. The connecting terminals are fitted to the conducting material on
each side of the strip; they are not at the ends of the strip. Thus, the light sensitive material is actually a
short, wide strip between the two conductors.
Typical illumination characteristic for a photo conductive cell are shown in fig. It is seen that, when the cell
is not illuminated its resistance can be greater than 100 kΩ. This is known as the dark resistance of the cell.
When the cell is illuminated, its resistance might fall to a few hundred ohms.

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Fig. 5.17 Photoconductive cell circuit and characteristics

Advantages: Low cost, Available in many shapes and sizes, Low power operation, High sensitivity
Disadvantages: Large time response - the variation in resistance value is slow to the light action.
Application: Used in automatic street lighting, cameras, alarm clocks, burglar circuits, to count objects in
conveyor belts, military services, telecommunications and medical equipments.
Fig.5.18 shows a photoconductive cell used for relay control.

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Fig.5.18 relay control circuit

When the cell is illuminated, its resistance is low and the relay current is at its maximum. Thus, the relay is
energized. When the cell is dark, its high resistance keeps the current down to a level too low to energize
the relay. Resistance R is included to limit the relay current to the desired level when the cell resistance is
low. Rc is the cell resistance and E is the applied EMF to operate the circuit.

PHOTO DIODES

A photodiode is a PN junction semiconductor device that consumes light energy to generate electric
current. It is also sometimes referred as photo-detector, photo-sensor, or light detector. Photodiodes are
specially designed to generate more number of charge carriers in depletion region by operating in the
reverse bias condition.

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A photodiode has two terminals: a cathode and an anode. The symbol of photodiode is shown in the
fig.1.17 (a), contains arrows striking the diode representing the light or photons. Fig.1.17 (b) depicts its
construction.
Construction: Figure (a) shows symbol and (b) shows the cross-section of a diffused photo diode. It is
seen that a thin heavily-doped p-type layer is situated at the top where it is exposed to incident light. The
junction depletion region penetrates deeply into the lightly-doped n-type layer. This is in contact with a
lower heavily-doped n-type layer which connects to a metal film contact. A ring-shaped contact is provided
at the top of the p-type layer.

Fig.5.19 Photodiode (a) Symbol (b) Construction

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Fig.5.20 Photodiode circuit connection

Working: The external reverse voltage applied to the PN junction diode that causes to supply energy to the
minority carriers. To overcome the recombination of minority electron-hole pair and to generate more
charge carriers in the depletion region an external light energy is directly applied. When an external light
energy is supplied to the depletion region of photodiode, more electrons will create and gain energy.
Increasing the junction illumination increases the number of charge carriers generated, and thus increases
the level of reverse current. From the fig.5.20, it is observed that the photodiode converts light energy into
electrical energy.
Consider the typical photodiode illumination characteristics in fig.5.21. When the Junction is dark, the dark
current (ID) would be zero. Typically, I D is around 2 nA. For a 10 mW/cm 2 illumination level that produces
a reverse current of approximately 20 μA. Increasing the reverse voltage does not increase IR significantly.

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So, each characteristic is approximately a horizontal line. Similarly, if a 20 mW/cm2 illumination level that
produces a reverse current of approximately 60 μA.

Fig.5.21 Photodiode Characteristics curve

From the fig.5.21, it is observed that the current at a 5 mW/cm 2 illumination level is approximately 13 μA.
At 20 mW/cm2 the diode current is around 60 μA. The device resistance at each illumination level is

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calculated, if applied reverse voltage is 2V:
At a 5 mW/cm2, R = 2 V/ 13 μA = 154 kΩ,
At a 20 mW/cm2, R = 2 V/60 μA = 33 kΩ).

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The resistance changed by a factor of approximately 5 from the low to the high illumination level, showing
that a photodiode operation can be employed as a photoconductive device.
Advantages : Low resistance, Better frequency response , Linear, Less Noisy, The speed of operation is very
high.
Disadvantages: Small active area, Rapid increase in dark current and it depends on temperature, Require
amplification at low illumination level, Poor temperature stability.
Applications Example: High speed counting
1. Light detector
2. Demodulators
3. Encoders
4. Optical communication system
5. High speed counting and switching circuits
6. Computer punching cards and tapes
7. Light operated switches
8. Sound track films
9. Electronic control circuits

PHOTOMULTIPLIER TUBE

Photomultiplier tube consists of a photocathode and a series of dynodes in an evacuated glass chamber as
shown in the fig.5.22.

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Fig.5.22 Construction of photomultiplier tube

Working Principle: Photons that strikes the photo-emissive cathode emits electrons due to the
photoelectric effect. These electrons are accelerated towards a series of additional electrodes called
dynodes. Each dynode is maintained at a high positive potential. Additional electrons are generated at each
dynode is called as secondary emission. This cascading effect creates enormous electrons for each photon
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hitting the first cathode depending on the number of dynodes and the accelerating voltage. This amplified
signal is finally collected at the anode. The current is converted to a voltage measurement which is
proportional to the intensity of the light emitted, where it can be measured.

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The VI characteristics of photo multiplier tube are shown in fig.5.23. The current through the Photo-
emissive cells depends upon
(i) intensity of light
(ii) colour or wavelength of light and
(iii) the voltage applied between cathode and anode plates.
From the VI characteristics shown in Fig.5.23, it is observed that when sufficient voltage is applied
between the photocathode and the anode, the plate current entirely depends upon the amount of incident
light. Vacuum phototubes are characterized by a photocurrent response that is linear over a wide range.

Fig.5.23 VI characteristics of photo multiplier

Note that the cathode has a high negative voltage supply and that the dynode voltages are provided by a
multi-register voltage divider connected between cathode and the ground. Thus the dynodes are
progressively higher positive voltage levels moving from the cathode to the anode. Anode is maintained
at more positive than the ground and also a input of an amplifier.

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Fig. 5.24 Photo multiplier circuit

5.4 PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS

It is a type of transducer which converts mechanical energy (stress, sound, pressure, etc) into electrical
energy and vice-versa.

The materials exhibiting the piezo-electric phenomenon are Quartz, Rochelle salt, Tourmaline,

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Ammonium Di-hydrogen Phosphate, Lithium sulphate and Di-potassium tartarate.
Piezo-electric Transducers are smaller in size, obeys linearity, high sensitivity, wide measuring range
and polarity sensitivity.

Fig. 5.25 Piezo-electric Transducers

The three modes of Piezo-electric transducers’s operations are thickness expander, length expander and
volume expander. These modes are based on the direction of force applied which is to be
measured as shown in the fig.5.25.
Construction: Piezo - electric transducers mainly consist of quartz crystal. It is placed in between the
solid base and force summing membrane. Metal electrodes are connected to the faces of crystal to
measure output as shown in the fig. 5.26(a).
When a pressure is applied to a quartz crystal, it deforms (changes in its shape) elastically and
resulting in the generation of an electric potential across it shown in the fig. 5.26(b). The electric
voltage generated across the crystal is directly proportional to the amount of applied pressure. The
applied pressure can be measured in terms of voltage generated across the crystal. These electrodes
behave as parallel plates of the capacitor, thus it can be considered as charge generator.

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Fig. 5.26 (a) Construction of Quartz crystal Piezo - electric Transducer (b) generation of voltage

Analysis: The polarity of the charge depends on the direction of the applied forces.
Charge Q = d x F
Where, d – charge sensitivity of the crystals = εr εo g
F – applied force in Newton

The force changes the thickness of the crystals.

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Where A – area of crystals in meter square
t – the thickness of crystals in meter
2
E – Young’s modulus N/m
The young modulus is,
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where ω – width of crystals in meter
l – the length of crystals in meter
On substituting the value of force in the equation of charge, we get

The output voltage is obtained because of the electrode charges.

The g is the voltage sensitivity of the crystals.

Where E0 – electric field strength, V/m

The voltage sensitivity of the crystals is expressed by the ratio of the electric field intensity and pressure.

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When the mechanical deformation occurs in the crystals, it generates charges. And this charge develops the
voltages across the electrodes.
The Piezoelectric crystal is direction sensitive. The polarity of the voltage depends on the direction of the
force which is either tensile or compressive. The magnitude and the polarity of the charges depend on the
magnitude and the direction of the applied force.
Example: 8) A Piezo electric transducer has dimension 5mm x 4mm. The Crystal material has a
3 mm thickness and relative permeability of 800. The voltage sensitivity is 0.04 Vm/N. Calculate transducer charge sen
Solution: Given: εr =800, t = 3mm, g = 0.04Vm/N (voltage sensitivity), εo = 8.84x10-12, F = 8N
Transducer charge density is given by, d = εr εo g d = 800 x 8.84x10-12 x 0.04Vm/N = 282.9 pC/N
Charge on capacitor, Q =dF Q =282.9 pC/N x 8N =2.26 nC
To find output voltage let us first find pressure, P = Force/Area =F/A P = 8N/(5mm x 4mm) = 0.4x106N/m2
Then , output voltage, VO = g t P
VO = 0.04Vm/N x 3mm x 0.4x106N/m2 =48V
NOTE: Absolute permittivity, εo, is the measure of permittivity in a vacuum or free space.
Relative permittivity, εr, is the permittivity of a material in relation to the permittivity of a vacuum.

5.5 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Communication?

 Transfer of information from one point to

other (or) Exchange of Information
between two points.
 Electronic Communication: Sending data or
Information using electronic devices. This
allows rapid transfer of goods, money and
ideas
Message signal: The signal that consists information is called modulating signal. The modulating signal is
usually of low-frequency signal. (20 Hz – 20 KHz)

Carrier signal:
The signal which carries the information is called carrier signal. Carrier signal is a high frequency signal
which does not contains any information. The purpose of this signal is just to carry the message signal. The
range is in terms of Mega Hertz.

TYPE OF SIGNALS
Signals are functions that carry information. We use signals to convey information from place to place.
In electronics, signals are mainly in the form of varying voltages. There are two types of signals.

Analog Signals Digital Signals

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Analog signal is continuous and time varying Digital signal has two or more states (binary form)
Troubleshooting is difficult. Troubleshooting is easy.
Easily affected by the noise. These are stable and less prone to noise.
Analog signals use continuous values to represent the Digital signals use discrete values to represent the
data, usually in the form of sine wave. data, usually in the form of square wave.
Accuracy may be affected by noise. Accuracy is immune from the noise.
Analog signals may be corrupted during data Digital signals are not corrupted during data
transmission. transmission.
Analog signals use more power. Digital signals use less power.
Examples: Temperature, Pressure, Flow etc,.. Examples: Motor Start, Trip, etc.
Components like resistors, Capacitors, Inductors, Components like transistors, logic gates, and
Diodes are used in analog circuits. micro-controllers are used in digital circuits.
5.5.1 Modern Communication Sys tem
E A S W ARAsc he me
General form of a basic communication system is shown in the fig. 5.1(a). Illustration of video
communication system is shown in the fig. 5.1(b).

Fig.5.1(a) Illustration of Basic Communication System

Elements of Communication System
 Information source and transducer
 Transmitter
 Channel or medium / Noise
 Receiver
 Output transducer and final destination
A communication system transmits information from an information source (message) to a destination.
 Examples: Voice, Live scenes (video), music, written text, and e-mail.
A transducer is a device that converts a physical signal into its corresponding electrical signal and vice
versa.
Examples of input transducers: Sound - Microphone
Picture - Camera
Text - Keyboard
Temperature/Pressure - Sensor with transducer

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Fig.5.1(b) Illustration of video Communication System

Transmitter: performs modulation, amplification and filtering. The nature of processing depends on the
type of communication system.
Channel -the medium through which the message travels from the transmitter to the receiver. Example:
twisted pair cable, coaxial cables, optical fiber cable, and open space.
Noise is defined as unwanted electrical signal which do not have any useful information. Noise will
interfere with the channel and it can be minimized by introducing pre-filter.
Receiver: performs demodulation, amplification and filtering. The main function of the receiver is to

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reproduce the original message signal. This reproduction of the original signal is accomplished by a
process known as the demodulation or detection. Filtering is required to minimize the noise.
Output transducer— At this stage it converts electrical data into physical information, which is easy for
human interaction.

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Final destination: For example in radio broadcasting, the destination is a loudspeaker which works as a
transducer that converts the electrical signal to original sound signal.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

 Communication Systems based on Physical Infrastructure
Based on physical infrastructure there are two types of communication systems:
i) Line communication systems: Uses power lines to transfer data from one point to another point. There
is a physical link, called a hardwire channel between the transmitter and the receiver inline communication
systems. Example: Land line telephony, Cable TV
ii) Radio communication systems: information is carried across space using radio waves.
Example: Radio broadcasting
 Communication systems based on Signal specifications
A. Based on Nature of baseband or information signal
i) Analog communication systems: Exchange of information between two points through analog
signals. Ex: Audio, video and pictures between two points using the analog signals.
ii) Digital communication systems: Exchange of information between two points through digital
signals. Ex: Audio, HDTV
B. Based on Nature of the transmitted signal
i) Baseband communication system: Baseband signals are transmitted without translating (or
amplified) to higher frequencies. Ex: Land line, fax, etc
ii) Carrier communication system: The baseband signal (low frequency) is mixed with high
frequency carrier signal. Ex: Radio, voice messages and calls.

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MODULATION

Modulation is the process in which the one of the parameters (amplitude, frequency and phase) of the
carrier signal is varied according to the instantaneous values of the message signal, keeping other
parameters constant.
There are three types of modulation:
1) Amplitude Modulation (AM), 2) Frequency Modulation (FM) and 3) Phase Modulation (PM)
Amplitude Modulation (AM) is the process in which the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied according
to the instantaneous values of the message signal, where as the frequency and phase are kept constant. It is
as shown in the below figure.
The first figure is the carrier wave, which is a high frequency signal and contains no information. Denoted
as c(t) = Ac cos(2πfct).
The next one is the modulating wave, which is the message signal; (low frequency signal) contains
information. Denoted as m(t) = Am cos(2πfmt)
The last one is the resultant amplitude modulated wave. Mathematically, AM is denoted as
VAM = Vc sin ωc t + cos (ωc - ωm) t - cos (ωc + ωm) t
In AM, most of the transmitted power is wasted in carrier, but used for longer distance communication.

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Frequency Modulation is defined as a process in which the frequency of the carrier is varied in accordance
with the instantaneous values of the message signal, where as the amplitude and phase are kept constant.

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Mathematically, FM wave is denoted as S (t) = A sin [2πfct + mf )]

Modulation index (depth of modulation) mf = Carrier Swing = f(max) - f(min) = 2f

In FM, all the transmitted power is useful, but used for short distance communication.

5.5.2 NEED FOR MODULATION

Base-band signals are incompatible for direct transmission over the medium, so we use modulation
techniques for communication of base band signals.
The advantages of using modulation are as follows
Reduces the height of the antenna.
Avoids mixing of signals.
Increases the range of communication.
Allows multiplexing of signals.
Allows adjustments in the bandwidth
Improves quality of reception.
1. Reduces the height of the antenna.

Height of antenna is a function of wavelength ‘λ’. The min height of the antenna (Ha) is given by

Ha = since λ = Ha = Where, c = velocity of light in free space, f = audio frequency.

Case (i): Without modulation: As the audio frequency ranges from 20 Hz to 20 kHz, if they are transmitted
directly into the freespace, the height of the transmitting antenna should be extremely large.
For example: for f =15 kHz

Ha = ⟹ Ha = ⟹ Ha =5000 Meters
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This shows, 5000 meters of antenna is too long to construct practically.
Case (ii): With modulation:
On the other hand, if we consider a carrier wave of 1MHz frequency, the height of the
antenna reduced to Ha = ⟹ Ha = ⟹ Ha = 75 Meters

 75 Meters height of antenna is practically constructible.

From the above 2 cases, it is clear hat,
t the transmitting frequency is
increased, of the antenna is decreased.

2. Avoids mixing of signals.

The transmission of message signals from various sources causes the mixing of signals and then
it is difficult to separate these signals at the receiver end. Therefore, modulating different signal
sources by different carrier frequencies that avoids mixing of signals.
3. Increases the range of communication:
The energy of the wave is directly proportional to its frequency [E  F]. The greater the
frequency, the greater the energy present in it. As the audio frequency is very small, so they cannot
transmit over a long distance. Hence the only practical solution is that it is modulated with high
frequency which is called carrier.
4. Allows multiplexing of signals:
Modulation allows the multiplexing to be used. Multiplexing means transmission of two or
more signals simultaneously over the same communication channel.

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For example: i) Number of TV channels operating simultaneously.

ii) Number of radio stations broadcasting simultaneously.
AMPLITUDE MODULATION FREQUENCY MODULATION
AM wave is given by FM wave is given by
VFM = A sin [ωc t + mf sin ωm t]
VAM = Vc sin ωc t + cos (ωc - ωm) t

- cos (ωc + ωm) t

Modulation index lies in between 0and1 Modulation index is always greater than 1.
Most of the transmitted power is wasted in carrier. All the transmitted power is useful
BW = 2fm BW = 2 fm (1 + mf )

Modulation index mf =
Modulation index ma =
AM system is more susceptible to noise FM system is less susceptible to noise
BW required to transmit AM signal is much BW required to transmit FM signal is much larger
lessthan that of FM than that of AM
AM equipments are less complex FM equipments are more complex
AM transmission is cheaper FM transmission is expensive

Used for long distance communication Used for short distance communication
Interference is more

The design of demodulation circuits is very easy

MInterference is less due to the presence of guard
bands
The design of modulation and demodulation
by use of diode. circuits is more complex and also expensive.

Exercise
1. What is transducer? Give the classification of transducers.
2. Distinguish between active and passive transducers. Mention any four characteristics
a transducershould possess.
3. With neat diagram, explain the principle of operation of resistive thermometer.
4. Briefly explain the working of thermistor. Mention its applications.
5. Explain the construction and operation of LVDT.
6. Write a note on piezo - electric and photo electric transducers.
7. Explain the working of photo voltaic transducer.
8. With neat diagram explain the working of photo multiplier tube.
9. With neat block diagram, explain the elements of communication system.
10. Define AM and FM. Draw waveforms.
11. What is modulation? Explain the need for modulation.
12. Give the comparison between AM and FM.

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