ELECTROMECHANICAL

ENERGY CONVERSION
Online Lecture-2

Nedim TUTKUN, PhD, MIEEE

[email protected]

Istanbul Ticaret University

Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
Maltepe, Istanbul-Turkey
1
 Magnetic Behavior of Ferromagnetic Materials
Magnetic permeability was defined by

𝑩 = 𝜇𝑯

It was explained that the permeability of ferromagnetic

materials is very high, up to 6000 times the permeability
of free space. The permeability was assumed to be
constant regardless of the magnetomotive force applied
to the material throughout the study of this subject.

It should be emphasized that although permeability is

constant in free space, this is not true for iron and other
ferromagnetic materials in practice.
2
 Magnetic Behavior of Ferromagnetic Materials
To illustrate the behavior of Φ Saturation region
magnetic permeability in a
ferromagnetic material,
apply a direct current to the
core, starting with zero-
amperes and slowly working
up to the maximum
permissible current. When Linear region
the flux produced in the core
is plotted versus the
magnetomotive force, we
get the graph shown. ℱ
Sketch of a dc magnetization curve for
a ferromagnetic core.
3
Magnetic Behavior of Ferromagnetic Materials

A simple magnetic core.

4
 Magnetic Behavior of Ferromagnetic Materials
Another closely related plot 𝐵 Saturation region
is shown is a plot of
magnetic flux density B
versus magnetizing intensity
H.

𝑁𝑖 ℱ
𝐻= = Linear region
𝑙𝑐 𝑙𝑐

Φ = 𝐵𝐴 B-H or magnetization curve

𝐻
The magnetization curve
expressed in terms of flux density and
magnetizing intensity. 5
Magnetic Behavior of Ferromagnetic Materials

A detailed magnetization curve for a typical piece of steel. 6

Magnetic Behavior of Ferromagnetic Materials

Relative permeability μr as a function of magnetizing intensity H for a

typical piece of steel. 7
Example-1: Finding total
flux

8
 Magnetic Circuits
Example 1: A ferromagnetic core is shown in the figure
below. Three sides of this core are uniform width, while the
fourth side is somewhat thinner. The depth of the core (into
the page) is 10 cm, and the other dimensions are shown in
the figure. There is a 200-turn coil wrapped around the left
side of the core. Assuming relative permeability of 2500
and the current in the coil is 1 A.

a) Determine the equivalent reluctance of the core.

b) Find the flux produced in the core.
c) Calculate the flux density in the first region of the core.
d) Calculate the magnetic field intensity in the second
region of the core.

9
 (2) (1)

(b)

(a)

Figure 1 (a) The ferromagnetic core of Example 1.

(b) The magnetic circuit corresponding to (a). 10
 Magnetic Circuits
Solution:
We will solve this problem by hand to find the answer.
Three sides of the core have the same cross-sectional
areas, while the fourth side has a different area. Thus, the
core can be divided into two regions: (1) the single thinner
side and (2) the other three sides taken together. The
magnetic circuit corresponding to this core is shown in the
figure.
a) The mean flux path for the first region 𝑙1 is 45 cm, and
the cross-sectional area is A1 = 10 × 10 𝑐𝑚 = 100 𝑐𝑚2 .
The mean flux path for the second region 𝑙2 is 130 cm,
and the cross-sectional area is A2 = 15 × 10 𝑐𝑚 =
150 𝑐𝑚2.

11
 Magnetic Circuits
Therefore, the reluctance in the first region is
𝑙1 𝑙1 0.45
ℛ1 = = =
𝜇1 𝐴1 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐴1 2500 4𝜋 × 10−7 0.01

ℛ1 = 14324 1/H or Ampere − turns/Wb

The reluctance in the second region is

𝑙2 𝑙2 1.3
ℛ2 = = =
𝜇2 𝐴2 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐴2 2500 4𝜋 × 10−7 0.015

ℛ2 = 27587 1/H or Ampere − turns/Wb

12
 Magnetic Circuits
Therefore, the total reluctance in the core is
ℛ𝑒𝑞 = ℛ1 + ℛ2 = 14324 + 27587 = 41911 𝐴 ∙ 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠/𝑊𝑏

b) The total magnetomotive force is

ℱ= 𝑁𝑖 = 200 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 1 𝐴 = 200 𝐴 ∙ 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠

The total flux in the core is given by

ℱ 200 𝐴 ∙ 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
Φ= = = 0.0048 𝑊𝑏 = 4.8 𝑚𝑊𝑏
ℛ 41911 𝐴 ∙ 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠/𝑊𝑏

13
 Magnetic Circuits
c) The flux density in the first region of the core is
Φ 0.0048
𝐵1 = = = 0.4772 𝑇 𝑜𝑟 𝑊𝑏/𝑚2
𝐴1 0.01

d) The field intensity or magnetic field strength in the

second region of the core is
Φ 0.0048
𝐵2 = = = 0.3181 𝑇
𝐴2 0.015

𝐵2 0.3181
𝐻2 = = −7
= 101.2658 𝐴/𝑚
𝜇 2500(4𝜋 × 10 )

14
Example-2: Finding
magnetic circuit parameters
in the core with air gap

15
 Magnetic Circuits
Example 2: The figure shows a ferromagnetic core whose
mean path length is 40 cm. There is a small gap of 0.05
cm in the structure of the core. The cross-sectional area of
the core is 12 cm2, the relative permeability of the core is
4000, and the coil of wire on the core has 400 turns.
Assume that fringing in the air gap increases the effective
cross-sectional area of the air gap by 5 percent.
a) Find the total reluctance of the magnetic core with the
air gap.
b) Determine the flux in the total core.
c) Calculate the current required to produce a flux density
of 0.5 T in the air gap.
d) Determine the field intensity in the core.
16
 Magnetic Circuits

(a) The ferromagnetic core of Example 2. (b) The magnetic circuit corresponding to (a).

17
 Magnetic Circuits
Solution:
(a)

The reluctance of the core is

𝑙𝑐 40 × 10−2
ℛ𝑐 = = −7 −4
= 66315 1/𝐻
𝜇𝑐 𝐴𝑐 (4000)(4𝜋 × 10 )(12 × 10 )
The reluctance of the air gap is

𝑙𝑔 0.05 × 10−2
ℛ𝑔 = = −7 −4
= 315780 1/𝐻
𝜇𝑔 𝐴𝑔 (4𝜋 × 10 )(1.05 × 12 × 10 )

ℛ𝑒𝑞 = ℛ𝑐 + ℛ𝑔 = 66315 + 315780 = 382100 1/𝐻

18
 Magnetic Circuits
b) Magnetic flux in the air gap is
𝑁𝑖
Φ= = 𝐵𝑔 𝐴𝑔 = 0.5 1.05 × 12 × 10−4 = 0.63 𝑚𝑊𝑏
ℛ𝑒𝑞
c) The required current to obtain flux density of 0.5 T in the
air gap is
Φℛ𝑒𝑞 6.3 × 10−4 × 38210000
𝑖= = = 0.618 𝐴
𝑁 400
d) The field intensity in the core is
𝐵𝑐 Φ/𝐴𝑐 6.3 × 10−4 /12 × 10−4
𝐻𝑐 = = = −7
= 104.4454 𝐴/𝑚
𝜇𝑐 𝜇𝑐 (4000)(4𝜋 × 10 )

19
 Magnetic Circuits
Example 3: The figure shows a simplified rotor and stator
for a dc motor. The mean path length of the stator is 50
cm, and its cross-sectional area is 12 cm2. The mean path
length of the rotor is 5 cm, and its cross-sectional area
also may be assumed to be 12 cm2. Each air gap between
the rotor and the stator is 0.05 cm wide, and the cross-
sectional area of each air gap (including fringing) is 14
cm2. The iron of the core has a relative permeability of
2000, and there are 200 turns of wire on the core.
a) What will the resulting flux density in the air gaps be if
the current in the wire is adjusted to be 1 A?
b) What is the current in the wire to make the resulting flux
density in the air gaps 1 T?

20
 Magnetic Circuits

Figure 3 (a) A simplified diagram of a rotor and stator for a dc motor. (b) The magnetic
circuit corresponding to (a).
21
 Magnetic Circuits
Solution:
a) The magnetic circuit corresponding to this machine is
shown in the figure below. Magnetic reluctance of the stator
flux path is
𝑙𝑠 50 × 10−2
ℛ𝑠 = = −7 −4
= 165790 1/𝐻
𝜇𝑠 𝐴𝑠 (2000)(4𝜋 × 10 )(12 × 10 )
Magnetic reluctance of the rotor flux path is
𝑙𝑟 5 × 10−2
ℛ𝑟 = = −7 −4
= 16579 1/𝐻
𝜇𝑟 𝐴𝑟 (2000)(4𝜋 × 10 )(12 × 10 )
Magnetic reluctance of the rotor flux path is
𝑙𝑔 0.05 × 10−2
ℛ𝑔 = = −7 −4
= 165.79 1/𝐻
𝜇𝑔 𝐴𝑔 (1)(4𝜋 × 10 )(14 × 10 )
22
 Magnetic Circuits
The total reluctance of the flux path is
ℛ𝑒𝑞 = ℛ𝑠 + ℛ𝑟 + 2ℛ𝑔 = 165790 + 16579 + 2 × 284210
ℛ𝑒𝑞 = 750780 1/𝐻
The net magnetomotive force applied to the core is
ℱ = 𝑁𝑖 = 200 × 1 𝐴 = 200 𝐴 ∙ 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
The magnetic flux folowing through the core is

ℱ 200
Φ= = = 0.000266 = 0.266 𝑚𝑊𝑏
ℛ𝑒𝑞 750780

23
 Magnetic Circuits
Finally, the magnetic flux density in the motor’s air gap is

Φ 0.000266
𝐵𝑔 = = = 0.19 𝑇
𝐴𝑔 0.0014

b) The magnetic flux in the motor’s air gap is

Φ = 𝐵𝑔 𝐴𝑔 = 1 × 14 × 10−4 = 1.4 𝑚𝑊𝑏

ℱ Ni Φℛ𝑒𝑞 1.4 × 10−3 × 750780

Φ= = ⇒𝑖= =
ℛ𝑒𝑞 ℛ𝑒𝑞 𝑁 200

𝑖 = 5.2554 𝐴
24
Example-4: Finding releative
permeability

25
Magnetic Circuits

Example 4: Find the relative permeability of the typical

ferromagnetic material whose magnetization curve is given
for
(a) H=50, (b) H=100, (c) H=500, and
(d) H=1000 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠. 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 /𝑚
Solution: The permeability of a material is given by
𝐻 = 𝐵/𝜇
and the relative permeability is given by

𝜇
𝜇𝑟 =
𝜇0

26
Magnetic Behavior of Ferromagnetic Materials

A detailed magnetization curve for a typical piece of steel. 27

Magnetic Circuits

Thus, it is easy to determine the permeability at any given

magnetizing intensity

a) 𝐻 = 50 𝐴 ∙ 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠/𝑚, 𝐵 = 0.25 𝑇 so
and the relative permeability is given by

𝐵 0.25
𝜇= = = 0.005 𝐻/𝑚
𝐻 50

𝜇 0.0050
𝜇𝑟 = = −7
= 3980
𝜇0 4𝜋 × 10

28
Magnetic Circuits

b) 𝐻 = 100 𝐴 ∙ 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠/𝑚, 𝐵 = 0.72 𝑇 so

𝐵 0.72
𝜇= = = 0.0072 𝐻/𝑚
𝐻 100
𝜇 0.0072
𝜇𝑟 = = −7
= 5730
𝜇0 4𝜋 × 10
c) 𝐻 = 500 𝐴 ∙ 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠/𝑚, 𝐵 = 1.40 𝑇 so

𝐵 1.40
𝜇= = = 0.0028 𝐻/𝑚
𝐻 500
𝜇 0.0028
𝜇𝑟 = = −7
= 2230
𝜇0 4𝜋 × 10
29
Magnetic Circuits

d) 𝐻 = 1000 𝐴 ∙ 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠/𝑚, 𝐵 = 1.51 𝑇 so

𝐵 1.51
𝜇= = = 0.00151 𝐻/𝑚
𝐻 1000

𝜇 0.00151
𝜇𝑟 = = −7
= 1200
𝜇0 4𝜋 × 10

30
Magnetic Circuits

Notice that as the magnetizing intensity is increased, the

relative permeability first increases and then starts to drop
off. The relative permeability of a typical ferromagnetic
material as a function of the magnetizing intensity as shown
in the figure. This shape is fairly typical of all ferromagnetic
materials. It can easily be seen from the curve for μr versus
H that the assumption of constant relative permeability
made in Examples 1 to 3 is valid only over a relatively
narrow range of magnetizing intensities.
In the following example, the relative permeability is not
assumed to be constant. Instead, the relationship between B
and H is given by a graph.

31
Example-5: Finding flux and
reluctance

32
Magnetic Circuits

Example 5: A square magnetic core has a mean path

length of 55 cm and a crosssectional area of 150 cm2. A
200-turn coil of wire is wrapped around one leg of the
core. The core is made of a material having the
magnetization curve shown in the figure.

(a) How much current is required to produce 12 mWb of

flux in the core?
(b) What is the core’s relative permeability at that current
level?
(c) What is its reluctance?

33
Magnetic Circuits

A square magnetic core for Example 5.

34
Magnetic Behavior of Ferromagnetic Materials

A detailed magnetization curve for a typical piece of steel.

35
Magnetic Circuits

Solution:
(a) The required flux density in the core is
Φ 0.012
𝐵= = = 0.8 𝑇
𝐴 0.015
From the relavant figure, the required magnetizing
intensity is H= 115 A∙turns/m. The magnetomotive force
needed to produce this magnetizing intensity is
ℱ = 𝑁𝑖 = 𝐻𝑙𝑐 = 115 × 0.55 = 63.25 𝐴 ∙ 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
so the required current is
ℱ 63.25
𝑖= = = 0.316 𝐴
𝑁 200
36
Magnetic Circuits

(b) The core’s permeability at this current is

𝐵 0.8
𝜇= = = 0.00696 𝐻/𝑚
𝐻 115

Therefore, the relative permeability is

𝜇 0.00696
𝜇𝑟 = = −7
= 5540
𝜇0 4𝜋 × 10

(c) The reluctance of the core is

ℱ 63.25
ℛ= = = 5270 𝐴 ∙ 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠/𝑊𝑏
𝜙 0.012

37
Energy Losses in Magnetic
Materials

38
Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core

Applying an alternating As the current increases for the first

current to the windings time, the flux in the core traces out
on the core is shown path ab as seen in the figure below.
below. Assume that
the flux in the core is
initially zero.

An alternating current to the The hysteresis loop traced out by the flux in
windings on the core. a core when the current i(t) is applied to it.
39
Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core

This is basically the

saturation curve. However,
when the current falls
again, the flux traces out a
different path from the one
it followed. As the current
decreases, the flux in the
core traces out path bcd,
and later when the current
increases again, the flux
traces out path deb.

40
Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core

The amount of flux present in

the core depends not only on
the amount of current applied
to the windings of the core, but
also on the previous history of
the flux in the core. This
dependence on the preceding
flux history and the resulting
failure to retrace flux paths is
called hysteresis. Path bcdeb
traced out as the applied The hysteresis loop traced out by the
flux in a core when the current i(t) is
current changes is called a applied to it.
hysteresis loop.

41
Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core

If a large magnetomotive
force is first applied to the
core and then removed,
the flux path in the core
will be abc. When the
magnetomotive force is
removed, the flux in the
core does not go to zero.
Instead, a magnetic field
is left in the core. The hysteresis loop traced out by the
This magnetic field is flux in a core when the current i(t) is
applied to it.
called the residual flux in
the core.

42
Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core

Permanent magnets are

produced precisely in this
manner. To force the flux to
zero, an amount of
magnetomotive force known as
the coercive magnetomotive
force ℱ𝑐 must be applied to the
core in the opposite direction.
The hysteresis loop traced out by the
flux in a core when the current i(t) is
applied to it.

43
Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core

To understand the behavior

of ferromagnetic materials,
it is necessary to know
something about their
structure. The atoms of
iron and similar metals
tend to have their magnetic
fields closely aligned with
each other. Within the
metal, there are many
small regions called
domains as shown in the
Magnetic domains oriented randomly.
figure.
44
Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core

In each domain, all the

atoms are aligned with
their magnetic fields
pointing in the same
direction, so each domain
within the material acts as
a small permanent
magnet. The reason that
a whole block of iron can
appear to have no flux is
that these numerous tiny
domains are oriented
Magnetic domains oriented randomly.
randomly within the
material.
45
Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core

When an external magnetic

field is applied to this block
of iron, it causes domains
that happen to point in the
direction of the field to grow.
Domains pointing in the
direction of the magnetic
field grow because the
atoms at their boundaries
physically switch orientation
to align themselves with the
applied magnetic field.
Magnetic domains lined up in the presence
of an external magnetic field.
46
Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core

The extra atoms aligned

with the field increase
the magnetic flux in the
iron, which in turn
causes more atoms to
switch orientation,further
increasing the strength
of the magnetic field. It is
this positive feedback
effect that causes iron to
have a permeability
much higher than air. Magnetic domains lined up in the presence
of an external magnetic field.
47
Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core

As the strength of the external

magnetic field continues to
increase, whole domains that are
aligned in the wrong direction
eventually reorient themselves
as a unit to line up with the field.
Finally, when nearly all the
atoms and domains in the iron
are lined up with the external
field, any further increase in the
magnetomotive force can cause
Magnetic domains lined up in the
only the same flux increase that presence of an external magnetic
it would in free space. field.
48
Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core

The key to hysteresis is that

when the external magnetic
field is removed, the
domains do not completely
randomize again. Originally,
energy was provided by the
external magnetic field to
achieve the alignment; when
the field is removed, there is
no source of energy to cause
all the domains to return
back.
Magnetic domains lined up in the
presence of an external magnetic
field.
49
Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core

The piece of iron is now a

permanent magnet. Once the
domains are aligned, some of
them will remain aligned until a
source of external energy is
supplied to change them.
Examples of sources of external
energy that can change the
boundaries between domains
are magnetomotive force
applied in another direction, a
Magnetic domains lined up in the
large mechanical shock, and presence of an external magnetic
heating. field.

50
Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core

The fact that turning domains in the

iron requires energy leads to a
common type of energy loss in all
machines and transformers. The
hysteresis loss in an iron core is the
energy required to achieve the
reorientation of domains during
each cycle of the alternating current
applied to the core. The area
enclosed in the hysteresis loop is
directly proportional to the energy
Magnetic domains lined up in
lost in a given ac cycle. the presence of an external
magnetic field.

51
Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core

The smaller the applied

magnetomotive force tours on
the core, the smaller the area
of the resulting hysteresis
loop and so the smaller the
resulting losses as seen in
the figure. Another type of
loss should be mentioned at
this point is the eddy current
loss. It is also caused by
The effect of the size of
varying magnetic fields in an magnetomotive force tours on the
iron core. magnitude of the hysteresis loss.

52
Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core

The mechanism of eddy current

losses is explained after
Faraday’s law has been
introduced. Since both
hysteresis and eddy current
losses cause heating in the
core material, and both losses
must be considered in the
design of any machine or
transformer. Since both losses
occur within the metal of the The effect of the size of
magnetomotive force excursions on
core, they are usually taken the magnitude of the hysteresis
together and called core losses. loss.
53
Induced Voltage From Time-Varying Magnetic Field

So far, we have focused on the

production of a magnetic field
and on its properties. It is now
time to examine the various
ways in which an existing
magnetic field can affect its
surroundings. The first major
effect to be considered is
called Faraday’s law. It is the
basis of transformer operation.
Faraday’s law states that if a flux passes through a turn of a coil of wire,
a voltage is induced in the turn of wire that is directly proportional to the
rate of change in the flux with respect to time.
54
Induced Voltage From Time-Varying Magnetic Field

In equation form
𝑑𝜙
𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = −
𝑑𝑡
where eind is the voltage induced in the turn of the coil and
𝜙 is the flux passing through the coil. If a coil has N turns
and if the same flux passes through all of them, then the
voltage induced across the whole coil is given by
𝑑𝜙
𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = −𝑁
𝑑𝑡
where N is the number of turns of the wire in the coil.

55
Induced Voltage From Time-Varying Magnetic Field

The minus sign in the above equation is the expression of

Lenz’s law which states that the direction of the voltage
buildup in the coil is such that if the coil ends were short
circuited, it would produce current that would cause a flux
opposing the original flux change.
Since the induced voltage opposes the change that causes
it, a minus sign is included in the above equation. To
understand this concept clearly, examine the figure below.
If the flux shown in the figure is increasing in strength, then
the voltage built up in the coil will tend to establish a flux
that will oppose the increase.

56
Induced Voltage From Time-Varying Magnetic Field

(a) (b)

The meaning of Lenz’s law: (a) A coil enclosing an increasing magnetic

flux; (b) determining the resulting voltage polarity.
57
Induced Voltage From Time-Varying Magnetic Field

A current flowing as shown in the above figure would

produce a flux opposing the increase, so the voltage on the
coil must be built up with the polarity required to drive that
current through the external circuit. Therefore, the voltage
must be built up with the polarity shown in the figure. Since
the polarity of the resulting voltage can be determined from
physical considerations, the minus sign in the above
equations is often left out.
There is one major difficulty involved in using these
equations in practical problems. This equation assumes
that exactly the same flux is present in each turn of the coil.
Unfortunately, the flux leaking out of the core into the
surrounding air prevents this from being true.
58
Induced Voltage From Time-Varying Magnetic Field

If the windings are tightly coupled, so that the vast majority

of the flux passing through one turn of the coil does indeed
pass through all of them, then the relevant equation will
give valid answers. But if leakage is quite high or if extreme
accuracy is required, a different expression that does not
make that assumption will be needed.

The magnitude of the voltage in the 𝑖𝑡ℎ turn of the coil is

always given by

𝑑 𝜙𝑖
𝑒𝑖 =
𝑑𝑡

59
Induced Voltage From Time-Varying Magnetic Field

If there are N turns in the coil of wire, the total voltage on

the coil is
𝑁

𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = ෍ 𝑒𝑖
𝑖=1
𝑁
𝑑 𝜙𝑖
𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 =෍
𝑑𝑡
𝑖=1

𝑁
𝑑 𝜙𝑖 the flux linkage of the
𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = ෍ coil symbolized by λ
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑖=1

60
Induced Voltage From Time-Varying Magnetic Field

The term in parentheses in the equation is called the flux

linkage λ of the coil, and Faraday’s law can be rewritten in
terms of flux linkage as

𝑑λ
𝑒𝑖 =
𝑑𝑡

where
𝑁
𝜙𝑖
λ=෍
𝑑𝑡
𝑖=1

61
Induced Voltage From Time-Varying Magnetic Field

The units of flux linkage are weber-turns. Faraday’s law is

the fundamental property of magnetic fields involved in
transformer operation. The effect of Lenz’s law in
transformers is to predict the polarity of the voltages
induced in transformer windings. Faraday’s law also
explains the eddy current losses mentioned previously. A
time-changing flux induces voltage within a ferromagnetic
core in just the same manner as it would in a wire wrapped
around that core. These voltages cause swirls of current to
flow within the core, much like the eddies seen at the
edges of a river. It is the shape of these currents that gives
rise to the name eddy currents.

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Induced Voltage From Time-Varying Magnetic Field

These eddy currents are flowing in a resistive material (the

iron of the core), so energy is dissipated by them. The lost
energy goes into heating the iron core. The amount of
energy lost due to eddy currents depends on the size of the
current swirls and the resistivity of the material in which the
current flows. The larger the size of the swirl, the greater
the resulting induced voltage will be. The larger the induced
voltage, the larger the current flow that results, and
therefore the greater the I2R losses will be. On the other
hand, the greater the resistivity of the material containing
the currents, the lower the current flow will be for a given
induced voltage in the swirl.

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Induced Voltage From Time-Varying Magnetic Field

These facts give us two possible approaches to reduce the

eddy current losses in a transformer or an electric machine.
If a ferromagnetic core that may be subject to alternating
fluxes is broken up into many small strips, or laminations,
then the maximum size of a current swirl will be reduced,
resulting in a lower induced voltage, a lower current, and
lower losses. This reduction is roughly proportional to the
width of these laminations, so smaller laminations are
better. The core is built up out of many of these laminations
in parallel. An insulating resin is used between the strips,
so that the current paths for eddy currents are limited to
very small areas.

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Induced Voltage From Time-Varying Magnetic Field

Because the insulating layers are extremely thin, this action

reduces eddy current losses with very little effect on the
core’s magnetic properties. The second approach to
reducing eddy current losses is to increase the resistivity of
the core material. This is often done by adding some silicon
to the steel of the core. If the resistance of the core is
higher, the eddy currents will be smaller for a given flux,
and the resulting I2R losses will be smaller. Either
laminations or high-resistivity materials can be used to
control eddy currents. In many cases, both approaches are
combined. Together, they can reduce the eddy current
losses to the point where they are much smaller than the
hysteresis losses in the core.
65
Example-6: Applying
Faraday’s law

66
Magnetic Circuits

Example 6: Figure below shows a coil of wire wrapped

around an iron core. The flux in the core is given by

𝜙 = 0.05 sin 300𝑡 𝑊𝑏

If there are 100 turns on the core,

a) what polarity is the voltage during the time when flux is
increasing in the reference direction shown in the figure?
b) what voltage is produced at the terminals of the coil?
Assume that all the magnetic flux stays within the core.
That is, assume that the flux leakage is zero.

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Magnetic Circuits

The core of Example 6. Determination of the voltage polarity at the

terminals is shown.
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Magnetic Circuits

Solution:
a) The direction of the voltage while the flux is increasing
in the reference direction must be positive to negative, as
shown in the above figure.

b) The magnitude of the voltage is given by

𝑑𝜙 𝑑
𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 =𝑁 = 100 0.05 sin 300𝑡 = 1500cos(300𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 1500 cos 300𝑡 = 1500𝑠𝑖 𝑛 300𝑡 + 90° 𝑉

69
Example-5: Finding flux and
reluctance

70
Magnetic Circuits

Example 5: A square magnetic core has a mean path

length of 55 cm and a cross-sectional area of 150 cm2. A
200-turn coil of wire is wrapped around one leg of the
core. The core is made of a material having the
magnetization curve shown in the figure.

(a) How much current is required to produce 12 mWb of

flux in the core?
(b) What is the core’s relative permeability at that current
level?
(c) What is its reluctance?

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Magnetic Circuits

A square magnetic core for Example 5.

72
Magnetic Behavior of Ferromagnetic Materials

A detailed magnetization curve for a typical piece of steel.

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Magnetic Circuits

Solution:
(a) The required flux density in the core is
Φ 0.012
𝐵= = = 0.8 𝑇
𝐴 0.015
From the relavant figure, the required magnetizing
intensity is H= 115 A∙turns/m. The magnetomotive force
needed to produce this magnetizing intensity is
ℱ = 𝑁𝑖 = 𝐻𝑙𝑐 = 115 × 0.55 = 63.25 𝐴 ∙ 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
so the required current is
ℱ 63.25
𝑖= = = 0.316 𝐴
𝑁 200
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Magnetic Circuits

(b) The core’s permeability at this current is

𝐵 0.8
𝜇= = = 0.00696 𝐻/𝑚
𝐻 115

Therefore, the relative permeability is

𝜇 0.00696
𝜇𝑟 = = −7
= 5540
𝜇0 4𝜋 × 10

(c) The reluctance of the core is

ℱ 63.25
ℛ= = = 5270 𝐴 ∙ 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠/𝑊𝑏
𝜙 0.012

75