ELECTROMECHANICAL

ENERGY CONVERSION
Online Lecture-4

Nedim TUTKUN, PhD, MIEEE

[email protected]

Istanbul Ticaret University

Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
Maltepe, Istanbul-Turkey
1
Linear DC Machine:
Simple Case

2
Simple Linear DC Machine

A linear dc machine as shown in Figure 19 is the easiest way to

understand a simple dc machine because of the same
operation principles. It also exhibits the same behavior as real
generators and motors therefore it is a good starting point in
the study of electromagnetic energy conversion.

Frictionless
battery rails

conducting
Figure 19 A linear dc machine. metal bar

3
Simple Linear DC Machine

As seen from in Figure 19, it consists of a battery and a resistor

connected through a switch to a pair of smooth and frictionless
rails. Along the bed of this rails a constant and uniform magnetic
flux density is present and it is directed into the page. A bar of
conducting metal is lying across the tracks. This device’s behavior
can be determined from an application of four basic equations.

Frictionless
battery rails

conducting
Figure 19 A linear dc machine. metal bar
4
Simple Linear DC Machine

1. The equation for the force on a wire in the presence of a

magnetic field:
𝑭=𝑖 𝒍×𝑩 (43)
2. The equation for the voltage induced on a wire moving in a
magnetic field:
𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝐯 × 𝐁 ∙ 𝐥 (45)
3. Kirchhoff’s voltage law for this machine. From Figure 19, applying
this law gives
−𝑉𝐵 + 𝑖𝑅 + 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 0 (46)
4. Newton’s law for the bar across the rails:
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 − 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎 (7)
5
Simple Linear DC Machine

Figure 20 shows the linear dc machine under starting conditions

(𝑡 = 0, 𝑣 = 0). To operate this machine, simply close the switch.
A current flows in the bar can be given by Kirchhoff’s voltage
law:
𝑉𝐵 − 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑
𝑖= (47)
𝑅

Figure 20 Starting a linear dc machine.

6
Simple Linear DC Machine

Since the bar is initially at rest, 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 0, so 𝑖 = 𝑉𝐵 /𝑅. The current

flows down through the bar across the rails. We know that a
current flowing through a wire in the presence of a magnetic field
induces a force on the wire. According to the circuit of the
machine, this force is
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑖𝑙𝐵 to the right (48)

𝑖 𝑖
𝑖
𝑖
𝑖
𝑖

Figure 20 Starting a linear dc machine.

7
Simple Linear DC Machine

Therefore, the bar will accelerate to the right (by Newton’s law).
However, when the velocity of the bar begins to increase, a
voltage is induced across the bar and it is given by 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 =
𝐯 × 𝐁 ∙ 𝐥 , which can be reduced to
𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙 positive upward (49)
Make sure that the direction of the vector 𝐯 × 𝐁 shows (+) sign
of the induced voltage.

8
Simple Linear DC Machine

The voltage now reduces the current flowing in the bar,

according to Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
𝑉𝐵 − 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑
𝑖= (47)
𝑅
As 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 increases, the current 𝑖 decreases. The result of this action
is that eventually the bar will reach a constant steady-state speed
where the net force on the bar is zero. This will occur when 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑
increases until it equals the voltage 𝑉𝐵 . At that time, the bar moves
at a constant velocity given by
𝑉𝐵 = 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑣𝑠𝑠 𝐵𝑙

steady-state speed 𝑉𝐵
𝑣𝑠𝑠 = (50)
𝐵𝑙
9
Simple Linear DC Machine

The bar will continue to move along at this no-load speed

forever unless some external force disturbs it. When the motor is
started, the velocity 𝑣, induced voltage 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 , current 𝑖, and
induced force 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 are as sketched in Figure 21. To summarize, at
starting, the linear dc machine behaves as follows:
1. Closing the switch produces a current 𝑖 = 𝑉𝐵/𝑅 (𝑣 = 0).
2. The current flow produces a force on the bar given by 𝐹 = 𝑖𝑙𝐵.
3. The bar accelerates to the right, producing an induced voltage 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 as it
increases velocity.
4. This induced voltage reduces the current 𝑖 = (𝑉𝐵 − 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 )/𝑅.
5. The induced force is thus decreased (𝐹 = 𝑖𝑙𝐵) until 𝐹 = 0. At that point,
𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑉𝐵, 𝑖 = 0, and the bar moves at a constant no-load speed 𝑣𝑠𝑠 =
𝑉𝐵 /𝐵𝑙.
This is precisely the behaviour observed in real motors on starting.
10
Induced Voltage on a Conductor Moving in
Magnetic Field

transient steady-state

𝑣𝑠𝑠

(a)

initial
point
t=0

(b)

Figure 21 The linear dc machine on starting. (a) Velocity 𝑣(𝑡)

as a function of time; (b) induced voltage 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 (𝑡)
11
Induced Voltage on a Conductor Moving in
Magnetic Field

𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙
𝑉𝐵 − 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑
𝑖=
𝑅 𝑣 = 0, 𝑡=0

𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 0, 𝑡=0

(c)

𝑉𝐵 − 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑
initial 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑖𝑙𝐵 = 𝑙𝐵
𝑅
point
t=0

(d)

Figure 21 The linear dc machine on starting. (c) current 𝑖(𝑡);

(d) induced force 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 (𝑡)
12
The Linear DC Machine as a Motor
Assume that the linear machine is initially running at the no-load steady-state
conditions described as above. What will happen to this machine if an external
load is applied to it? To find out, let us examine Figure 22. Here, a force Fload is
applied to the bar opposite the direction of motion. Since the bar was initially
at steady state, application of the force Fload will result in a net force on the bar
(𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = −𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 + 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑). The effect of this force will slow down the bar but as
soon as the bar begins to slow down, the induced voltage on the bar drops
(𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙). As the induced voltage drops, the current in the bar starts to
increase. Subsequently, the induced force rises (𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑖𝑙𝐵).

𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙

𝑉𝐵 − 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑
𝑖=
𝑅
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑖𝑙𝐵

Figure 22 The linear dc machine as a motor.

13
The Linear DC Machine as a Motor
The overall result of this chain of events is that the induced force rises
until it equals the opposite load force. Then the bar again travels in
steady state, but at a lower speed. The direction of the bar motion is
now in the direction of the induced force and power is converted from
electrical form to mechanical form to keep the bar moving. The
converted power is
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑖 = 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑣 (51)

Figure 22 The linear dc machine as a motor.

14
 The Linear DC Machine as a Motor

When a load is attached to the bar, variations of the velocity 𝑣,

induced voltage 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 , current 𝑖, and induced force 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 against
time are as plotted in Figure 23.
𝑉𝐵 − 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑠𝑠 , 𝑡=0 𝑖=
𝑅

𝑉𝐵 − 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑
𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑖𝑙𝐵 = 𝑙𝐵
𝑅

Figure 23 The linear dc machine operating at no-load conditions and then loaded
as a motor. (a) Velocity v(t) as a function of time; (b) induced voltage eind(t). 15
The Linear DC Machine as a Motor

An amount of electric power that equals 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 × 𝑖 is consumed in

the bar and is replaced by mechanical power that equals 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 ×
𝑣. Since power is converted from electrical form to mechanical
form, this machine acts as a motor. To summarize this behaviour:
1. A force 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 is applied opposite to the direction of motion,
which causes a net force 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 opposite to the direction of
motion initially.
2. The resulting acceleration 𝑎 = 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 /𝑚 is negative, so the bar
slows down.
3. The voltage 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙 falls, and so 𝑖 = (𝑉𝐵 − 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 )/𝑅
increases.
4. The induced force 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑖𝑙𝐵 increases until |𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 | = |𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 |
at a lower speed 𝑣.
16
The Linear DC Machine as a Motor

5. An amount of electric power that equals 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 × 𝑖 is now converted

to mechanical power that equals 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 × 𝑣, and the machine acts as a
motor.
Note that the power converted from electrical form to mechanical
form by this linear motor was given by the equation 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑣.

The power converted from electrical form to mechanical form in a real

rotating motor is given by the equation
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 𝜏𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝜔 (52)
where 𝜏𝑖𝑛𝑑 is the induced torque which is the rotational analog of the
induced force 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 , and the angular velocity 𝜔 is the rotational analog
of the linear velocity 𝑣.

17
The Linear DC Machine as a Generator
Suppose that the linear machine is again operating under no-load steady-state
conditions. This time, apply a force in the direction of motion and let us see
what happens. Figure 24 shows the linear machine with an applied force 𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝
in the direction of motion. Now the applied force will cause the bar to
accelerate in the direction of motion, and the velocity of the bar increases. As
the velocity grows, 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑣𝐵𝐿 rises and will be larger than the battery voltage
𝑉𝐵 . With 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 > 𝑉𝐵 , the current reverses its direction, that is negative value of
current, and can be given by
𝑉𝐵 −𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑
𝑖= , 𝑖<0 (53)
𝑅

Figure 24 The linear dc machine as a generator. 18

The Linear DC Machine as a Generator
Since this current now flows from the bar to dc voltage source, it induces
a force in the bar given by
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑖𝑙𝐵 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 (54)
The direction of the induced force is given by the right hand rule. This
induced force opposes the applied force on the bar. Finally the induced
force will be equal and opposite to the applied force, and the bar will be
moving at a higher speed than before. Notice that now the battery is
charging. The linear machine is now serving as a generator, converting
mechanical power 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 × 𝑣 into electric power 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 × 𝑖.

Figure 24 The linear dc machine as a generator. 19

The Linear DC Machine as a Generator

To summarize this behavior:

1. A force 𝐹𝑎𝑝p is applied in the direction of motion; 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 is in the

direction of motion.
2. Acceleration 𝑎 = 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 /𝑚 is positive, so the bar speeds up 𝑣.
3. The voltage 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙 increases, and so 𝑖 = (𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 – 𝑉𝐵)/
𝑅 increases.
4. The induced force 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑖𝑙𝐵 increases until |𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 | =
|𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑| at a higher speed 𝑣.
5. An amount of mechanical power equal to 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 × 𝑣 is now
being converted to electric power 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 × 𝑖, and the machine is
acting as a generator.

20
The Linear DC Machine as a Generator

Again, a real rotating dc generator precisely behaves in this

manner: A torque is applied to the shaft in the direction of
motion, the speed of the shaft increases, the internal voltage
increases, and current flows out of the generator to the loads.
The amount of mechanical power converted to electrical power
in the real rotating dc generator can be given by Equation (52):

𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 𝜏𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝜔 (52)

It is interesting that the same machine acts as both motor and

generator. The only difference between them is whether the
externally applied forces are in the direction of motion
(generator) or opposite to the direction of motion (motor).
21
The Linear DC Machine as a Generator

When 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 > 𝑉𝐵, the machine acts as a generator, and when
𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 < 𝑉𝐵, the machine acts as a motor. Whether the machine is
a motor or a generator, both induced force (motor action) and
induced voltage (generator action) are present at all times. This
is generally true of all machines—both actions are present, and
it is only the relative directions of the external forces with
respect to the direction of motion that determine whether the
overall machine behaves as a motor or as a generator.
Another very interesting fact should be noted that this machine
was a generator when it moved rapidly and a motor when it
moved more slowly, but whether it was a motor or a generator, it
always moved in the same direction.

22
The DC Linear Machine

A linear machine is shown in Figure 25 is supplied by a 250 𝑉 dc

source, and its internal resistance 𝑅 is given as about 0.1 Ω. The
resistor 𝑅 models the internal resistance of a real dc machine,
and this is a fairly reasonable internal resistance for a medium-
size dc motor.
Providing actual numbers in this figure highlights a major
problem with machines and their simple linear model. At starting
conditions, the speed of the bar is zero, so 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 0. The current
flow at starting condition is

𝑉𝐵 − 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝐵 250
𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 = = = = 2500 𝐴
𝑅 𝑅 0.1

23
The DC Linear Machine

A linear machine is shown in Figure 25 is supplied by a 250 𝑉 dc source, and

its internal resistance 𝑅 is given as about 0.1 Ω. The resistor 𝑅 models the
internal resistance of a real dc machine, and this is a fairly reasonable internal
resistance for a medium-size dc motor. Providing actual numbers in this figure
highlights a major problem with machines and their simple linear model. At
starting conditions, the speed of the bar is zero, so 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 0.

𝑉𝐵 − 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑
𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 =
𝑅
𝑉𝐵 250
𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 = = = 2500 𝐴
𝑅 0.1

Figure 25 The linear dc machine with component values illustrating the problem
of excessive starting current.
24
 The DC Linear Machine
This current is very high, often in excess of 10 times Figure 26 shows a
the rated current of the machine. Such currents can starting resistance
cause severe damage to a motor. Both real ac and real inserted into the
dc machines suffer from similar high-current problems machine circuitry. The
on starting. How can such damage be prevented? The same problem exists in
easiest method for this simple linear machine is to real dc machines, and
it is handled in
insert an extra resistance into the circuit during
precisely the same
starting to limit the current flow until 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 builds up fashion—a resistor is
enough to limit it. inserted into the motor
armature circuit during
starting. The control of
high starting current in
real ac machines is
handled in a different
fashion.

Figure 26 A linear dc machine with an extra series resistor inserted to control the
starting current.
25
Example 10. Finding dc
machine parameters

26
Example: The DC Linear Machine

Question: The linear dc machine shown in Figure 27a has a battery voltage
of 120 V, an internal resistance of 0.3 Ω, and a magnetic flux density of 0.1 T.
(a) What is this machine’s maximum starting current? What is its steady-
state velocity at no load? (b) Suppose that a 30-N force pointing to the right
is applied to the bar as shown in Figure 27b. What would the steady-state
speed be? How much power would the bar be producing or consuming?
How much power would the battery be producing or consuming?

Figure 27a The linear dc machine of Example 10: Starting conditions.

27
Example: The DC Linear Machine
Explain the difference between these two figures. Is this machine acting as a
motor or as a generator? (c) Now suppose a 30-N force pointing to the left
were applied to the bar. What would the new steady-state speed be? Is this
machine a motor or a generator now? (d) Assume that a force pointing to the
left is applied to the bar as shown in Figure 27c. Calculate speed of the bar as a
function of the force for values from 0 N to 50 N in 10-N steps. Plot the velocity
of the bar versus the applied force. (e) Assume that the bar is unloaded and
that it suddenly runs into a region where the magnetic field is weakened to
0.08 T. How fast will the bar go now?

Figure 27b The linear dc machine of Example 10: Operating as a generator. 28

Example: The DC Linear Machine

Figure 27c The linear dc machine of Example 10: Operating as a motor.

29
Example: The DC Linear Machine

Solution: a) At starting conditions, the velocity of the bar is 0, so

𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 0. Therefore,
𝑉𝐵 − 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 120 − 0
𝑖= = = 400 𝐴
𝑅 0.3
When the machine reaches steady state, 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 0 and 𝑖 = 0.
Therefore,
𝑉𝐵 120
𝑉𝐵 = 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑣𝑠𝑠 𝐵𝑙 ⟹ 𝑣𝑠𝑠 = = = 120 𝑚/𝑠
𝐵𝑙 0.1(10)

Figure 27a The linear dc machine of Example 10: Starting conditions.

30
Example: The DC Linear Machine

(b) Refer to Figure 27b. If a 30-N force to the right is applied to the bar, the
final steady state will occur when the induced force 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 is equal and
opposite to the applied force 𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝 , so that the net force on the bar is zero:
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 30
𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝 = 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑖𝑙𝐵 ⟹ 𝑖 = = = 30 𝐴
𝑙𝐵 10(0.1)
This current flows up through the bar. The induced voltage 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 on the bar
must be
𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑉𝐵 + 𝑖𝑅 = 120 + 30 0.3 = 129 𝑉

Figure 27b The linear dc machine of Example 10: Operating as a generator.

31
Example: The DC Linear Machine

The final steady-state speed must be

𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 129
𝑣𝑠𝑠 = = = 129 𝑚/𝑠
𝐵𝑙 0.1 10
The bar is producing 𝑃 = (129)(30) = 3870 𝑊 of power, and the battery is
consuming 𝑃 = (120)(30) = 3600 𝑊. The difference between these two
numbers is the 270 W of losses in the resistor. This machine is acting as a
generator (𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 > 𝑉𝐵 )
(c) Refer to Figure 27c. This time, the force is applied to the left, and the
induced force is to the right.

Figure 27c The linear dc machine of Example 10: Operating as a motor.

32
Example: The DC Linear Machine

At steady state, 𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝 = 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑖𝑙𝐵

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 30
𝑖= = = 30 𝐴
𝑙𝐵 10(0.1)
This current flows down through the bar. The induced voltage 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑
on the bar must be
𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑖𝑅 = 120 − 30 0.3 = 111 𝑉
and the final speed must be
𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 111
𝑣𝑠𝑠 = = = 111 𝑚/𝑠
𝐵𝑙 0.1 10
This machine is now acting as a motor, converting electric energy
from the battery into mechanical energy of motion on the bar.

33
Example: The DC Linear Machine

d) This task is ideally suited for MATLAB. We can take advantage of MATLAB’s
vectorized calculations to determine the velocity of the bar for each value of
force. The MATLAB code to perform this calculation is just a version of the
steps that were performed by hand in part c. The program shown below
calculates the current, induced voltage, and velocity in that order, and then
plots the velocity versus the force on the bar.
M-file to calculate and plot the % Calculate the induced voltages
velocity of on the bar.
% a linear motor as a function of load. eind = VB - i .* r; % Induced
VB = 120; voltage (V)
% Battery voltage (V) % Calculate the velocities of the
r = 0.3; % Resistance (ohms) bar.
l = 1; % Bar length (m) v_bar = eind ./ (l * B); %
B = 0.6; % Flux density (T) Velocity (m/s)
% Select the forces to apply to the bar % Plot the velocity of the bar
F = 0:10:50; % Force (N) versus force.
% Calculate the currents flowing in the plot(F,v_bar);
motor. title (‘Plot of Velocity versus
i = F ./ (l * B); Applied Force’);
% Current (A) xlabel (‘Force (N)‘);
ylabel (‘Velocity (m/s)‘);
axis ([0 50 0 200]); 34
Example: The DC Linear Machine

The resulting plot is shown in Figure 28. Note that the bar slows down more
and more as load increases.
(e) If the bar is initially unloaded, then
𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑉𝐵 . If the bar suddenly hits a
region of weaker magnetic field, a
transient will occur. Once the transient is
over, though, 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 will again equal 𝑉𝐵. This
fact can be used to determine the final
speed of the bar. The initial speed was
120 m/s.
The final speed is
𝑉𝐵
𝑉𝐵 = 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑣𝑠𝑠 𝐵𝑙 ⇒ 𝑣𝑠𝑠 =
𝐵𝑙
120
= = 150 𝑚/𝑠
0.08 10
Figure 28 Plot of velocity versus force Thus, when the flux in the linear motor
for a linear dc machine. weakens, the bar speeds up.
35