Review

Advances in Retrofitting Strategies for Energy Efficiency in

Tropical Climates: A Systematic Review and Analysis
Katherine Chung-Camargo 1, Jinela González 1, Miguel Chen Austin 1,2,3,*, Cristina Carpino 1,4, Dafni Mora 1,2,3
and Natale Arcuri 4

1 Research Group Energy and Comfort in Bioclimatic Buildings (ECEB), Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
Universidad Tecnológica de Panamá, Panama City 0819-07289, Panama;
[email protected] (K.C.-C.); [email protected] (J.G.); [email protected] (C.C.);
[email protected] (D.M.)
2 Centro de Estudios Multidisciplinarios en Ciencias, Ingeniería y Tecnología (CEMCIT-AIP),

Panama City 0819-07289, Panama

3 Sistema Nacional de Investigación (SNI), Clayton 0816-02852, Panama

4 Department of Mechanical, Energy and Management Engineering, University of Calabria, V. P. Bucci 46/C,

97036 Arcavacata di Rende, CS, Italy; [email protected]

* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The global construction industry significantly contributes to energy consumption and
greenhouse gas emissions, necessitating immediate action for sustainable development. Recogniz-
ing the impact of buildings on emissions, the United Nations has set ambitious energy-related goals
for 2030. Retrofitting buildings emerges as a strategic method for reducing energy consumption,
offering lower environmental impact and life cycle costs. However, retrofitting is a complex process
influenced by diverse factors such as policies, available resources, techniques, building-specific data,
and uncertainties. Thus, this paper reviews the existing literature on retrofitting strategies for trop-
ical and humid climates to identify effective approaches for enhancing energy efficiency, thermal
Citation: Chung-Camargo, K.; comfort, and overall building performance in these regions. Through comprehensive analyses, in-
González, J.; Chen Austin, M.; cluding bibliometric analysis using VOSviewer version 1.6.18 and systematic assessments, this
Carpino, C.; Mora, D.; Arcuri, N. study investigates various retrofitting strategies. This study categorizes tropical climates into Af
Advances in Retrofitting Strategies (Tropical Rainforest Climate) and Aw (Tropical Savanna Climate) based on the Köppen climate clas-
for Energy Efficiency in Tropical
sification. It reveals distinct emphases, with Af climates concentrating on office buildings and Aw
Climates: A Systematic Review and
climates prioritizing residential structures. Passive strategies were predominantly favored in office
Analysis. Buildings 2024, 14, 1633.
buildings, with glazing being the most commonly implemented approach. Residential structures,
https://doi.org/10.3390/
on the other hand, adopted a combination of passive strategies such as phase change materials along
buildings14061633
with active methods like appliance replacement. Educational buildings tended to rely on passive
Academic Editors: Gerardo Maria strategies, including roof covers, shading, and glazing. The absence of specific cost values under-
Mauro, Xiaolei Yuan and
scores the importance of establishing baseline metrics, revealing significant challenges in retrofit
Abderrahim Boudenne
techniques. This study further highlights an opportunity to explore passive methods in educational
Received: 29 December 2023 buildings, stressing the need for comprehensive guidelines, especially in institutional settings.
Revised: 16 May 2024 Moreover, it emphasizes the urgency for ambitious regulations to address carbon emissions and
Accepted: 27 May 2024 optimize energy efficiency in tropical climates.
Published: 2 June 2024

Keywords: building; energy efficiency; humid; NZEB; retrofit; tropical climate; tropics

Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.

Submitted for possible open access
publication under the terms and 1. Introduction
conditions of the Creative Commons
The building sector holds a significant position in energy consumption and green-
Attribution (CC BY) license
(https://creativecommons.org/license
house gas (GHG) emissions. Presently, it constitutes 35% of the global energy usage and
s/by/4.0/).
is responsible for 38% of the energy-related CO2 emissions [1,2]. Building operations con-
tribute 28% of the annual CO2 emissions, while building materials and construction add

Buildings 2024, 14, 1633. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14061633 www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings

Buildings 2024, 14, 1633 2 of 32

another 11% annually [3]. Emissions from the construction industry are of particular con-
cern, highlighting the imperative to transition towards green buildings and low-carbon
construction materials to mitigate GHG emissions. Endeavors aimed at reducing emis-
sions and curbing energy consumption within the building sector are essential for attain-
ing global sustainability objectives. The building sector’s impact on GHG emissions sig-
nificantly contributes to climate change [2,4,5]. Buildings play a crucial role in the United
Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) report [6] by contributing directly and
indirectly to various SDG targets [7,8]. Implementing sustainable building practices is vi-
tal for realizing the SDGs concerning health, sustainable consumption, sustainable cities,
and other related objectives, requiring further action to achieve energy-related goals by
2030, as outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals report [6].
Recognizing the significance of enhancing energy efficiency, international regulatory
bodies, including the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD), mandated
nearly zero energy consumption for buildings after 2020. The revised directive will help
achieve the goal of reducing emissions by at least 60% in the building sector by 2030 com-
pared with 2015 and attaining climate neutrality by 2050 [9].
Building retrofitting, an effective strategy to lower energy consumption and identify
energy-saving opportunities based on building conditions, types, and functions, boasts
relatively lower environmental impact and life cycle costs than redevelopment [10,11].
However, retrofitting is a multifaceted process influenced by factors like policies and reg-
ulations [12], available resources, preferred techniques [13], building-specific data, human
elements, and uncertainties [14]. This comprehensive procedure involves energy audits,
performance evaluations, identification of energy conservation benefits, economic anal-
yses, risk assessments, and measurement and verification of energy savings [15].
Given the substantial upfront investment required to retrofit a building against an-
nual energy savings, building owners often hesitate because of uncertainties about the
investment’s value [10]. Hence, conducting a Cost–Benefit Analysis (CBA) becomes crucial
to assess the economic and financial implications across various retrofitting levels, ena-
bling informed and effective decision-making [16].
Building retrofitting has a different focus depending on the weather and country.
Some focus on measures established for windows (United States [17]), HVAC systems
(United States [17], Thailand [18], Vietnam [19]), financial incentives (European Union
[20], India [21], Japan [22], Canada [23]), subsidies (European Union [24], India [21], Japan
[22]), targets for green building construction (China [25]), improving cooling systems (Sin-
gapore[26], Indonesia [27], Philippines [28], Cambodia [29], Bangladesh [30], Sri Lanka
[31]), energy performance (Singapore [26], Cambodia [29], Bangladesh [30]), thermal com-
fort (Malaysia [32], Sri Lanka [31]), improving insulation (Thailand [18], Philippines [28]),
and building envelopes (Indonesia [27]).
Also, there exists substantial research focusing on various facets of building energy
management, including model calibration [33,34], simulation [35], retrofit solution selec-
tion [36], life cycle cost (LCC) computation [37], and establishing optimal decision-making
models [38,39]. However, more studies need to systematically study the different strate-
gies for retrofitting in hot and humid weather. Such a study could serve as a comprehen-
sive solution for building owners to assess the feasibility of energy retrofit projects, par-
ticularly in tropical regions where climate significantly influences energy consumption
patterns and retrofitting strategies [40].
For instance, because of varying energy consumption patterns between different
types of buildings, especially institutions, and their relatively constrained financial re-
sources [41], it becomes imperative to investigate the cost–benefit viability of energy ret-
rofitting projects specifically tailored for institutional buildings in tropical climates.
This research stands out for its meticulous analysis and synthesis of the available
literature concerning retrofitting strategies focused on buildings in tropical and humid
climates. By concentrating on enhancing energy efficiency, thermal comfort, and overall
building performance within these challenging environmental conditions, this study aims
Buildings 2024, 14, 1633 3 of 32

to uncover the most effective methods, metrics, approaches, and techniques. Its originality
lies in its focused exploration of retrofitting strategies uniquely suited to tropical and hu-
mid climates, offering a specialized perspective on addressing the sustainability chal-
lenges of these regions. Through its comprehensive review, this research aims to provide
valuable insights and recommendations for professionals and research, contributing to
the advancement of sustainable building practices in tropical and humid climates.
The present study expands upon retrofit research conducted in tropical climates. Sec-
tion 2 delves into a comprehensive literature examination, incorporating bibliometric and
scientometric analyses. Section 3 presents the outcomes obtained by implementing the
previously outlined methodology. Lastly, Section 4 delineates the most pertinent retrofit-
ting strategies suitable for tropical climates and accentuates, compares, and analyzes var-
ious strategies while discussing future research directions from this study.

2. Materials and Methods

The methodology implemented is divided into two parts as follows: bibliometric and
systematic analysis. The next section explains each part in detail.

2.1. Literature Search Strategy

Regarding data collection, to identify the different applications based on retrofit in
buildings, an examination of the literature was carried out using the search strategy pre-
sented in Figure 1. The selection of the final papers on this research included four steps as
follows:
a. To gather as many studies as possible, the use of scientific databases such as Google
Scholar, Science Direct, and Springer were selected.
b. The search was performed in each of the scientific databases. The main co-word com-
binations and Boolean operators were retrofit AND building AND “energy effi-
ciency”; retrofit AND building AND “energy efficiency” AND (NZEB OR nZEB); ret-
rofit AND building; retrofit AND (NZEB OR nZEB), which returned a total of 34,553
documents.
c. An exclusion criterion was applied, limiting the research to English and a period of
the last five years (2018–2024) and using the Boolean operators, which returned a
total of 16,649 documents.
d. The papers were analyzed using a combination of additional co-word combinations
and Boolean operators to include tropic/tropical climate/humid; the combinations
were the following: retrofit AND building AND “energy efficiency” AND (tropics
OR “tropical climate” OR humid); retrofit AND building AND “energy efficiency”
AND (NZEB OR nZEB) AND (tropics OR “tropical climate” OR humid); retrofit AND
building AND (tropics OR “tropical climate” OR humid); retrofit AND (NZEB OR
nZEB) AND (tropics OR “tropical climate” OR humid), which returned a total of 2211
documents.
Buildings 2024, 14, 1633 4 of 32

Figure 1. Research methodological process.

2.2. Scientometric Analysis

The final documents were analyzed using bibliometric and systematic analyses, both
of which are explained in detail hereafter.

2.2.1. Bibliometric Analysis

A large number of documents from Section 1 in the data collection are presented. A
bibliometric mapping tool named “VOSviewer” was used to analyze the information.
VOSviewer has the advantage of presenting an informative visualization. VOSviewer is a
free computer program that is especially useful for displaying large bibliometric maps in
a way that is easy to interpret [42,43].
The bibliometric analysis was conducted, the map was created based on biblio-
graphic data, the RIS file was uploaded, and the keyword co-occurrence analysis was
Buildings 2024, 14, 1633 5 of 32

selected. Tables 1 and 2 list the query used for searching and the quantity of documents.
Table 3 shows the most common keywords in the retrofit analysis, where some words
were similar and thus grouped under similar keywords, as listed in Table 4. Once the key-
words were grouped, a thesaurus file was used to merge the keywords.

Table 1. Query used for searching and the quantity of documents.

Keywords Number of Documents Period

retrofit AND building AND “energy efficiency” 10,299 2000–2024
retrofit AND building AND “energy efficiency”
753 2010–2024
AND (NZEB OR nZEB)
retrofit AND building 22,672 2000–2024
retrofit AND (NZEB OR nZEB) 829 2010–2024
retrofit AND building AND “energy efficiency”
1444 2000–2024
AND (tropics OR “tropical climate” OR humid)
retrofit AND building AND “energy efficiency”
AND (NZEB OR nZEB) AND (tropics OR “tropi- 166 2012–2024
cal climate” OR humid)
retrofit AND building AND (tropics OR “tropi-
2117 2000–2024
cal climate” OR humid)
retrofit AND (NZEB OR nZEB) AND (tropics
178 2012–2023
OR “tropical climate” OR humid)

Table 2. The query used to search for several documents in the last five years.

Keywords Number of Documents Period

retrofit AND building AND “energy efficiency” 5107 2018–2024
retrofit AND building AND “energy efficiency”
504 2018–2023
AND (NZEB OR nZEB)
retrofit AND building 10488 2018–2024
retrofit AND (NZEB OR nZEB) 550 2018–2024
retrofit AND building AND “energy efficiency”
812 2018–2024
AND (tropics OR “tropical climate” OR humid)
retrofit AND building AND “energy efficiency”
AND (NZEB OR nZEB) AND (tropics OR “tropi- 130 2018–2023
cal climate” OR humid)
retrofit AND building AND (tropics OR “tropical
1131 2018–2024
climate” OR humid)
retrofit AND (NZEB OR nZEB) AND (tropics OR
138 2018–2023
“tropical climate” OR humid)

Table 3. List of the most keywords that occurred in the retrofit search.

Keywords Occurrence
energy efficiency 762
thermal comfort 298
retrofit 282
energy retrofit 183
building retrofit 179
climate change 160
energy consumption 152
sustainability 129
nzeb 126
Buildings 2024, 14, 1633 6 of 32

buildings 123
residential buildings 121
renewable energy 116
energy saving 111
optimization 108

Table 4. Related terms are grouped under the stated keyword.

Keyword Terms Grouped with the Keyword

buildings building; building energy efficiency; building stock
energy efficiency energy saving; energy performance; energy savings; building energy performance
zero energy building; net-zero energy building; nearly zero energy building; net zero energy
building; net-zero; nearly zero energy buildings; net zero energy buildings; net-zero energy
buildings; zero energy buildings; nearly zero energy; nzebs; net zero energy; zeb; nearly zero
energy building (nzeb); nearly zero-energy building (nzeb); nearly-zero energy buildings; net
nzeb zero energy building (nzeb); net-zero buildings; near zero energy buildings; nearly zero energy
buildings (nzebs); nearly zero energy buildings (nzebs); net-zero emissions buildings; net-zero
energy rural house; nzeb target; near zero energy building; nearly-zero and positive energy par-
adigms; net zero energy buildings (nzebs); net-zero, ghg emissions; zero energy buildings
(zebs); zero energy solar household; zero-carbon building; zero-energy targets; net-zero energy
PEB positive energy buildings (pebs)
residential buildings residential building; residential
energy retrofit; building retrofit; seismic retrofit; retrofitting; building renovation; building en-
ergy retrofit; building retrofitting; existing buildings; existing building; renovation
energy retrofits; refurbishment; green retrofit; building retrofits; energy-efficient retrofit; energy
retrofitting; deep energy retrofit; green retrofitting; retrofits; building refurbishment; energy
renovation; retrofit delivery; retrofit measures; retrofit scenarios; deep retrofit; retrofitting strat-
egies; deep renovation; energy efficiency retrofit; home energy retrofit; rehabilitation; domestic
retrofit
retrofit; energetic retrofit; existing residentials; housing retrofit; passive energy-saving retrofit;
retrofit double glazing; retrofit guidelines; retrofit market; sustainable building renovation; sus-
tainable building upgrade; zero energy building renovation; building energy renovation; build-
ing energy retrofits; building envelope retrofits; cost-optimal retrofit; façade retrofit; retrofitting
measures; social housing retrofit; sustainable retrofit; thermal retrofit; deep retrofitting; renova-
tion strategies; residential building retrofit; retrofit interventions
thermal comfort adaptive thermal comfort; indoor thermal comfort; outdoor thermal comfort
tropics; hot and humid climate; hot and humid climates; hot-humid climates; hot/warm and hu-
tropical climate
mid climates

2.2.2. Systematic Analysis

A complete review of the preselected articles was needed to select sources that pro-
vided information related to retrofitted buildings and techniques applied. The final papers
were selected by reviewing the title, abstract, and keywords.
The criteria employed in the literature selection included the following. (i) Retrofit in
buildings in the last five years (2018–2023). (ii) Retrofit in buildings of any type. (iii) Ret-
rofit in humid or tropical climates.
Finally, information on different retrofitting strategies in buildings and technical
strategies applied in retrofitting were classified.

3. Results
The results of this study are presented in two parts. Section 2.2.1 explains the biblio-
metric analysis, and Section 2.2.2 explains the systematic analysis.
Buildings 2024, 14, 1633 7 of 32

3.1. Bibliometric Analysis

Keyword Co-Citation Analysis
The number of documents listed in Table 1 is based on the primary co-word combi-
nations and Boolean operators mentioned in the reviewed articles, excluding the specified
exclusion criteria. The majority of these documents are from 2000 onwards. On the con-
trary, Table 2 includes exclusion criteria related to a recent five-year period.
Table 3 displays the most frequently appearing keywords along with their respective
co-occurrence counts based on the completion of data collection and document exporta-
tion using Vosviewer. “Energy efficiency” emerges as the most prevalent keyword, exhib-
iting the highest frequency among all keywords and demonstrating connections to all
other clusters. Subsequently, “thermal comfort” ranks as the second most frequent term,
followed by “retrofit” in third place.
In the visual representation, 7318 keywords were considered, of which 1115 met the
specified threshold criteria. The visualization in Figures 2 and 3 involves 1000 links and
showcases 995 items. Figure 2 illustrates the interconnectedness of keywords and their
links, with different colors denoting distinct clusters within the network. Meanwhile, Fig-
ure 3 depicts the network’s links and co-occurrences of keywords across a timescale, high-
lighting recent years in yellow.
In Figure 4, the keywords “tropical climate” and “tropics” exhibit the least occur-
rence, linked to various distinct clusters. Moreover, the timescale indicates that these key-
words are more recent, suggesting a tendency towards novelty or recency.

Figure 2. Network illustration for keywords used in the reviewed research.

Buildings 2024, 14, 1633 8 of 32

Figure 3. Network links and co-occurrences of the keywords on a timescale.

Buildings 2024, 14, 1633 9 of 32

Figure 4. Co-occurrence of the links for the keywords (a) “tropical climate” and (b) “tropics”.

As observed in the preliminary findings, various keywords derived from the highly
co-occurring pairs in Table 3 were categorized under specific terms, as showcased in Table
4. This process is termed a thesaurus in Vosviewer and aims to standardize the data and
enhance its practicality and realism for analysis. This approach yielded a new set of 6325
keywords, with only 123 meeting the defined threshold, thus generating 101 links.
Upon implementation, the resultant figures, Figures 5 and 6, depict the final repre-
sentation, with “retrofit” emerging as the most prominent term. Additionally, Figure 7
groups keywords under “tropical climate.” In Figure 7a, there is a prevailing trend indi-
cating recent studies that are emphasizing tropical climates. Figure 7b illustrates the rela-
tionships between various domains such as retrofit, thermal comfort, nzeb, and energy
efficiency.

Figure 5. Network illustration for final keywords.

Buildings 2024, 14, 1633 10 of 32

Figure 6. Networks links and co-occurrences for final keywords on timescale.

Figure 7. Keyword “tropical climate” (a) co-occurrence on a timescale and (b) co-occurrence of the
link.

3.2. Systematic Analysis

Building energy efficiency retrofit entails optimizing technical, environmental, or
economic parameters to identify the most suitable saving strategy. Although the analyzed
methods may have different approaches, they must focus on meeting the established ob-
jective. An analysis of the literature revealed that enhanced comprehension can be catego-
rized into techniques applied in retrofitting, studies involving economic metrics, perfor-
mance metrics, and retrofit decision approaches.
Three subsections were developed regarding techniques applied in retrofitting. The
first section focuses on building components (envelope). The second delves into utilizing
systems or requirements for greater efficiency, while the third concentrates on renewable
energy systems. The features of all the studies reviewed are summarized in Tables 5 and
A1 (a follow-up of Table 5).
Economic metrics receive extensive evaluation because of their ability to determine
the profitability of alternative approaches. Performance metrics are a crucial variable in
energy-efficient assessments. Retrofit decision approaches reveal methods for identifying
correct energy-saving approaches and play an essential role as tools to measure, monitor,
and analyze the behavior of implemented strategies or technologies. The decision on
which of these approaches to use depends on the specific objectives of the study.
Buildings 2024, 14, 1633 11 of 32

3.2.1. Techniques Applied in Retrofitting

Building Component (Envelope)
A parametric analysis was carried out by Vidhya et al. [44], who investigated differ-
ent saving strategies in their study focused on various methods to enhance thermal com-
fort in a school situated in Chennai, India. They concluded that natural ventilation, reduc-
ing infiltrations, and adding shading on windows can decrease the temperature by 3.2 °C
in summer and 3.4 °C in winter. On the other hand, in the study developed by [45], natural
ventilation was also implemented as an energy-saving strategy by changing the upper
windows from fixed to pivot. They discovered that natural ventilation does not provide
the best thermal comfort. For this reason, a cooling system was therefore incorporated.
Then, the comfort hours were increased to 35%. Implementing a dynamic external shad-
ing device was also studied in [46], where a 24% cooling energy saving was achieved.
In the study presented by A. Shandilya [47], after comparing different saving strate-
gies in a single-family house located in India, the results demonstrated that adding shad-
ing control and applying insulation to the walls and roof reduced the cooling energy de-
mand by 70%, even when keeping single-glazed windows. The floor insulation was not
included, as it decreased the comfort hours during the summer. Thus, it is important to
consider the most possible parameters to determine the best strategies.
Replacing windows was an energy-saving strategy adopted in [48], where they eval-
uated different options to find the right type of window (louvered windows, plenum win-
dows, or double-glazed and triple-glazed windows). According to the results, after eval-
uating life cycle cost, embodied energy, global warming potential (GWP), and energy use,
the option with the best energy performance was triple-glazed windows. Nevertheless,
considering the other indicators, the optimal choice was double-glazing windows because
of their GWP and embodied energy values, 532 MJ kg/m2 embodied energy and 101 kg/m2
CO2 embodied carbon, respectively. Equally, double-glazed windows reduced cooling en-
ergy consumption by 27%. In Sao Paulo, Brazil [49], researchers studied an office building
and performed a sensitivity analysis to select the proper value for each of the following
variables: the window opening effective area (WOEA), external shading angle, glazing
thermal properties (U-value and heat gain), and wall absorptance solar radiation. They
concluded that a double-glazed window with a U-value of 2.8 W/m2 was preferred, em-
ploying a light color for the external walls with an absorptance (𝛼) of 0.2, 93% WOEA, 45°
for the external shading device vertical shadow angle (VSA), and 37% glazing solar heat
gain. These improvements resulted in an energy saving from 8.7 kWh/m2 per year to 21.4
kWh/m2, depending on window orientation.
Window enhancement is important in achieving an efficient building. The authors of
[50] demonstrated that an existing window could join a new one, becoming a double-
glazed window. They developed a study in Singapore, where 8mm of sun energy grey
glazing type and solar control film were adapted to 10 mm of clear glazing (the previous
one installed). They were separated by 17 mm of air. This refurbishment reduced the U-
value from 5.649 to 1.998 W m−2 K−1, representing a 41.4% cooling energy saving. A study
developed by S. Sebayang [51] revealed a window improvement in an educational build-
ing in Singapore. They implemented a combination of new glazing properties and vertical
fins; the first reduced the overall thermal transfer value (OTTV) of the wall from 32.27
W/m2 to 29 W/m2, and the last produced 28.02 W/m2, where the OTTV was 26.23 W/m2.
The results showed that the joint implementation of both strategies decreased the indoor
air temperature by 0.835 °C.
Another investigation developed a similar study. Somasundaram et al. [52] adapted
a second glazing to an existing glazing. Nevertheless, this system did not work the same
way as the original double-glazed window; the authors suggested that this could be due
to the Window-to-Wall Ratio (WWR), which was only 8%. Despite this, the cooling energy
consumption was reduced by 5.9%. In [53], another study was carried out in which the
WWR was established at 20%, where 3% and 7.5% were achieved as annual energy
Buildings 2024, 14, 1633 12 of 32

consumption savings of air conditioning and total energy saving, respectively. Based on
these outcomes, a better result was achieved by implementing a greater WWR. In contrast,
Chandrasekaran et al. [46] demonstrated that for larger percentages such as 40%, 50%,
and 60%, energy savings are not positively correlated with the percentages. Their results
showed that for 40%, more energy is saved than a WWR of 50% and 60%, which was be-
cause of a higher heat input. For this reason, it was recommended that the WWR be main-
tained between 20% and 40%. Alwi et al. [54] determined that a 30% WWR exhibited better
performance, reducing solar gains by 6%. In [55], a parametric analysis found that having
32% of the façade as an opened surface was the optimal choice.
The window size or state (adapted to a shading system, opened, or closed) impacts
natural ventilation and heat input and influences daylighting entry. Consequently, there
must be a balance between all those variables to maintain an optimal comfort zone and
low energy demands. One solution that was presented is daylighting control, which es-
tablished a daylighting control to keep the illuminance level at 500 lux. This solution re-
duced artificial lighting use and limited heat gains, which positively influenced energy
cooling demand and total energy consumption. Using these saving strategies, the first one
resulted in a reduction of 20%, the second one in a decrease of 14.3%, and the WWRs
remained in the initial percentages (from 23% to 38%). These outcomes were better than
those provided by the other saving strategies studied, such as WWR in 20% (for all exter-
nal windows), which only resulted in 5.6% reductions [56].
In another study, controlled systems, such as catching data from sunlight, were used
to help achieve energy efficiency through dynamic façades, specifically, kinetic shading
devices (louvers), to avoid incremental solar heat gain. A single-glazed blue-tinted device
was used and was found to be the best case. The annual sunlight exposure decreased by
65% [57].
In the study by Gupta et al. [58], they added a green roof over an original roof, re-
flecting coating and bamboo-based shading systems. A parametric analysis was per-
formed to find the best materials. The results indicated that by applying those technolo-
gies, cooling energy savings were achieved by 18.5% to 23%. In addition, bamboo-based
shading devices helped to reduce greenhouse gas emissions because of their natural prop-
erties. It was demonstrated that these shading systems performed better than horizontal
window shading in tropical climates.
Phase change material (PCM) technology is an alternative to building retrofitting.
Based on [59], which analyzed different countries with tropical climates, PCMs are feasi-
ble for this climate type, given their influence on reducing energy consumption. The out-
comes showed an energy savings from 16.58% to 68.63%. Also, the authors emphasized
PCM layer thickness, which was positively correlated with energy saving. The investiga-
tion conducted in [60] proved this correlation through an analysis developed in a residen-
tial building located in Malaysia, in which they implemented Infinite R™ as the PCM ma-
terial. Three layers of thicknesses, 6 mm, 12 mm, and 18 mm, were tested and located in
the inner part of the external and internal walls; each one was evaluated with different
melting temperatures, from 27 °C to 30 °C, and solidification temperatures, in the range
of 26 °C to 29 °C. After analyzing each possible solution, the outcomes illustrated that the
best PCM combination corresponded to 27 °C for melting and 26 °C for the solidification
process. Implementing 18mm as the thickness of the layer, given the enhancement in the
thermal comfort, increased the thermal comfort time (TCT) to 78%. Furthermore, natural
ventilation improved performance because of the capacity to remove heat inside the room
on hot nights.
On the other hand, a study developed by M.J. Abden et al. [61] in Darwin, Australia,
showed slightly different results from the investigation reported in [60]. First, the PCM
was composed of form-stable PCM (FSPCM), implementing methyl stearate and diato-
mite. The thickness of FSPCM was 25 mm, and the melting temperature was 27 °C. The
FSPCM was joined with thermal insulation called expanded polystyrene (EPS) with a
thickness of 60 mm. These materials were incorporated below the wall and ceiling.
Buildings 2024, 14, 1633 13 of 32

According to the outcomes, this combination represented a major decrease in total energy
consumption by up to 10.3%, and the intensity of thermal discomfort was reduced by
22.1%. In this case, natural ventilation was ineffective because of tropical environmental
conditions. The investigation developed by Kameni et al. [62] in an office building in Mad-
agascar identified that adapting insulation below a wall improved thermal comfort; it also
resulted in around 12% and up to 10% in CO2 savings.
PCM was also studied in a residential building located in Darwin, Australia [63]. In
this case, n-octadecane combined with gypsum was adopted as the PCM with a 2cm thick-
ness. The result showed that the optimal melting temperature was 24 °C, achieving 7.6%
cooling load reduction and 4.76% total energy consumption. These outcomes differ
slightly from those of the previous study in Darwin, which may be due to the melting
temperature and thickness selected, as both were inferior to the values in the other article.
The authors also mentioned that an insulation material could help even more.
Most retrofit studies are developed through energy simulation software, and experi-
mental studies are less common. However, some of them were found in the literature re-
view. According to [64], a way to improve thermal comfort in tropical climates is employ-
ing roof covers with high-density polyethylene. Their results presented a reduction of 70–
88% in the convective heat flux, but they also mentioned that the roof covers did not per-
form as well as a mechanical ventilation method. Different roof envelope materials, such
as covers or insulators, can be used.
Adapting advanced technology to an existing installation to achieve energy efficiency
was used in the study by [65], in which the indoor air quality was improved through a
hybrid air treatment cooling system (HATCS). They developed an oxygen generation pro-
cess implementing water-splitting methods using solar energy. Consequently, ozone-
based treatment was produced to eliminate bacteria and viruses. Then, an air scrubbing
mechanism was applied to the HVAC system. This air treatment helped to avoid outdoor
air intake, thus reducing energy consumption by cooling load by 25%, which saved en-
ergy. Also, this strategy enhanced indoor air quality by up to 19%.

Use of Systems or Equipment with Greater Efficiency

According to Litardo et al. [56], considerable energy savings can be achieved by re-
placing obsolete equipment with more efficient equipment. In their investigation, it was
concluded that using the HVAC system proposed by the Energy Star program, which
meets the greatest efficiency standards, can provide 77.07 kWh/m2y.
In the study performed in [66], appliance replacement, such as lighting, air condi-
tioners, refrigerators, water heaters, clothes dryers, and washers, represented the most
feasible saving strategy, considering the LCC. This could be due to the continual usage of
these appliances, particularly the lighting and air conditioner, which achieved 83,640 kWh
and 498,486 kWh in energy reductions during its lifetime.

Renewable Energy System

E. Ohene et al. [67] conducted a study through parametric analysis employing simu-
lation software. Their study implemented retrofit strategies in a residential building lo-
cated in Ghana to achieve a net-zero energy building (NZEB). The researchers found that
passive strategies like taking advantage of daylight to reduce interior light, improving
natural ventilation, applying window overhangs, and minimizing infiltration reduced
heat gains effectively, and 48–58% energy savings were achieved. Those strategies helped
to reduce energy consumption, which initially was 137 kWh/m2y, whereas, after refur-
bishing, it was 68 kWh/m2y, which turned the building into an NZEB. Daylight is often
implemented as an energy-saving method; however, it is important to consider heat in-
puts. The study by Z. Amin et al. [60] achieved an NZEB after a building’s refurbishment
by implementing daylighting controls in an educational building in Ecuador. The photo-
voltaic (PV) system provided 66,590 kWh/y, and the energy consumption was only 48,498
kWh. The energy demand before refurbishment was 97,958 kWh/y. Thanks to the energy-
Buildings 2024, 14, 1633 14 of 32

saving strategies, an optimized PV system was installed. A similar method was also de-
veloped in a case study in Panama [68]. Nevertheless, the retrofit was performed after the
photovoltaic system installation because of the necessity of achieving an NZEB.
In [69], an NZEB was achieved after establishing saving strategies to decrease energy
consumption in an office building in India. Those strategies replaced the single-glazed
type with the double-glazed type, and insulation was applied to the walls and roof. Thus,
the U-value became 0.46. This photovoltaic system was installed on the rooftop and sup-
plied the whole building’s energy consumption.
Another application of PV systems is in replacing wall or roof envelopes; these tech-
nologies are called building-integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) curtain walls and BIPV mem-
brane roofs. Jhumka et al. [70] studied an office building retrofit in Mauritius, where BIPV
replaced the original roof and south façade. However, the study evaluated the heat trans-
fer through the new envelopes and showed that both systems, including a curtain wall
and membrane envelope, increased the heat transfer reverberating in the indoor air tem-
perature. For that reason, the BIPV membrane roof was insulated; this system reduced the
cooling load by 15% and represented 172% in energy savings, in contrast to the BIPV cur-
tain wall, which did not generate a great decrease in energy consumption.
A photovoltaic system can be installed considering some adjustments, such as imple-
menting plants beneath the system. This has been carried out to avoid rising temperatures,
thus increasing efficiency. C. Kaewpraek et al. [71] performed this application in a resi-
dential building in Thailand. According to the results of their investigation, a green roof-
top combined with a PV system improved the building’s energy performance and helped
reduce CO2 emissions. According to the study developed by [72], combining photovoltaic
systems with green roofs allowed a temperature reduction of the module, and this repre-
sented a module efficiency improvement of 3 to 11%.
Buildings 2024, 14, 1633 15 of 32

Table 5. Retrofit strategies in tropical climates.

Climate Type of Building Retrofit Strategies with the

City, Country Retrofit Purpose Retrofit Strategies Studied Year Ref.
Type Strategy Typology Best Performance

Phase change material—

Phase change material—thickness of 5
Bangalore, In- thickness of 5 cm to 40 cm
mm to 40 mm with an interval of 5 by 5
dia; Kolkata, Aw Passive Residential Reduce energy consumption with an interval of 5 by 5 and 2019 [59]
and melting temperature from 21 °C to
India; Tanzania melting temperature from 21
31 °C
°C to 31 °C
Bangalore, In- Wall insulation and photo-
Aw Passive Office NZEB Wall insulation and photovoltaic system 2023 [69]
dia voltaic system
Appliance improvement,
Appliance improvement, natural ventila-
Brasilia, Brazil Aw Passive Office Reduce energy consumption natural ventilation, thermal 2020 [73]
tion, thermal mass
mass

Roof cover, light color paint-

Roof cover, light color painting, shading
Reduce indoor air temperature ing, WWR increase, ceiling
Chennai, India Aw Passive Educational with trees, WWR increase, ceiling fan, re- 2023 [44]
and energy consumption fan, reflective glass, double
flective glass, double glazing
glazing

Fixed and dynamic external shading de- Dynamic external shading

Chennai, India Aw Passive Office Reduce energy consumption 2022 [46]
vice device

Phase change materials (form-stable

Darwin, Aus-
Aw Passive Residential Reduce energy consumption PCM) and expanded polystyrene, sepa- FSPCM and EPS combined 2022 [61]
tralia
rated and combined

Darwin, Aus- Low cooling demands and im- Phase change material (n-octadecane mi- Phase change material (n-oc-
Aw Passive Residential 2022 [63]
tralia proved thermal comfort croencapsulated) 1cm and 2cm thickness tadecane) 2 cm thickness
Buildings 2024, 14, 1633 16 of 32

Daylighting control, WWR reduction, so-

Ecuador Aw Passive Educational Reduce energy consumption lar shading, triple glazing, HVAC system Daylighting control 2021 [56]
replacement

Daylighting, envelope airtightness, sun

Ghana Aw Passive Residential NZEB shading, natural ventilation, building-ap- Photovoltaic system 2022 [67]
plied photovoltaics

Triple glazing, thermal enve-

Reduce energy consumption Triple glazing, thermal envelope insula-
India Aw Passive Residential lope insulation (roof and 2020 [47]
and improve thermal comfort tion (roof and walls)
walls)

Improve thermal comfort, re- New glazing properties and

Indonesia Af Passive Educational New glazing properties and vertical fins 2023 [51]
duce the indoor air temperature vertical fins

Double-glazed windows, WWR, temper- Double-glazed windows,

Indonesia Af Passive Office Low cooling demand 2023 [74]
ature set point WWR, temperature set point

Phase change material, adding insulation

Insulation and external shad-
Madagascar Af Passive Office Improve thermal comfort to walls and roof, solar protection, exter- 2020 [62]
ing
nal shading

Malaysia Af Passive Residential Provide thermal comfort Roof cover Roof Cover 2020 [64]

Malaysia Af Passive Residential Provide thermal comfort Phase change materials Phase change material 2021 [60]

Apply multi-criteria decision-

Louvered, plenum, double-glazed, and
Malaysia Af Passive Office making to select a type of win- Double-glazed window 2022 [48]
triple-glazed window
dow
Buildings 2024, 14, 1633 17 of 32

BIPV curtain wall and BIPV membrane

Mauritius Aw Passive Office Low cooling demands BIPV membrane roof 2023 [70]
roof
Reflecting coating for external walls and Reflecting coating for exter-
Mumbai, India Aw Passive Educational Reduce energy consumption 2022 [67]
green roof nal walls and green roof
Green roof, reflecting coat-
A green roof, reflecting coating, bamboo-
Mumbai, India Aw Passive Educational Low cooling demands ing, bamboo-based shading 2022 [58]
based shading device
device
Temperature setpoint, cool-
Temperature setpoint, cooling operation,
Panama Aw Passive Residential NZEB ing operation, occupancy, 2022 [75]
occupancy, wall insulation
wall insulation

Rio de Janeiro,
Aw Passive Office Improve thermal comfort Pivot windows Pivot windows 2021 [45]
Brazil

Rio de Janeiro, Thermal energy storage for chiller and Thermal energy storage for
Aw Active Residential NZEB 2021 [76]
Brazil demand limiting chiller and demand limiting

Overall, 93% of the opening

Window opening area, shading, glazing
Sao Paulo, Bra- area, 45° of external shading
Af Passive Office Low cooling demands properties (solar heat gain, U-value), wall 2020 [49]
zil angle, light color for wall, 2.8
absorptance
U-value

Low cooling demands and re-

Singapore Af Passive Office Doble glazing Double-glazed window 2019 [53]
duced energy consumption

Singapore Af Passive Office Low cooling demands Doble glazing Double-glazed window 2020 [52]

Adding a secondary glazing (lowE, Adding a secondary glazing

Singapore Af Passive Office Reduce energy consumption 2020 [50]
Sunenergy grey) (lowE, Sunenergy grey)

Appliance replacement, window replace-

Singapore Af Active Residential Reduce energy consumption Appliance replacement 2019 [66]
ment, window and wall retrofit
Buildings 2024, 14, 1633 18 of 32

Hybrid air treatment cooling

Singapore Af Active Office Reduce energy consumption Hybrid air treatment cooling system 2019 [65]
system
Buildings 2024, 14, 1633 19 of 32

3.2.2. Economic Metrics

Cost indicators are highly important in decision-making when evaluated based on
existing weights at a specific decision-making moment. The most prevalent is the life cycle
cost, defined in Section 3.2.4. On the other hand, based on the energy approach, an alter-
native method is to express the relationship between energy and cost. According to [66],
the Dynamic Generation Cost (DGC) is adapted to study the energy saving generated by
a specific strategy and consider its costs.
The DGC is calculated as shown in Equation (1):
𝐼 +𝐶
∑
1+𝑑
𝐷𝐺𝐶 = (1)
𝐸
∑
1+𝑑
where k represents the year evaluated, I is the investment cost, C is the lifetime cost, E
corresponds to the energy saving, and d is the depreciation.
Equation (2) should be considered when evaluating the relationship between the life
cycle cost and energy generation. The Levelized Cost of Energy considers CAPEX, which
is the capital expenditure; OM, which is the annual operating maintenance cost; FC, which
is the fuel cost; TC, which is the tax cost; and EG, which is the energy generation per year.
This indicator is employed when a generation system, such as a photovoltaic system, is
installed.
𝐶𝐴𝑃𝐸𝑋 + 𝑂𝑀 + 𝐹𝐶 + 𝑇𝐶
𝐿𝐶𝑂𝐸 = (2)
𝐸𝐺

3.2.3. Performance Metrics

Occupant behavior is an important variable to study in an energy-efficient assess-
ment because it can interfere with a building’s energy performance. Some occupants’ ac-
tions are often related to the HVAC system since they can manipulate the set point tem-
perature. In [56], the air conditioning temperature was fixed at 24 °C, after being 21–22 °C;
this change helped to improve energy savings.
When thermal comfort impacts occupant behavior, this indicator should be assessed,
similar to the study by Kameni et al. [62]. They found that integrating saving strategies
could help to reduce thermal discomfort. According to their results, after employing the
PCM strategy, the predicted mean vote (PMV) value was established from −0.21 to 1.08.
In the study developed by [47], this indicator helped to choose the energy-saving strate-
gies because thermal comfort was evaluated, and it was noticed that one strategy, which
recorded a great energy performance, negatively impacted thermal comfort during the
summer season. N. Ardiani et al. [74] showed that achieving low energy demand and ideal
thermal comfort may require several different energy-saving techniques; for this reason,
a thorough investigation is necessary.
After this literature review was developed, assessing the indicators employed by the
researchers was appropriate. These indicators are an important tool for measuring, mon-
itoring, and analyzing the behavior of the strategies or technologies applied. These de-
pend on the objective of the study. As shown before, the studies are oriented to decrease
cooling loads and energy consumption and increase thermal comfort. Thus, the main in-
dicators are kWh/m2 year and Energy Use Intensity (EUI).
Other variables need to be studied to achieve those objectives. Such is the case of heat
transfer analysis through the building envelope to evaluate a building’s thermal behavior,
given its influence on energy performance. Based on these studies, decision-makers can
take action accordingly. An important indicator is the Overall Thermal Transfer Variable
(OTTV) employed in [51].
Buildings 2024, 14, 1633 20 of 32

3.2.4. Retrofit Decision Approaches

Economic analyses are widely applied, given their ability to infer whether an alter-
native is profitable. LCC is an indicator implemented to evaluate each strategy available
and find the most economically feasible. This includes the capital cost and the cost gener-
ated by operation, maintenance, and transportation; in other words, all the costs related
to the project from its initial to its end.
LCC was analyzed in [48] and helped choose the correct option (type of window),
where the most energetically viable was not selected because of its high cost. This action
resulted in a 27% cost savings. LCC was also studied in the investigation by M.J. Abden
[61], and the option selected (a combination of EPS and FSPCM) had the highest cost.
Nevertheless, the payback period was appropriate (2.2 years), which is why, under this
consideration, this option was chosen. Moreover, CO2 savings were also considered in
Australia because of the carbon pricing that must be paid. In this case, the strategy chosen
represented 6.17 USD/m2 in environmental savings and 380.5 kg/m2 in the saving in CO2-
eq.

In [66], a cost analysis was performed focusing on cost–energy effectiveness through

the Dynamic Generation Cost (DGC) indicator, which takes into account the cost and the
energy-saving strategy in a respective year (USD/kWh). Thus, it was possible to recognize
the most feasible strategy. This tool helped to identify that window and roof replacement
resulted in cost-effectiveness that was greater than appliance replacement. A similar ap-
proach was developed in [67]. However, they considered energy generation through the
Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE), which was studied to define energy generation costs.
The LCOE considers capital expenditure, operating maintenance costs, fuel costs, tax
costs, and energy generation per year. They achieve 0.125 USD/kWh as the LCOE value,
the lowest energy tariff established in Ghana. The payback period is an important indica-
tor that refers to the time it takes to recover the investment. In the case of Ghana, it was 6
to 10 years. Based on the outcomes, it was found that installing PV systems was feasible.
Economic analysis is important since there are different ways to develop an energy-
saving strategy. For example, a low-cost house can reduce its energy consumption, cool-
ing demand, or internal heat gains with a low-cost strategy. In the case of [64], implement-
ing a roof cover as a low-cost technology improved thermal comfort (acceptability of 80%).
Based on this literature review, there is a decision-making process in most cases to
find the correct energy-saving method. An important comparison between every criterion
must be made to carry out the decision-making process. A technique often used is para-
metric analysis. To perform such an analysis, different simulation software is required.
One is the Grasshopper plugin in Rhinoceros software, which uses some plug-ins, such as
Ladybug and Honeybee. The first deals with meteorological data and the second relates
to different software and develops parametric analysis. Another often-used simulation
tool is DesignBuilder simulation software, an EnergyPlus interface where parametric anal-
ysis is possible. In addition to performing a parametric analysis, a study of phase change
material is also recommended [60].
There is an additional decision-making tool that requires a more involved procedure.
This is multi-criteria decision-making, which corresponds to a method that evaluates
more than two criteria, and the most significant variable is given priority in the decision
process. Based on the results, the best energy-saving strategy is selected accordingly. This
methodology was carried out in [48], where a survey was applied to define the priority
order of the considered criteria, assigning a specific weight to each one. In this case, some
professionals were considered for the task. The authors identified four factors to be eval-
uated as follows: GWP, which refers to the energy stored by a specific gas for long periods;
LCC, which refers to embodied energy; and operational energy. According to the results,
GWP took the first position, followed by LCC, and the operational and embodied energy
were in third and fourth place. Finally, after considering all the criteria, the double-glazed
windows performed the best. It is worth noting that, concerning the authors, academic
Buildings 2024, 14, 1633 21 of 32

professionals prioritize environmental aspects, and the economic field has greater im-
portance for construction professionals.
Multi-criteria decision-making has a subcategory called multi-objective decision-
making; the latter was considered in [75] to reduce energy consumption, meet an optimal
thermal comfort level, and decrease energy and refurbishment costs. In that study, a sen-
sitivity analysis was performed to identify the variables strongly associated with those
objectives. After the analysis, the occupancy hours, external wall construction, and cooling
set point temperature were identified as the most correlated variables. Those variables
were studied and modified to reach the objectives.
An alternative to a decision-making process was used in [66], where a metamodel
was developed that did not require a complex simulation. For this, a Bayesian model
based on the Gaussian Process (GP) was performed. A Bayesian model and the GP work
together because the latter generates a specific output, which usually depends on variables
that can integrate an unknown value, which the Bayesian model will estimate. In this case,
the GP was used to identify the energy consumption before and after a retrofit, which
depended on air temperature and other variables that were considered. The Bayesian
model was required to define the unknown variables and develop the calibration model,
for instance, the infiltration rate. A cost-energy effectiveness analysis was integrated into
this model to establish a saving strategy ranking given in USD/kWh. The lowest value
generated in that analysis corresponded to the best strategy. In this case, the appliance
was replaced over the roof, and the window and wall were substituted.

4. Discussion
This study aimed to focus on the tropical climate. According to the Köppen climate
classification, this research revealed that Af (Tropical Rainforest Climate) and Aw (Tropi-
cal Savanna Climate) were the most prevalent categories. For Af climates, the primary
focus of the reviewed studies was office buildings, followed by residential structures, with
educational buildings being the least studied, as shown in Figure 8. In Aw climates, resi-
dential buildings were the primary focus, followed by office facilities and educational
structures, which were also analyzed. This is important since different tropical climates
exist, leading to the implementation of different strategies that may not be interchangea-
ble. For instance, there are regions with high humidity with low temperatures and high
humidity with high temperatures with the same solar radiation intensity. Thus, highlight-
ing the climate type can help to choose better strategies.
This literature review focused on nations characterized by tropical and humid cli-
mates. Figure 9 illustrates the studies that discussed retrofit strategies in each region. The
figure illustrates the frequency at which each study was presented in various countries.
The leading region is the Asia continent (India, Singapore, Malaysia, and Indonesia), fol-
lowed by Latin America (Brazil, Ecuador, and Panama), the African continent (Mauritius,
Madagascar, and Ghana), and the Oceania continent (Australia). This helps us understand
the efforts currently being made towards studying energy-based building retrofits.
In this study, it was determined that the country within the tropical sector with the
most studies was India, specifically the cities of Bangalore, Chennai, and Mumbai. Next
was Singapore. In the Americas region, the tropical countries found were Brazil, Panama,
and Ecuador (Figure 9).
Buildings 2024, 14, 1633 22 of 32

Figure 8. Building types presented in the studies found.

Figure 9. Countries represented in the studies found.

Different purposes were found for carrying out a retrofit analysis, and it was deter-
mined that the main reason was to achieve energy savings, followed by savings directly
in cooling demand since it is widely used given climatic conditions. Some studies consid-
ered thermal comfort and achieving a net-zero energy building (NZEB) (Figure 10).
Buildings 2024, 14, 1633 23 of 32

Figure 10. Purposes of energy retrofits.

Moreover, passive strategies remained crucial in office buildings within both climate
types. Residential buildings implemented a mix of passive and active strategies, while
educational buildings mostly relied on passive strategies and predominantly imple-
mented passive approaches.
The reviewed research utilized three classification approaches including simulation,
experimental, and in situ measures. Most studies utilized simulation approaches, espe-
cially for passive strategies. Some studies incorporated in situ measures, such as imple-
menting changes to enhance building performance without structural alterations, while
only one study used experimental approaches (Table A1).
Although the simulation approach was efficient in experimental validation and
achieving better results, an emerging trend showed some studies applied in situ measures.
This area presents a potential for further exploration, with resource availability influenc-
ing a shift towards more in situ approaches than experimental ones because it provides
insights directly relevant to real-life situations and circumstances. Such insights are inval-
uable for guiding decision-making across industries, governments, and other practical do-
mains and the impact of scientific research.
Various retrofit strategies were applied in residential and office buildings, including
phase change materials, roof cover, daylight control, and WWR. Educational buildings
did not implement phase change material strategies; instead, educational buildings fo-
cused on HVAC system replacement, shading devices, and shading with trees, while office
buildings predominantly used wall insulation and photovoltaic strategies. Similarly, sev-
eral strategies were applied in office buildings, including glazing enhancements, insula-
tion additions, solar protection, shading devices, and advanced window technologies.
Several authors [77] proposed solutions to reduce material consumption in residential
buildings. However, there is a notable absence of retrofit strategies for office and educa-
tional buildings compared with other types of structures, indicating a potential area for
application. Authors such as [78] advocate for an active strategy involving PV (photovol-
taic), defined as bidirectional reflectance PV (BRPV), to address this gap. They evaluated
its performance in a school building, which saw an increase in efficiency from 34.1% to
65.8%. Additionally, Historical or Heritage Buildings and institutional structures should
be studied more.
Within the strategies with the best performance, the following were found: air con-
ditioning (AC) set point, appliance replacement with more efficient ones, cooling operat-
ing schedule daylighting control and solar protection for windows, double and triple glaz-
ing, envelope insulation (which involves wall insulation, roof insulation), HVAC system
improvement, natural ventilation, phase change material (PCMs), photovoltaic (PV) sys-
tems, and Window-to-Wall ratio improvement, keeping it in the optimal range (20–40%)
Buildings 2024, 14, 1633 24 of 32

according to the literature [46]. According to the outcomes, envelope insulation (for win-
dows, walls, or roofs) corresponds to the most common strategy with the best result in
terms of energy saving, as shown in Figure 11. Natural ventilation was barely studied;
however, the conclusion of the few investigations suggests that natural ventilation is not
enough to provide optimal thermal comfort by itself. Despite passive strategies such as
envelope insulation or ventilation, some authors pointed out that excessive envelope in-
sulation combined with insufficient ventilation are primary factors contributing to fungal
growth in energy-efficient buildings [79].

Figure 11. Strategies with the best performance within the studies found.

Most studies did not present specific cost analyses for retrofit strategies, with a few
studies offering global value ranges, indicating a need for baseline values according to
climate types. Higher upfront costs were highlighted as a challenge in retrofit techniques
[77]. Additionally, the cost-optimal methodology should undergo cost-optimal calcula-
tions every five years to validate and subsequently revise existing national requirements.
The examination of Member States’ advancements in implementing this methodology
suggests an overall positive trend in development [80].
Passive strategies have been widely used, yet it is evident that these strategies are not
universally applicable across different building types. This highlights the opportunity to
categorize and implement measures specific to each building type, thus improving strat-
egies customized for specific building types. Educational and office buildings have yet to
be studied, thus representing further research opportunities. Combined measures could
enhance the cost-effectiveness of building energy retrofits. A study provided a practical
framework for decision-making on energy retrofits, emphasizing the importance of com-
prehensive guidelines for city renewal, particularly in institutional buildings [81].
Compared with a wider range of retrofit studies and experiences in other climates,
the literature indicated insufficient guidance and information on existing housing stock in
the U.K. to support realistic plans for reducing carbon emissions [82]. Retrofit measures
primarily focused on building envelopes, HVAC systems, lighting, and photovoltaic sys-
tems. Financial barriers, lack of standards, and regulatory support were key challenges in
evaluating retrofit measures [83].
Other technical approaches to energy-efficient building retrofits included law regu-
lation, financial incentives, and practical considerations (performance-based architectural
Buildings 2024, 14, 1633 25 of 32

design) [84]. The current mandatory building energy regulations in certain regions (e.g.,
the hot summer–cold winter region of China) were deemed insufficient to achieve signif-
icantly lower carbon emissions, suggesting the need for more ambitious regulations [85].
Opportunities for achieving nearly zero-energy buildings (nZEB) and enhancing energy
efficiency in tropical climates were highlighted as part of the retrofit opportunities [86].

5. Conclusions
This research extensively reviewed and synthesized the existing literature on retro-
fitting strategies for buildings in tropical and humid climates. The main aim was to outline
efficient approaches to improving energy efficiency, thermal comfort, and the overall per-
formance of buildings in these geographic zones.
This study examined tropical climates, emphasizing Af (Tropical Rainforest Climate)
and Aw (Tropical Savanna Climate) as the primary categories according to the Köppen
climate classification. Across these classifications, this research highlighted varying fo-
cuses, revealing a bias towards office buildings in Af climates, whereas Aw climates
strongly emphasized residential structures.
In office buildings in both climate types, passive strategies retained paramount im-
portance. Conversely, a mix of passive and active approaches was employed in residential
buildings, while the approaches in educational structures leaned towards passive strate-
gies. This study reviewed three classification methodologies including simulation, exper-
imental, and in situ measures, with simulation predominantly used, particularly for pas-
sive strategies. An intriguing emerging trend showed the budding application of in situ
measures, hinting at potential exploration avenues.
Retrofit strategies varied significantly across building types, with offices leading in
strategy implementation and residences and educational buildings, where strategies were
relatively scant. Notably, educational structures lacked retrofit strategies compared with
other building types, illuminating an area for extensive study and potential application.
The absence of specific cost values for retrofit strategies underscored the need for baseline
values, with high initial costs identified as a significant challenge in retrofit techniques.
In conclusion, research into retrofitting buildings in tropical and humid climates has
primarily emphasized passive strategies. However, there is a noticeable gap in integrating
active methods or blending both approaches, particularly in educational buildings. This
highlights promising opportunities for further exploration and advancement. Utilizing a
combination of measures could significantly enhance the cost-effectiveness of building
energy retrofits, emphasizing the importance of comprehensive guidelines, especially in
institutional buildings. The literature reveals significant shortcomings in guidance for re-
ducing carbon emissions, indicating a pressing need for more ambitious regulations. This
underscores the potential for achieving nearly zero-energy buildings and improving en-
ergy efficiency in tropical climates through retrofit opportunities.

Author Contributions: Original concept, formal analysis, data curation, and writing—review and
editing, K.C.-C., J.G., and M.C.A. Investigation, methodology, and writing of most of this manu-
script, K.C.-C. and J.G. Project administration, M.C.A. and D.M. Supervision and funding acquisi-
tion, M.C.A., C.C., D.M., and N.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the
manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Panamanian Institution Secretaría Nacional de Ciencia,
Tecnología e Innovación SENACYT (https://www.senacyt.gob.pa/, accessed on 30 December 2023),
under the project code IDDS22-30, and supported by the Sistema Nacional de Investigación (SNI).
Data Availability Statement: All data supporting the reported results are included in this paper.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank the Technological University of Panama and
the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering (https://fim.utp.ac.pa/, accessed on 30 December 2023) for
their collaboration, along with the Research Group ECEB. Special thanks is also given to the Depart-
ment of Mechanical, Energy and Management Engineering (DIMEG,
Buildings 2024, 14, 1633 26 of 32

https://www2.unical.it/portale/strutture/dipartimenti_240/dimeg/, accessed on 30 December 2023),

University of Calabria (UNICAL, https://www2.unical.it/portale/, accessed on 30 December 2023).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The funders had no role in the
design of this study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of this man-
uscript; or in the decision to publish the results.

Abbreviations

Acronym Definition
AC air conditioning
Af Tropical Rainforest Climate
Aw Tropical Savanna Climate
BIPV building-integrated photovoltaic
BRPV bidirectional reflectance PV
CAPEX capital expenditure
CBA Cost–Benefit Analysis
DGC Dynamic Generation Cost
EG energy generation
EPBD Energy Performance of Buildings Directive
EPS expanded polystyrene
EUI Energy Use Intensity
FC fuel cost
FSPCM form stable PCM
GHG greenhouse gas
GP Gaussian Process
GWP global warming potential
HATCS hybrid air treatment cooling system
HVAC heating, ventilation, and air conditioning.
IEA International Energy Agency
LCC life cycle cost
LCOE Levelized Cost of Energy
Mtoe megatonne oil equivalent
NZEB net-zero energy building
nZEB nearly zero energy building
OM operating maintenance
OTTV overall thermal transfer value
PCMs phase change materials
PMV predicted mean vote
PV photovoltaic
TC tax cost
TCT thermal comfort time
VSA vertical shadow angle (VSA)
WOEA window opening effective area
WWR Window-to-Wall Ratio

Appendix A
Table A1 displays information on countries, climates, project types, building types,
costs, energy generation, and U-values, particularly focusing on studies that applied ret-
rofit strategies.
Buildings 2024, 14, 1633 27 of 32

Table A1. Type of project and economics studies in tropical climate.

Energy U (W m−2 K−1) U (W m−2 K−1)

Cli- Genera- Year Ref.
Type of Building Type of Conventional or Original Improved
City, Country mate Cost tion
Strategy Typology Project Win- Ti- Roo Glaz Win- Ti- Roo Glaz
Type kWh/m2 Walls Walls
y dows tles f ing dows tles f ing
Bamako, Mali;
Bangalore, In-
dia; Kolkata, In- Aw Passive Residential Simulation - - - - - - - - - - - - 2019 [59]
dia; Dar es Sa-
laam, Tanzania
Bangalore, India Aw Passive Office Simulation - 108.02 0.46 - - - 0.46 - - - - 2023 [69]
Chennai, India Aw Passive Educational Simulation - - 2.13 5.77 3.20 - - 0.85 3 0.20 - - 2023 [44]
64
Chennai, India Aw Passive Office Simulation - - - - - - - - - - - 2022 [46]
USD/m2
Darwin, Aus- 106
Aw Passive Residential Simulation - - - - - - - - - - - 2022 [61]
tralia USD/m2
Darwin, Aus-
Aw Passive Residential Simulation - - - - - - - - - - - - 2022 [63]
tralia
USD
Ecuador Aw Passive Educational Simulation 61.65 - - - - - - - - - - 2021 [56]
3200
USD 68.4-
Ghana Aw Passive Residential Simulation - - - - - - - - - - 2022 [67]
6,484.53 78.43
Indonesia Af Passive Educational Simulation - - 3.56 5.6 - - - - - 2023 [51]
Indonesia Af Passive Educational - - - - - - - - - - - - 2020 [55]
Madagascar Af Passive Office Simulation - - 2.62 2.01 - - - - - 2020 [62]
In situ 3.6
Malaysia Af Passive Residential - - - - - - - - - - - 2020 [64]
measures USD/m2
Malaysia Af Passive Residential Simulation 1.3. 6.12 - - - - - 2021 [60]
79.70
Malaysia Af Passive Office Simulation - 7.3 - 2.1 - - - 2022 [48]
USD/m2
2.2.0
Mauritius Aw Passive Office Simulation - - - - - 2023 [70]
4
Mumbai, India Aw Passive Educational Simulation - - 2.85 2.36 2.86 - - - - - 2022 [67]
Mumbai, India Aw Passive Educational Simulation - - 2.85 2.36 2.85 0.1 0.5 0.1 - 2022 [58]
Panamá Passive Residential Simulation 330.87 - - - - - - - - - - 2022 [68]
Rio de Janeiro,
Aw Passive Office Simulation - - - - - - - - - - - - 2021 [45]
Brazil
Buildings 2024, 14, 1633 28 of 32

Sao Paulo, Brazil Af Active Office Simulation - - 2.38 5.8 - - - 2.8 2.8 - - - 2020 [49]
Singapore Af Passive Office Simulation - 4.8 - - - - - - 4.1 - 2019 [78]
In situ
Singapore Af Passive Office - - - 4.96 - - - - 4.1 - - - 2020 [52]
measures
Simulation
Singapore Af Active Office and in situ - - - 5.649 - - - - 1.998 - - - 2020 [50]
measures
Singapore Af Active Residential Simulation - - - - - - - - - - - - 2019 [66]
Experi-
Singapore; Mi-
mental
ami, USA; Dar- Af Active Office - - - - - - - - - - - - 2019 [65]
and simu-
win, Australia
lation
Buildings 2024, 14, 1633 29 of 32

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