Circuit Breakers 483

after the current has been interrupted. Thus MVA rating is the product of two quantities which do not
exist simultaneously in the circuit.
Therefore, the *agreed international standard of specifying breaking capacity is defined as the
rated symmetrical breaking current at a rated voltage.
(ii) Making capacity. There is always a possibility of closing or making the circuit under short-
circuit conditions. The capacity of a breaker to “make” current depends upon its ability to
withstand and close successfully against the effects of electromagnetic forces. These forces
are proportional to the square of maximum instantaneous current on closing. Therefore,
making capacity is stated in terms of a peak value of current instead of r.m.s. value.
The peak value of current (including d.c. component) during the first cycle of current wave after
the closure of circuit breaker is known as making capacity.
It may be noted that the definition is concerned with the first cycle of current wave on closing the
circuit breaker. This is because the maximum value of fault current possibly occurs in the first cycle
only when maximum asymmetry occurs in any phase of the breaker. In other words, the making
current is equal to the maximum value of asymmetrical current. To find this value, we must multiply
symmetrical breaking current by 2 to convert this from r.m.s. to peak, and then by 1·8 to include the
“doubling effect” of maximum asymmetry. The total multiplication factor becomes 2 × 1·8 = 2·55.
∴ Making capacity =2·55 × Symmetrical breaking capacity
(iii) Short-time rating. It is the period for which the circuit breaker is able to carry fault
current while remaining closed.
Sometimes a fault on the system is of very temporary nature and persists for 1 or 2 seconds after
which the fault is automatically cleared. In the interest of continuity of supply, the breaker should not
trip in such situations. This means that circuit breakers should be able to carry high current safely for
some specified period while remaining closed i.e., they should have proven short-time rating. How-
ever, if the fault persists for a duration longer than the specified time limit, the circuit breaker will
trip, disconnecting the faulty section.
The short-time rating of a circuit breaker depends upon its ability to withstand (a) the electro-
magnetic force effects and (b) the temperature rise. The oil circuit breakers have a specified limit of
3 seconds when the ratio of symmetrical breaking current to the rated normal current does not exceed
40. However, if this ratio is more than 40, then the specified limit is 1 second.
Normal current rating. It is the r.m.s. value of current which the circuit breaker is capable of
carrying continuously at its rated frequency under specified conditions. The only limitation in this
case is the temperature rise of current-carrying parts.
Example 19.1. A circuit breaker is rated as 1500 A, 1000 MVA, 33 kV, 3-second, 3-phase oil
circuit breaker. Find (i) rated normal current (ii) breaking capacity (iii) rated symmetrical breaking
current (iv) rated making current (v) short-time rating (vi) rated service voltage.
Solution.
(i) Rated normal current = 1500 A
(ii) Breaking capacity = 1000 MVA
* The proponents of MVA rating, however, advance another view which does not seem to be so illogical.
Though this MVA rating does not appear at the breaker contacts, it does exist in the windings of the
generating plant where both generated voltage and current exist simultaneously. The generated voltage is
absorbed in the impedance of the circuit. Since the impedance is distributed, the voltage cannot be mea-
sured anywhere while the faulty current is flowing. Therefore, the only way to obtain its value is to
measure the recovery voltage immediately after current interruption. This argument seems to have some
justification.
484 Principles of Power System

1000 × 10 6
(iii) Rated symmetrical breaking current = = 17496 A (r.m.s.)
3 × 33 × 10 3
(iv) Rated making current = 2·55 × 17496 = 44614 A (peak)
(v) Short-time rating = 17496A for 3 seconds
(vi) Rated service voltage = 33 kV (r.m.s.)
Example 19.2. A 50 Hz, 11 kV, 3-phase alternator with earthed neutral has a reactance of 5
ohms per phase and is connected to a bus-bar through a circuit breaker. The distributed capacitance
upto circuit breaker between phase and neutral in 0·01 µF. Determine
(i) peak re-striking voltage across the contacts of the breaker
(ii) frequency of oscillations
(iii) the average rate of rise of re-striking voltage upto the first peak
Solution.
XL 5
Inductance per phase, L = = = 0·0159 H
2 πf 2π × 50
−8
Capacitance per phase, C = 0·01 µF = 10 F
(i) Maximum value of recovery voltage (phase to neutral)
11
Emax = 2 × = 8·98 kV
3
∴ Peak re-striking voltage = 2 Emax = 2 × 8·98 = 17·96 kV
(ii) Frequency of oscillations is
1 1
fn = = = 12,628 Hz
2 π LC 2π 0 ⋅ 0159 × 10 −8
(iii) Peak re-striking voltage occurs at a time t given by ;
1
t = = π LC = π 0 ⋅ 0159 × 10 −8 = 39·6 × 10−6 sec = 39·6 µ sec
2 fn
∴ Average rate of rise of re-striking voltage
Peak re - striking voltage 17 ⋅ 96 kV
= =
Time upto first peak 39 ⋅ 6 µ sec
= 0·453 kV/µ sec = 453 × 10 kV/sec
3

Example 19.3. In a short circuit test on a circuit breaker, the following readings were obtained
on single frequency transient :
(i) time to reach the peak re-striking voltage, 50 µ sec
(ii) the peak re-striking voltage, 100 kV
Determine the average RRRV and frequency of oscillations
Solution.
Peak re - striking voltage
Average RRRV =
Time to reach peak value
100 kV
= 2 kV/µ Sec = 2 × 10 kV/sec
6
=
50 µ sec
Natural frequency of oscillations,
1
fn =
2 × Time to reach peak value
Circuit Breakers 485
1
=
2 × 50 µ sec
1
= = 10,000 Hz
2 × 50 × 10 −6
Example 19.4. An air-blast circuit breaker is designed to interrupt a transformer magnetising
current of 11 A (r.m.s.) chops the current at an instantaneous value of 7 A. If the values of L and C in
the circuit are 35·2 H and 0·0023 µF, find the value of voltage that appears across the contacts of the
breaker. Assume that all the inductive energy is transferred to the capacitance.
Solution.
Voltage across breaker contacts at chopping is
L
e = i (See. Art. 19.18)
C
Here, i = 7 A ; L = 35·2 H and C = 0·0023 µF
35 ⋅ 2
∴ e = 7 volts = 866 × 103 V = 866 kV
0 ⋅ 0023 × 10 −6

TUTORIAL PROBLEMS
1. A circuit breaker is rated 2500 A, 1500 MVA, 33 kV, 3 sec, 3-phase oil circuit breaker. Determine (i) the
rated normal current (ii) breaking current (iii) making current (iv) short time rating current.
[(i) 2500 A (ii) 26243 A (iii) 66920 A (iv) 26243 A for 3 sec]
2. A circuit breaker is rated at 1500 A, 2000 MVA, 33 kV, 3 sec, 3-phase oil circuit breaker. Determine
(i)the rated normal current (ii) breaking current (iii) making current (iv) short time rating current.
[(i)1500A (ii) 34·29 kA (iii) 89·22 kA (iv) 34·29 kA for 3 sec]

SELF - TEST
1. Fill in the blanks by inserting appropriate words/figures.
(i) A circuit breaker opens ............. when a fault occurs on the system.
(ii) A circuit breaker can .......... the circuit immediately after automatic operation.
(iii) When the contacts of a circuit breaker are opened on the occurrence of a fault, an ........ is struck.
(iv) An a.c. circuit is more easily interrupted than a d.c. circuit because alternating current provides
.............. .
(v) If the length of the arc increases, its resistance is .............. .
(vi) If dielectric strength of the medium between contacts builds up more rapidly than the re-striking
voltage, then arc will be .................. .
(vii) In an oil circuit breaker, ................. is used as the arc quenching medium.
(viii) The quantity of oil needed for arc control oil circuit breakers is ............. than that of plain break oil-
circuit breaker.
(ix) Current chopping mainly occurs in ................. circuit breakers.
(x) Capacitive current breaking results in .....................
2. Pick up the correct words/figures from the brackets and fill in the blanks.
(i) Cross jet explosion pot breaker can interrupt ............. short circuit currents efficiently.
(heavy, low)
(ii) In forced blast oil circuit breakers, the extinguishing force is ......... the fault current to be interrupted.
(dependent upon, independent of)
(iii) In low oil circuit breakers, ............... is used for insulation purposes. (solid material, oil)
(iv) Forced-blast circuit breakers have .............. speed of circuit interruption. (low, high)
Protection of Alternators and Transformers 529
ing is divided into two halves) owing to the very heavy currents which they have to carry. Advantage
may be taken of this necessity to protect inter-turn faults on the same winding.
Fig. 22.7 shows the schematic arrangement of circulating-current and inter-turn
protection of a 3-phase double wound generator. The relays RC provide protec-
tion against phase-to-ground and phase-to-phase faults whereas relays R1 pro-
vide protection against inter-turn faults.
Fig. 22.8 shows the duplicate stator windings S1 and S2 of one phase only
with a provision against inter-turn faults. Two current transformers are connected
on the circulating-current principle. Under normal conditions, the currents in the
stator windings S1 and S2 are equal and so will be the currents in the secondaries
of the two CTs. The secondary current round the loop then is the same at all
points and no current flows through the relay R1. If a short-circuit develops
between adjacent turns, say on S1, the currents in the stator windings S1 and S2
will no longer be equal. Therefore, unequal currents will be induced in the
secondaries of CTs and the difference of these two currents flows through the
relay R1. The relay then closes its contacts to clear the generator from the system.
Example 22.1. A star-connected, 3-phase, 10-MVA, 6·6 kV alternator has a per phase reac-
tance of 10%. It is protected by Merz-Price circulating-current principle which is set to operate for
fault currents not less than 175 A. Calculate the value of earthing resistance to be provided in order
to ensure that only 10% of the alternator winding remains unprotected.
Solution. Let r ohms be the earthing resistance required to leave
10% of the winding unprotected (portion NA). The whole arrangement
is shown in the simplified diagram of Fig. 22.9.
6 ⋅ 6 × 10
3
Voltage per phase, Vph = = 3810 V
3
10 × 106
Full-load current, I = = 875 A
3 × 6 ⋅ 6 × 103
Let the reactance per phase be x ohms.
3 × x × 875
∴ 10 = × 100
6600
or x = 0·436 Ω
Reactance of 10% winding = 0·436 × 0·1 = 0·0436 Ω
E.M.F. induced in 10% winding = Vph × 0·1 = 3810 × 0·1 = 381 V
Impedance offered to fault by 10% winding is

Zf = a0 ⋅ 0436f 2
+ r2
Earth-fault current due to 10% winding
381 = 381
=
Zf a0 ⋅ 0436f 2
+ r2
When this fault current becomes 175 A, the relay will trip.
381
∴ 175 =
a
0 ⋅ 0436 2 + r 2 f
or (0·0436)2 + r2 = FH 381IK 2

175
530 Principles of Power System
2 2
or (0·0436) + r = 4·715
or r = 2·171 Ω
Example 22.2. A star-connected, 3-phase, 10 MVA, 6·6 kV alternator is protected by Merz-
Price circulating-current principle using 1000/5 amperes current transformers. The star point of the
alternator is earthed through a resistance of 7·5 Ω . If the minimum operating current for the relay is
0·5 A, calculate the percentage of each phase of the stator winding which is unprotected against
earth-faults when the machine is operating at normal voltage.
Solution. Let x % of the winding be unprotected.
Earthing resistance, r = 7·5 Ω
V ph = 6·6 × 10 / 3 = 3810 V
3
Voltage per phase,
Minimum fault current which will operate the relay
1000
= × 0 ⋅ 5 = 100 A
5
E.M.F. induced in x% winding = V ph × (x/100) = 3810 × (x/100) = 38·1 x volts
Earth fault current which x% winding will cause
38 ⋅ 1 x 38 ⋅ 1 x
= = amperes
r 7⋅5
This current must be equal to 100 A.
38 ⋅ 1 x
∴ 100 =
7⋅5
100 × 7 ⋅ 5
or Unprotected winding, x = = 19·69%
38 ⋅ 1
Hence 19·69% of alternator winding is left unprotected.
Example 22.3. A 10 MVA, 6·6 kV, 3-phase star-connected alternator is protected by Merz-Price
circulating current system. If the ratio of the current transformers is 1000/5, the minimum operating
current for the relay is 0·75 A and the neutral point earthing resistance is 6 Ω, calculate :
(i) the percentage of each of the stator windings which is unprotected against earth faults
when the machine is operating at normal voltage.
(ii) the minimum resistance to provide protection for 90% of the stator winding.
Solution. Fig. 22.10 shows the circuit diagram.
Protection of Alternators and Transformers 531
(i) Let x% of the winding be unprotected.
Earthing resistance, r = 6Ω
V ph = 6·6 × 10
3
Voltage per phase, / 3 = 3810 volts
Minimum fault current which will operate the relay
= 1000 × 0 ⋅ 75 = 150 A
5
E.M.F. induced in x% of stator winding
= V ph × (x/100) = 3810 × (x/100) = 38·1 x volts
Earth fault current which x% winding will cause
38 ⋅ 1 x 38 ⋅ 1 x
= = amperes
r 6
This must be equal to 150 A.
38 ⋅ 1 x
∴ 150 =
6
or x = 23·6%
(ii) Let r ohms be the minimum earthing resistance required to provide protection for 90% of
stator winding. Then 10% winding would be unprotected i.e. x = 10%.
38 ⋅ 1 x
∴ 150 =
r
38 ⋅ 1 x 38 ⋅ 1 × 10
or r = = = 2·54 Ω
150 150
Example 22.4. A star-connected, 3-phase, 10 MVA, 6·6 kV alternator is protected by circulat-
ing current protection, the star point being earthed via a resistance r. Estimate the value of earthing
resistor if 85% of the stator winding is protected against earth faults. Assume an earth fault setting
of 20%. Neglect the impedance of the alternator winding.
Solution. Since 85% winding is to be protected, 15% would be unprotected. Let r ohms be the
earthing resistance required to leave 15% of the winding unprotected.
10 × 106
Full-load current = = 876 A
3 × 6 ⋅ 6 × 103
Minimum fault current which will operate the relay
= 20% of full-load current
20 × 876
= = 175 A
100
Voltage induced in 15% of winding
6 ⋅ 6 × 10
3
15
= × = 330 3 volts
100 3
Earth fault current which 15% winding will cause

= 330 3
r
This current must be equal to 175 A.

∴ 175 =
330 3
r
or r = 330 3 = 3·27 Ω
175
538 Principles of Power System
power transformer is altered sufficiently, enough differential current may flow through the relay to
cause its operation. However, such short-circuits are better taken care of by Buchholz relays.
Example 22.5. A 3-phase transformer of 220/11,000 line volts is connected in star/delta. The
protective transformers on 220 V side have a current ratio of 600/5. What should be the CT ratio on
11,000 V side ?
Solution. For star/delta power transformers, CTs will be connected in delta on 220 V side (i.e.
star side of power transformer) and in star on 11,000 V side (i.e. delta side of power transformer) as
shown in Fig. 22.16.
Suppose that line current on 220 V side is 600 A.
∴ Phase current of delta connected CTs on 220V side
= 5A
Line current of delta connected CTs on 220 V side
= 5× 3 = 5 3 A
This current (i.e. 5 3 ) will flow through the pilot wires. Obviously, this will be the current
which flows through the secondary of CTs on the 11,000 V side.

∴ Phase current of star connected CTs on 11,000 V side = 5 3 A

If I is the line current on 11,000 V side, then,
Primary apparent power = Secondary apparent power
or 3 × 220 × 600 = 3 × 11,000 × I
3 × 220 × 600
or I = = 12 A
3 × 11000
∴ Turn-ratio of CTs on 11000 V side
= 12 : 5 3 = 1·385 : 1
Example 22.6. A 3-phase transformer having line-voltage ratio of 0·4 kV/11kV is connected in
star-delta and protective transformers on the 400 V side have a current ratio of 500/5. What must be
the ratio of the protective transformers on the 11 kV side ?
Protection of Alternators and Transformers 539
Solution. Fig. 22.17 shows the circuit connections. For star/delta transformers, CTs will be
connected in delta on 400 V side (i.e. star side of power transformer) and in star on 11,000 V side (i.e.
delta side of power transformer).

Suppose the line current on 400 V side is 500 A.

∴ Phase current of delta connected CTs on 400 V side
= 5A
Line current of delta connected CTs on 400 V side
= 5× 3 = 5 3 A
This current (i.e. 5 3 A) will flow through the pilot wires. Obviously, this will be the current
which flows through the secondary of the CTs on 11000 V side.
∴ Phase current of star-connected CTs on 11000 V side
= 5 3A
If I is the line current on 11000 V side, then,
Primary apparent power = Secondary apparent power
or 3 × 400 × 500 = 3 × 11000 × I
3 × 400 × 500 200
or I = = A
3 × 11000 11
∴ C.T. ratio of CTs on 11000 V side
=
200 : 5 3 = 200 = 10 ⋅ 5 = 10·5 : 5
11 11 × 5 3 5

TUTORIAL PROBLEMS
1. A 3-phase, 33/6·6 kV, star/delta connected transformer is protected by Merz-Price circulating current
system. If the CTs on the low-voltage side have a ratio of 300/5, determine the ratio of CTs on the high
voltage side. [60 : 5 3 ]
2. A 3-phase, 200 kVA, 11/0·4 kV transformer is connected as delta/star. The protective transformers on
the 0·4 kV side have turn ratio of 500/5. What will be the C.T. ratios on the high voltage side ?
[18·18 : 8·66]