Courses in Mathematics (2022-2023)

This document gives a brief description of the various courses in calculus and some of the intermediate
level courses in mathematics. It provides advice and pointers for planning your course selections. If you
are a Mathematics Concentrator, or are considering entering the Mathematics Concentration, and if you
are seeking some overview of the courses and how they fit together, then this document is for you.
However, the guidelines presented below are only guidelines. Keep them in mind when you are deciding
how to structure your program, but be sure to talk to your advisor in the Mathematics Department or to
the Director of Undergraduate Studies before you submit your Crimson Cart at the start of the semester.

1. Calculus
Math 1a/b is the standard first-year calculus sequence. If you are thinking about majoring in math and
have not taken calculus before, take Math 1 as soon as possible. If you have had a year of calculus in
high school, and if you have passed the Advanced Placement examination in BC Calculus with a score of
4 or better, then you may be advised to begin with Math 21 a/b, the second-year calculus sequence.

If you scored a 5 on the BC Calculus exam and if you are advised to take Math 21 a/b, then you can
consider taking Math 22 or Math 25 or 55 instead of Math 21. Math 25 and 55 are intense but very
rewarding courses, and both 25 and 55 require extensive work outside the classroom. To succeed in the
latter two, you must like doing mathematics for its own sake. (The time commitment for Math 22 is
standard.)

Regardless of which calculus course you take, keep in mind that it is important to absorb ideas
thoroughly. It’s a bad idea to push yourself too far too fast.

For more guidance on choosing your first math course at Harvard please read the pamphlet “Beyond Math
1: Which math course is for you?”, which you can obtain from Cindy Jimenez, the Undergraduate
Program Coordinator (room 334), or from the undergraduate section of the Math Department web site.

2. How to structure a good program

No single program is ideal for all math concentrators. You should design your curriculum based on your
background, interests, and future plans. You are strongly urged to consult with your academic advisor or
with the Director of Undergraduate Studies in deciding which courses are best suited for you. Do not plan
to meet with your advisor on the last day for Crimson Cart submission because advisors usually don’t
have more than a few minutes to spend with each student that day. Make an appointment with your
advisor well before the Crimson Cart submission date. You should allot about half an hour, so you can
discuss your plan of study in depth.

LEARNING TO WRITE PROOFS: Math 22, 25, 101, 112, and 121 are five courses where you can learn to
write and analyze proofs and rigorous mathematical arguments. (It is best not to take an upper-level math
courses without a reasonable comfort level with the language of rigorous mathematics. These courses
will give you the requisite comfort level.)

• Math 101 serves three main goals. It lets a student sample the three major areas of mathematics:
analysis, algebra, and topology/geometry; it introduces the notions of rigor and proof; and it lets the
student have some fun doing mathematics. If you are considering concentrating in Mathematics but are
not sure that you are up for Math 22, 25 or 55, or if you simply want a glimpse of what “higher” math is
all about, you are urged to include Math 101 early in your curriculum. Math 101 can be taken
concurrently with Math 21a or 21b or Math 22a or 22b. If you have had some experience with rigorous
proofs and want a different taste of “higher” math, you might consider Math 152 in the fall. Neither Math
101 nor Math 152 is appropriate for people from Math 25, Math 55. People who took Math 22 can freely
take Math 101 and 152. (Note that Math 101 is offered in both the fall and spring semesters)

• Math 22, 25 and 55 are the three introductory courses for people with strong math interests coming into
Harvard. Math 25 and 55 are much more intensive than Math 22, but require much more out of class
time. People who don’t wish to make the time commitment will do well to choose Math 22. Meanwhile
Math 55 should be taken only by students with extensive college level math backgrounds. Each year one
or two first-year students ask to skip the Math 25/55 level and start with Math 122 or another 100-level
course. The Department, based on many years of experience, strongly discourages this. To elaborate:
Even if you have taken several years of math at another university, even if you have ‘seen’ every topic to
be covered in Math 25 or 55, you will not be bored in these accelerated courses. The topics covered in
Math 25 and 55 are not as important as the level and the depth of mathematical sophistication at which
they are taught. Taking Math 25 or 55 is the most intense mathematical experience you are going to have
in any Harvard course, shared with the most talented of your peers. You may learn more advanced
material in other 100- and 200-level courses, but never with the same speed and depth as in Math 25 or
55. These courses are not taught in any other university because no other university has the same caliber
of first-year mathematicians. And the courses are simply a lot of fun. Many students who have skipped
25 and 55 have been dissatisfied with their decision. In any event, you must speak with the Director of
Undergraduate Studies if you plan to skip the Math 21-55 level.

• Math 112 and Math 121 are courses suitable for students from Math 21, and they provide an alternative
entry-point for the department’s more advanced courses in analysis and algebra respectively. Math 112
should not be normally be taken by students who have been through 25 or 55; and Math 121 should not
be taken by students who have had one of the courses Math 22b, 25a or 55a. (Math 22a,b people can take
Math 112, and Math 22a people who take Math 21b can take Math 121). If you are a second year student
and have taken Math 21 but are not yet comfortable with writing proofs, then consider including these
courses in your plan of study.

If you have taken Math 22, 25 or 55, or if you have taken Math 21 and gained some experience in writing
proofs through courses such as Math 101, 112 and 121, then you are ready to take some of the courses at
the 100-level that form the core of the Mathematics curriculum. Most of the courses at this level can be
classified as belonging to one of the three main streams of mathematics: analysis, algebra, and geometry
and topology. Courses belonging to these areas are numbered in the ranges 110–119, 120– 129 and 130–
139 respectively.

CENTRAL COURSES: In each these three stream, there are two courses which are central courses in the
sense that their material is used in ubiquitously in mathematics. These central courses are:

• Math 113. Analysis I: Complex Function Theory

Math 114. Analysis II: Measure, Integration and Banach Spaces

• Math 122. Algebra I: Theory of Groups and Vector Spaces

Math 123. Algebra II: Theory of Rings and Fields

• Math 131. Topology I: Topological Spaces and the Fundamental Group

Math 132. Topology II: Smooth manifolds

It is not necessary to include all six of these courses in your plan of study, but here are some points to
bear in mind

• Students from Math 55 will have covered most of the material in Math 122 and Math 113. If you have
taken Math 55, you should look first at Math 114, Math 123 and the Math 131-132 sequence.

• With the exception just noted, you should consider including Math 122 early on in your curriculum.
Algebra is a basic language of modern mathematics, and it is hard to comprehend advanced material
without some familiarity with groups and related topics in algebra. The same remark applies to Math 123,
to a lesser degree.

• By the same token, Math 113 should also be taken early on as complex analysis is used in many other
fields of mathematics. You will also find the topology you learn in Math 131 useful in many other areas:
amongst other things, it provides the mathematical language with which to discuss continuity and limits
in wide generality.

• Math 123 cannot be taken before Math 122; but in the other two streams, the courses can be taken in
either order. Thus, Math 114 can be taken before or after Math 113, and Math 132 before 132.

• You should try to fulfill the distribution requirement (i.e., the requirement to take at least one course in
analysis, algebra, and geometry/topology) early in your academic career. By your thrid or fourth year,
you should be exposed to the main branches of mathematics; then you can choose the department’s
advanced courses. In any case, most 200-level courses assume (at least informally) familiarity with the
basic tools of analysis, algebra, and topology.

OTHER COURSES AT THE 100 LEVEL: At this level, there are many other courses to choose, some being:

• Dyamical systems in Math 118; convexity and optimization in Math 116, number theory in Math 124 or
Math 129; classical geometry in Math 130; differential geometry in Math 136; algebraic geometry in
Math 137, probability in Math 154, logic and set theory in Math 141 and Math 145; combinatorics in
Math 155. Courses that are not listed here are not given every year; check the Harvard course catalogue
for these.

• Consider taking a tutorial (Math 99r) during the second or third year, or the fourth year. (Even so,
tutorials are not required.) Many students find the tutorial to be one of the best courses they took at
Harvard. Tutorials satisfy the Mathematics Expository Writing requirement and often lead to senior
thesis topics. More about tutorials appears below.

• Students wishing to take a rigorous course in mathematical logic in years when Math 141 or 145 are not
offered at Harvard should consider taking logic courses at M.I.T. In any event, the Harvard courses offer
a good introduction to model theory, set theory and recursion theory — the three main branches of
Mathematical Logic. Students interested in the more philosophical aspects of logic and/or in proof or set
theory may want to take Philosophy 144, and those interested in mathematics of computation should look
into Computer Science 121 and some of the other theoretical CS courses.

• Students interested in Combinatorics should look at Math 155, and may also want to look up M.I.T.’s
listings in that area. (If you want M.I.T. courses to count for the concentration credit, you must get
permission in advance from the Director of Undergraduate Studies.)

• Students are encouraged to take courses from a variety of professors in the department and not just to
“follow” one teacher. It is advisable to be exposed to different views and styles of doing mathematics.

200-LEVEL COURSES: 100, 200 – WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE? The difference between 100-level and 200-
level courses is fairly easy to summarize: 100- level courses are designed for undergraduates, whereas the
200-level courses are generally designed for graduate students. As far as course material goes, the 100-
level courses are designed to offer a comprehensive view of all the major fields in pure mathematics.
They emphasize the classical examples and problems that started each field going and they all lead to one
of the fundamental results that motivates the further development of the field. In contrast, a 200-level
course will assume you understand the basic ideas of a field. A 200-level course will set out the
systematic, abstract foundations for a field and develop tools needed to get to the present frontiers.
The 100-level courses give you a good overview of mathematics, they foster intellectual growth, and they
prepare you for your chosen career. This is not true of 200-level courses. These courses assume that you
are interested in the subject, and that you are already fairly certain of becoming an academic
mathematician. The amount you learn in such a course is often also entirely up to you. Your
prerequisites, though correct according to the course catalog, may be entirely inadequate. Many courses
are paired into 100-level and 200-level sequences:

Corresponding 100-level, 200-level Courses

Math 114 → Math 212a,b (Real Analysis)

Math 113 → Math 213a,b (Complex Analysis)
Math 122/123 → Math 221 (Algebra)
Math 129 → Math 223a,b/229 (Algebraic Number Theory/Analytic Number Theory),
Math 131 → Math 231a,b (Algebraic Topology)
Math 132/136 → Math 230a,b (Differential Geometry)
Math 137 → Math 232a,b (Algebraic Geometry)

Other 200-level courses are harder to classify, but cover topics equally central to modern mathematics.
For example, Math 222 and Math 224 are courses on Lie groups and Lie algebras that draws on
background material from analysis, algebra and geometry.

SKIPPING 100-LEVEL PRECURSORS? Students are strongly discouraged from taking any 200-level course
before taking its 100-level precursors. Although it is possible in principle to learn a general abstract topic
on the basis of the logic of its definitions and theorems alone, it is almost impossible to appreciate their
significance and “feel” without studying the more down-to-earth background which led to them.
Moreover, students are well advised to take basic classes in algebra, topology, and analysis before
exploring the graduate curriculum: often a basic familiarity with other areas will be an assumed
prerequisite. Certainly, it can’t hurt. However, even this may not suffice.

Some graduate courses (notably 212a, 221a, 231a) often conform better to undergraduate expectations
(set material, careful pace, motivation); the best way to tell whether this is going to happen is to go to the
class yourself and find out. Beware, though: often these courses start in a user-friendly way (presenting
simple definitions, for example), then speed up tremendously as time goes on.

WHY TAKE 200-LEVEL COURSES? The reasons for not taking 200-level courses are numerous. However,
there are some equally good reasons for taking them. You will be treated like a graduate student, which is
good if you want to be treated like one. There isn’t much review of topics you may have already covered,
requirements are fairly minimal, and, most importantly, you can learn a lot of substantial mathematics. (If
this is what you want, tutorials are another good option. While they are undergraduate courses, one
generally learns graduate material in them.)
A student who is considering graduate school in mathematics may want to include at least one 200-level
course in his or her program (and, likewise, write a senior thesis) to get a taste of the likes of graduate
school.

3. Other types of courses

TUTORIALS: Tutorials are not required, but many students take a tutorial during their sophomore or junior
year. Typically one or maybe two are offered every semester.

Tutorials (Math 99r) are generally directed by graduate students, and have four to ten students in them.
They tend to be less formal and structured than regular courses, yet require more involvement on the part
of the students – students have to make presentations and write papers. Very frequently a topic studied in
a tutorial leads naturally to a senior thesis. And the paper written for the tutorial generally satisfies the
Mathematics Expository Writing requirement.

The department places a description of the fall tutorial(s) on the Math 99r Canvas website in late July; a
description of the spring tutorials is on that website in early January. There is also a tutorial preview
meeting during the course registration period.

Ordinarily only one Math 99r can count towards the concentration requirements.

All questions regarding tutorials may be addressed to the Director of Undergraduate Studies or the
Undergraduate Program Coordinator, Cindy Jimenez ([email protected]).

READING COURSES (60R AND 91R): Honors candidates in their last year at Harvard can choose to enroll
in Math 60r to allow more time for senior thesis work. A person can take Math 60r in the fall and/or
spring semester. Math 60r is SAT/UNS only and does not count for concentration requirements. A
person taking Math 60r in the fall must submit a one-page plan of thesis (including at least a preliminary
bibliography) to Cindy Jimenez ([email protected]) by 4 pm of the last day of the fall reading
period in order to get the SAT grade.

If you want to learn a particular topic not covered in a regular course or a tutorial, you can consider taking
a Math 91r reading course with a faculty member. To do this, you must find a faculty member willing to
supervise your reading, as well as secure approval from the Director of Undergraduate Studies. Make
sure that you, your supervisor, and the Director of Undergraduate Studies clearly agree on the topic,
structure, frequency of meetings, and the grade requirements before you sign up for 91r. You should
know exactly what is expected of you and how much guidance to anticipate. Ordinarily, Math 91r will
not count for concentration requirements.
CROSS-REGISTRATION AT M.I.T.: Students can cross-register to take a course at M.I.T. This may be a
useful option in years when a particular course is not offered at Harvard. Logic and Combinatorics
offerings at M.I.T. have proven especially popular with Harvard students. Generally, classes at M.I.T.
start on a different date then Harvard courses so be aware of this when you register for an MIT course.
You can get concentration credit for M.I.T. courses if you talk to the Director of Undergraduate Studies
before registering. Cross-registration petitions can be obtained via my.harvard.

By the way: If you are taking an M.I.T. course, you don’t have to walk all the way down Mass. Ave. or
even pay for the bus to get to class: you can use the Harvard Medical Area (M2) shuttle bus, which runs
from Quincy Square (in front of Lamont) straight to M.I.T.

RELATED FIELDS: Keep in mind that the concentration requirements for Mathematics require twelve half-
courses, but only eight of those need to be listed under “Mathematics” in the Course Catalog. You are
encouraged to round out your studies by including courses listed as “Related Fields” in the mathematics
section of the Handbook for Students.

4. Sample Programs
The programs listed below should not be followed literally; they may not be balanced in workload
between the fall and the spring semesters; nor are all the courses listed necessarily offered every year.
They are presented only to serve as examples of possible programs. You should determine your unique
program in consultation with your math faculty advisor or the Director of Undergraduate Studies.

If you start with Math 1 a/b in your first year, you can continue with Math 21 a/b in the second year.
Students who start with Math 1b in the fall of their first year normally take Math 21a in the spring; some
choose also to take Math 21b concurrently with 21a (but you certainly don’t have to). Some students who
start with Math 1 a/b sequence freshman year choose to take Math 22 or 25 their sophomore year instead
of Math 21 to get a first feel for proofs and abstraction; but most people get that by taking Math 101, 112
or 121. Here is a possible program:

Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4

Math 1a Math 21a Math 112 Math 113
Math 1b Math 21b Math 121 Math 131
CS 50 CompSci 51 Phys 15a Math 122
Math 101 Stat 110 Phil 144

Students who start with 21 a/b in their first year can take 101 either concurrently with one of the Math
21’s or in their second year along with 112, 122 and/or 131. Many students also take Physics 15 a/b/c or
Computer Science 51 to see how mathematics applies to other disciplines. Here is a possible program:
 Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4
Math 21a Math 122 Math 141 Math 231a
Phys 15a Math 131 Math 124 Math 114
Math 21b CompSci 51 Math 99r Math 231b
Math 101 Math 112 Math 132 EC 2052

A student entering with a strong interest in mathematics would most likely start with Math 22, 25 or 55
during the first year. (Math 55 if a strong background also.) A sample program might look like this:

Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4

Math 22a or 25a Math 122 Math 114 Math 60r
Physics 15a Math 131 Math 99r Math 212a
Math 22b or 25b Math 123 Math 129 Math 222
Physics 15b Math 113 Math 132 Math 137

Consider a person with a strong interest in mathematical physics who wants to concentrate in
Mathematics with Physics as an allied concentration. If this person has the Math 1a/b equivalent on
entering, then starting with Math 22a,b or Math 25a,b (or Math 55a,b) with the Physics 16 (or 15a), 15b
and 15c sequence makes sense. Looking ahead, 100-level math courses of particular use to physicists are
Math 113, 132 and 136. The following is a program for this student that will fulfill the Math
concentration part of the joint concentration requirements. (The student should talk with the Physics
Director of Undergraduate studies to plan the physics portion.)

Year 1 Year 2 Year 2 Year 4

Math 22a or 25a Math 131 Math 113 Math 230a
Physics 16 Math122 Math 132 or 136 Math 99r
Math 22b or 25b or 55b Phys 15c Physics 143b Math 230b
Physics 15b Phys 143a Phys 181 Math 123

A primary concentration in Mathematics with Computer Science as an allied concentration is common.

Mathematics courses of particular value here would be Math 141 (introduction to mathematical logic),
Math 124 (number theory including primality tests and applications to codes), Math 130 (on axiomatic
foundations of geometry), Math 155 (combinatorics), Math 152 (discrete mathematics) and Math 154
(probability). A possible program which fulfills the Math concentration requirements is given below.
Consult with the Computer Science Head Tutor to plan that portion of the course work.
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4
Math 21a Math 121 Math 122 Math 141 or Math 154
Math 101 CS 121 CS 207 or 226r Math 191
Math 21b Math 112 Math 155 Math 152
CS 51 CS 124 Math 130 Math 124 or AM 111