Optional Mathematics

Grade – 9

Government of Nepal
Ministry of Education, Science and Technology
Curriculum Development Centre
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
Publisher: Government of Nepal
Ministry of Education, Science and Technology
Curriculum Development Centre
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur

© Publisher

First Edition: 2076 B.S.

 Preface
The curriculum and curricular materials have been developed and revised on a
regular basis with the aim of making education objective-oriented, practical,
relevant and job oriented. It is necessary to instill the feelings of nationalism,
national integrity and democratic spirit in students and equip them with morality,
discipline and self-reliance, creativity and thoughtfulness. It is essential to develop
in them the linguistic and mathematical skills, knowledge of science, information
and communication technology, environment, health and population and life skills.
it is also necessary to bring in them the feeling of preserving and promoting arts
and aesthetics, humanistic norms, values and ideals. It has become the need of the
present time to make them aware of respect for ethnicity, gender, disabilities,
languages, religions, cultures, regional diversity, human rights and social values so
as to make them capable of playing the role of responsible citizens. This textbook
for grade nine students as an optional mathematics has been developed in line with
the Secondary Level Optional Mathematics Curriculum, 2074 so as to strengthen
mathematical knowledge, skill and thinking on the students. It is finalized by
incorporating recommendations and feedback obtained through workshops,
seminars and interaction programmes.
The textbook is written by Mr. Hari Narayan Upadhyaya, Mr. Nara Hari Acharya
and Mr. Med Nath Sapkota. In Bringing out the textbook in this form, the
contribution of the Director General of CDC Dr. Lekha Nath Poudel is highly
acknowledged. Similarly, the contribution of Prof. Dr. Ram Man Shrestha, Mr.
Laxmi Narayan Yadav, Mr. Baikuntha Prasad Khanal, Mr. Krishna Prasad
Pokharel, Mr. Anirudra Prasad Neupane, Ms. Goma Shrestha, Mr. Rajkumar
Mathema is also remarkable. The subject matter of the book was edited by Dr.
Dipendra Gurung and Mr. Jagannath Adhikari. The language of the book was edited
by Mr. Nim Prakash Singh Rathaur. The layout of this book was designed by Mr.
Jayaram Kuikel. CDC extends sincere thanks to all those who have contributed to
developing this textbook.
This book contains various mathematical concepts and exercises which will help
the learners to achieve the competency and learning outcomes set in the curriculum.
Efforts have been made to make this textbook as activity-oriented, interesting and
learner centered as possible. The teachers, students and all other stakeholders are
expected to make constructive comments and suggestions to make it a more useful
textbook.
2076 Curriculum Development Centre
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
 Table of Content

Unit 1 Algebra 1

Unit 2 Concept of limit 60

Unit 3 Matrices 71

Unit 4 Coordinates Geometry 106

Unit 5 Trigonometry 162

Unit 6 Vector 216

Unit 7 Transformation 233

Unit 8 Statistics 260

Answer 282
 Unit 1 Algebra
1.0 Review
Provide two dice with color blue and red to students. Ask the students to roll
two times successively and tabulate the result taking numbers in the blue die
in the first element (x) and the number in the red die as second element (y).
For example,

x 3 5

y 4 6

Plot theses points on the graph, draw a line through them and complete the
following tasks.
1. Write an equation to represent the above line.
2. Does the point (6, 6) lie on this line? If it does not lie on the line, write
an inequality that is satisfied by the point (6, 6).
3. If a point satisfies the equation, identify it as a solution of the equation.
4. Repeat this activity at least four times for different points.
1.1 Relation and Functions
a) Ordered Pairs:
In day to day life there are situations where position of the objects matters.
For example, consider the two numbers 5 and 7. Taking 5 as the first and 7 as
the second and working out their difference.
5 – 7 =  2 (negative two)
Taking 7 as the first and 5 as the second and working out their difference,
we get.
7 – 5 = 2 (Positive two)
Here, the number 2 and 2 are different. Hence, order of number matters in
most cases.
The pair of numbers a and b; where a is always in the first position and b is
always in the second position is called the ordered pair of numbers a and b. It is
denoted by (a, b).

1
Example 1
Graph the ordered pairs A(1, 4) and B(4, 1). Based on the position of A(1, 4) and
B(4, 1) in the graph, discuss on their Y
difference.

Solution:
A(1,4)
The ordered pairs A(1, 4) and B(4, 1)
when graphed, they represent different
positions. Hence the ordered pairs are
not equal. i. e, (1, 4) ≠ (4, 1).
B(4,1)
X’ X
O

In coordinates system, in the ordered pairs (a, b), we take the first component 'a' as
the x–coordinate and the second component 'b' as the y – coordinate.
b) Equality of two ordered pairs:
Two ordered pairs (a, b) = (c, d) if and only if (iff) a = c and b = d.
Two ordered pairs are equal if and only if their corresponding
Y’ components are
equal.
Example 2
Find the values of x and y if
a) (x, 7) = (2, y)
b) (x2y, 9) = (2, 2x + y)
Solution:
a) Equating the corresponding components of the equal ordered pair of
numbers
(x, 7) = (2, y), we get
x = 2
And y = 7.
b) Equating the corresponding components of the equal ordered pair of numbers.
(x2y, 9) = (2, 2x + y) we get
x 2y = 2………. (i)
2
 2x + y = 9………….. (ii)
From (i) x = 2y + 2……… (iii)
Substituting the value of x from equation (iii) in equation (ii) we get
2(2y + 2) + y = 9
Or, 4y + 4 + y = 9
Or, 5y = 5
Or, y = 1.
Now from equation (iii), putting y = 1, we get
x=2×1+2
Or, x = 4.
Hence, x = 4, and y = 1 are the required solutions.
Exercise: 1.1
1. (a) Define “ordered pair”.
(b) Give an example of ordered pair of numbers.
(c) When are the two ordered pairs equal?
(d) If (a, b) = (2, 4) what are the values of a and b?
2. Which of the following order pairs are equal?
(a) (3, 4) and (4, 3)
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(b) (2 – 1, 5 + 1) and (5 – 4, 2
)
(c) (18 ÷ 3, 4 × 2) and (2 × 3, 5 + 2)
(d) (4 + 5 , 21 ÷ 7) and (3 × 3, 4 − 1 )
3. Find the values of x and y in each of the following
(a) (x, 4) = (5, y)
(b) (x 1, y + 2) = (6, 7)
(c) (x  3, y + 7) = (2, 5)
(d) (2 x  5, 4) = (9, y + 4)
𝑥 2 5 1
(e) (3 + 1, 𝑦 − 3) = (3 , 3)

3
4. Find the values of x and y in each of the following.
(a) (3x + 5y, 17) = (11, 6x + 5y)
(b) (3x + 2y, 1) = (5, 2x – y)
(c) (2 x  3y, 6) = (7, x + y)
3 6
(d) (4𝑥 + , 9) = (7, 3𝑥 + 𝑦)
𝑦

5. Let the number in dice 1 represents first component and the number in
dice 2 represents second component. Roll both
the dice simultaneously for three times and list
the three ordered pairs of numbers. Graph
these ordered pairs in the graph paper and
analyze your finding as (2)
(1)
 Three points lying on one line Y

 Three points making an isosceles

triangle
 Three points making a right –
angled triangle etc. X’
O
X

1.2 Cartesian product of two sets: Y’

Let A = {Red, Blue} and B = {Pen, Carryon, Pencil}. How many pairs of
colored object can be made?
Consider the two sets A = {1, 2} and B = {3, 4}
Now, list the set of ordered pair of numbers (a, b) so that the first component
a is the element from the set A and second component b is the element from
the set B and denote this set by A × B.
We have, A × B = {(1, 3) , (1, 4) , (2, 3) , (2, 4)}
Here the new set A × B read as “A cross B” is called the cartesian product of
the two sets A and B.

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 If A and B are the two non – empty subset of the universal set U, then the set
of all ordered pairs (a, b) such that 'a' is the element from the set A and 'b' is
the element from the set B is called the Cartesian Product of the two sets A
and B denoted by A × B and read as “A cross B”
In symbol, A  B = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵}
Example 1
Let A = {2, 5} and B = {3, 5} be the two sets. Find the cartesian product A × B
and B × A and check whether A × B = B × A
Solution:
To find A × B, we have

Element of Set A Paired with elements of set B Ordered pairs

3 (2, 3)
2
5 (2, 5)

3 (5, 3)
5
5 (5, 5)
Hence, A × B = {(2, 3), (2, 5), (5, 3), (5, 5)}………………………. (i)
To find B × A, we have

Element of Set B Paired with elements of set A Ordered pairs

2 (3, 2)
3

5 (3, 5)
2 (5, 2)
5
5 (5, 5)

Therefore, B × A = {(3, 2), (3, 5), (5, 2), (5, 5)}………………………….(ii)

5
From (i) and (ii) it is evidenced that A × B ≠ B × A. It could be visualized clearly
if we graph these cartesian products as in the following.

Y
Y

(2, 5) (5, 5)
(3, 5) (5, 5)

(2, 3) (5, 3)
(3, 2) (5, 2)

X X
O X’
O

A×B B×A
From the graph it is obvious that A × B ≠ B × A
Method of representing cartesian product
We may represent the cartesian product of two sets by different methods. For
example,
Y’ the two sets A = {3, 2} and B =Y’{1, 4} then we may represent the
cartesian product A × B by any of the following methods:
(i) By listing elements:
The cartesian product of A and B (A × B) = {(3, 1), (3, 4), (2, 1), (2, 4)}
(ii) By tabulating:

Set B

 1 4

3 (3, 1) (3, 4)
Set A
2 (2, 1) (2, 4)

(iii) By an arrow diagram:

A B
3 1
2 4
6
 (iv) By graph:
Y

(2, 4) (3, 4)

(2, 1) (3, 1)

X’ X
O

Example 2
Let A = {3, 5} and B = {5, 4} then find A × B and represent by
(i) set of ordered pairs (ii) tabulating
Y’
(iii) an arrow diagram (iv) graph.
Solution:
We have,
A = {3, 5} and B = {5, 4}
Then
(i) A  B = {(3, 5), (3, 4), (5, 5), (5, 4)}
(ii) By tabulating:

B
 5 4
A
3 (3, 5) (3, 4)

5 (5, 5) (5, 4)

(iii) By an arrow diagram: A B

3 4
5 5

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(v) By graph:
Y

(3, 5) (5, 5)

(3, 4) (5, 4)

X’ X
O

Example 3
If A = {1, 2} and B = {3, 5}, find
(a) A × B, n(A), n(B) and n(A  B) and verify n(AB) = n(A)  n(B)
(b) A × A, n(A) and n(A  A) and verify n(AA) = n(A)  n(A)
Y’
(c) B × B, n(B) and n(B × B) and verify n(B  B) = n(B)  n(B)
Solution:
(a) Here;
A = {1, 2} and B = {3, 5}
Then,
A × B = {(1, 3), (1, 5), (2, 3), (2, 5)}
And,
n(A ) = 2
n (B) = 2
n(A × B) = 4 = 2  2 = n(A) × n(B)
Therefore, n(A × B) = n(A) × n(B)

(b) Here,
A = {1, 2}
Then
A × A = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2)}
And

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 n (A) = 2
n (A × A) = 4 = 2 × 2
 n (A × A) = n(A) × n(A)
(c) Here, B = {3, 5}
Then, B × B = {(3, 3), (3, 5), (5, 3), (5, 5)}
Also,
n (B) = 2,
n(B × B) = 4 = 2 × 2
= n(B) × n(B)
∴n(B × B) = n(B) × n(B)
In general, we have the following rules:
(a) If B = A, then A × B = A × A = B × B = B 
(b) If the cardinalities of the sets A and B are n(A) and n(B) respectively then
n(A × B) = n(A) × n(B)
Example 4
If A = {𝑥: 𝑥 3, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑁}and B = {𝑥: 𝑥 2 − 1 = 0}, find (a) A × B and n(A × B),
(b) A × A and n(A × A).
Solution:
Here, A = {𝑥: 𝑥 < 3, 𝑥 ∈ N} = {1, 2, 3}
B = {𝑥: 𝑥 2 − 1 = 0}
= {−1, 1}
Now,
a. We have A × B = {(1, −1), (1, 1), (2, −1)(2, 1), (3, −1), (3, 1)}
Again,
n(A) = 3, and n(B) = 2
n(A × B) = n(A) × 𝑛(B)
=3× 2=6
b. Here, A = {1, 2, 3}
Then, A × A = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)}

9
 Here, n(A) = 3
n(A × A) = n(A) × n(A) = 3 × 3 = 9.
Example 5
If A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {3, 4} and C = { – 1, 4}, find.
a. A × (B∩C)
b. (A × B) ∩(A × C)
c. Is A × (B∩C) = (A × B) ∩(A × C) ?
Solution:
a) Here, A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {3, 4} and C = { – 1, 4}, then
B∩C = {3, 4} ∩{ – 1, 4} = {4}
And, A × (B∩C) = {(1, 4), (2, 4), (3, 4)}
b) We have
A × B = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 3), (3, 4)}………(i)
And A × C = {(1, – 1), (1, 4), (2, – 1), (2, 4), (3, – 1), (3, 4)}…….(ii)
Now from (i) and (ii) taking the underlined elements
(A × B)∩(A × C) = { (1, 4), (2, 4), (3, 4)}.
c) From (a) and (b) , we have
A × (B∩C) = (A × B) ∩(A × C)
In general, we have
 A × (B∩C) = (A × B) ∩(A × C)
 A × (B∪C) = (A × B) ∪ (A × C)
Example 6
If A {2, 3, 4}, B = {3, 4, 5} and C = {4, 5}, find
a. A × (B  C)
b. (A × B)(A × C)
c. Is A × (BC) = (A × B)  (A × C) True?
Solution:
Here, A = {2, 3, 4}, B = {3, 4, 5} and C = {4, 5}
Then, B  C = {3}
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Now
a. A × (BC)
= {(2, 3), (3, 3), (4, 3)}…………………(i)
b. (A × B)
= {(2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (4, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5)}
(A × C) = {2, 3, 4} × {4, 5}
= {(2, 4), (2, 5), (3, 4), (3, 5), (4, 4), (4, 5)}
∴ (A × B) – (A × C) = {(2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (4, 3), (4, 4),
(4, 5)} – {(2, 4), (2, 5), (3, 4), (3, 5), (4, 4), (4, 5)}.
∴ (A × B) – (A × C) = {(2, 3), (3, 3), (4, 3)}………..(ii)
c. Now from (i) and (ii), we have A × (B – C) = (A × B)  (A × C)
In general, if A, B, and C are non – empty subsets of the universal set, we have, A
× (B  C) = (A × B)  (A × C)

Exercise 1.2
1. a) Define cartesian product with an example.
b) If n(A) = 2 and n(B) = 3, what is the cardinality of A × B?
c) Under what condition A × B = B × A?
d) What is equal to A × (B∩C)?
2. If A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {3, 2} find
a) A × A b) B × B c) A × B d) B × A
3. Represent the cartesian product of Q no.2 by
i) Listing elements ii) Tabulation
iii) Arrow diagram iv) Graph
4. If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b}, find
a) A × B b) B × A c) Is A × B = B × A?
5. a) If A × B = {(a, 1), (a, 5), (a, 2), (b, 2), (b, 1), (b, 5)}, find n(A), n(B),
and n(B × A).
b) If A × B = {(1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6), (3, 4), (3, 5),
(3, 6)} find n(A), n(B), and n(B × A).

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6. If A = {1, 2}, B = {1, 2, 3, 4} and C = {5, 6}, verify that
i) A × (B∩C) = (A × B) ∩(A × C) ii) A × (B∪C) = (A × B) ∪ (A × C)
iii) A × (BC) (A × B)(A × C) iv) A × (B – C) = (A × B)  (A × C)
7. a) If A = {x:x ≤ 4, x∈N}, and B = {x:x2  5x  6 = 0}, find A × B and
B × A.
b) If P = {2< x < 7, x ∈ N} and Q = {x:x2 = 3x}, find P × Q and Q × P.
8. a) List the set of alphabets from the word TOKYO and name it T. List
the set of alphabets from the word KYOTO and name it K and workout:
i) T × K (ii) K × T. What is your conclusion?
b) List the set P from the alphabets of the first name of Ram Bahadur Pun
and list the set Q from the alphabets of the last name of Goma Baral and
workout: i) P × Q ii) Q × P.

1.3 Relation

There are several examples in day to day life from relation. For example, consider
the following ordered pairs.

a) (1, 2) b) (3, 9) c) (Ram, Sita)

With these ordered pairs, we can define the relation of the first elements with
second as in the following:

a) (1, 2) gives the relation of first element with respect to the second as ‘is
half of’.

b) (3, 9) gives the relation ‘is square root of’.

c) (Ram, Sita) gives the relation ‘is husband of’

If we reverse the order of the elements of the above ordered pairs, we may get
different relation as:

a) (2, 1) gives the relation ‘is double of’

b) (9, 3) gives the relation ‘is square of’

c) (Sita, Ram) gives the relation ‘is wife of’

12
If (a, b) ∈ R, then we define the relation between the ordered pairs (a, b) as aRb.

Now we discuss the following examples.

Example 1

Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 4, 9}, then

A × B = {(1, 1), (1, 4), (1, 9), (2, 1), (2, 4), (2, 9), (3, 1), (3, 4), (3, 9)}. Let us
define a relation R1 from A to B by “is square root of”.

Then, 1R11, 2R14, 3R19

i.e. R1 = {(1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9)}

Let A and B be two non – empty sets, then a relation (R) from set A to the set B is
defined as the subset of the Cartesian product A × B.
Symbolically, R = {(a, b) : a ∈ A, b ∈ B and R  (A × B)}
Example 2
Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4} find
a. A × B
b. Relation from A to B defined by ‘is double of’
c. Relation from A to B defined by ‘is less than’
d. Relation from A to B defined by ‘is square of’
e. Relation from A to B defined by ‘is square root of’
Solution:
We have, A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4}
Now,
a. A × B = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 2),
(3, 3), (3, 4)}
b. R1 = {(2, 1), (4, 2)} is the relation ‘is double of’
c. R2 = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 4)} is the relation ‘is less than’
d. R3 = {(1, 1), (4, 2)} is the relation ‘is square of’
e. R4 = {(1, 1), (2, 4)} is the relation ‘is square root of’

13
Example 3
Let A = {2, 3, 4} then find
a. A × A
b. A relation from A to A defined as ‘is equal to’
c. A relation A to A defined as ‘is greater than’
d. A relation from A to A defined by ‘is square root of’
Solution:
Here A = {2, 3, 4}, then
a. A × A = {(2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 4)}
b. R1 = {(2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)} is the relation from A to A defined by ‘is equal to’
c. R2 = {(3, 2), (4, 2), (4, 3}is the relation from A to A defined by ‘is greater
than’
d. R3 = {(2, 4)} is the relation from A to A defined by ‘is square root of ’
Representation of relation:
Consider the two sets A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {2, 4, 6}
Then A × B = {(1, 2), (1, 4), (1, 6), (3, 2), (3, 4), (3, 6), (5, 2), (5, 4), (5, 6)} and
let R be the relation from A to B defined by ‘is less than’ which is given by
R = {(1, 2), (1, 4), (1, 6), (3, 4), (3, 6), (5, 6)}
Now we can represent the relation R:A→B by any one of the following methods:
a. By tabulating:

X 1 1 1 3 3 5

Y 2 4 6 4 6 6

b. By an arrow diagram:
A B

1 2

3 4

5 6

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c. By graph Y
(3, 6)
(5, 6)
(1, 6)
(1, 4) (3, 4)

(1, 2)

X’ X
O

d. By a set of ordered pairs:

R = {(1, 2), (1, 4), (1, 6), (3, 4), (3, 6), (5, 6)}
e. By description or formula:
R = {(x, y): x < y, x ∈ AY’and y ∈ B}
Exercise: 1.3(A)
1. a) Define ‘relation’ and illustrate it.
b) List down the methods of representing a relation.
2. If A × B = {(1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6), (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6)}.
Find
a) R1 = {(x, y): x + y = 6} b) R2 = {(x, y): x < y}
2
c) R3 = {(x, y): y = x }
d) Represent the above relations by
(i) table (ii) arrow diagram (iii) Graph.
3. If A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {1, 3, 6], then find the following relations defined
in A × B.
a) is greater than b) is equal to
c) is double of d) is square of
e) Represent the above relation by
i) Set of ordered pairs iv) Graph
ii) Tabulation v) Rule or formula
iii) An arrow diagram

15
4. If A = {6, 7, 8, 10} and B = {2, 4, 6} find the following relations defined in
A × B.
a) R1 = {(x, y): (x + y) < 12, x ∈ A and y ∈ B}
b) R2 = {(x, y): (2x + y) > 0, x ∈ A and y ∈ B}
c) Represent each of the above relation by means of
i) set of ordered pairs ii) by an arrow diagram
iii) a graph iv) a table
5. Let R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), (5, 6), (6, 7)} be a relation, represent this
relation.
a) by table c) by graph
b) by an arrow diagram d) by description.
6. List the set A that represents your family members. Work out A × A and list
down as many relation as you can from A to A that states the relation between
your family members.

Domain and Range of a Function

Consider the two sets X = {1, 2, 3} and Y = {3, 4, 5} then
X x Y = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5)}
Let a relation from set X to the set Y be defined as R = {(x, y): y = x + 2, x ∈ X
and y ∈ Y}.
Then R = {(1, 3), (2, 4), (3, 5)}
Here, the set of first components of the ordered pairs in R can be listed as Rd =
{1, 2, 3}.
Here, Rd is called the domain of the relation R.
Again, the set of second components of all ordered pairs in R can be listed as:
Rr = {3, 4, 5}.
Here, Rr is called the range of the relation R.
Let A and B be two non – empty sets and R be the relation from A to B then the
domain of R is the set of first elements of the ordered pairs in R and range of R is
the set of second elements of the ordered pairs in R. Symbolically we write;
Domain of R (Rd) = {x: (x, y) ∈ R} and Range of R (Rr) = {y: (x, y) ∈ R}

16
Example 1
Find the domain and range of the following relations:
a. R1 = {(2, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (4, 5), (5, 6)}
b. R2 = {(1, x), (2, y), (3, z)}
Solution:
a. Here, R1 = {(2, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (4, 5), (5, 6)} is given
Now, domain of R1 = {x: (x, y) ∈ R1} = {2, 3, 4, 5}
Range of R1 = {y: (x, y) ∈ R1} = {3, 4, 5, 6}
b. Here, R2 = {(1, x), (2, y), (3, z)} is given
Now, domain of R2 = {x: (x, y) ∈ R2} = {1, 2, 3}
Range of R2 = {y: (x, y) ∈ R2} = {x, y, z}.

Types of relation
a) Reflexive relation
A relation R: A→A is reflexive if (x, x)∈R ↔ xRx, x ∈ A is true. That is a
relation on a set A is reflexive if every elements of the set of ordered pair
representing the relation is related to itself. For example;
A × A = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)} and
relation R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)} is a reflexive relation.
b) Symmetric relation
A relation R: A→ A is symmetric if xRy  yRx. i.e.if (x, y) ∈ R then (y, x) ∈
R. For example;
A × A = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)}and a
relation R = {(1, 2), (2, 1), (1, 3), (3, 1), (2, 3), (3, 2)} is a symmetric relation.
c) Transitive relation
A relation R: A→A is transitive if xRy and yRz  xRz. i.e. if (x, y) ∈ R and
(y, z) ∈ R then (x, z) ∈ R. for example, consider A × A = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1,
3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3)} then the relation R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3)} is a
transitive relation.
If a relation satisfies all three above conditions, then it is called equivalence relation. i.e,
A relation R is an equivalence relation if it is reflective, symmetric and transitive
as well.
17
Inverse Relation
If R1:A→B be a relation defined by R1 = {(x, y): x ∈ A and y ∈ B} and R2 :B→A
be the relation defined as R2 = {(y, x), x ∈ A and y ∈ B} then R1 and R2 are
inverse relations to each other. That is a relation obtained by interchanging the
order of the ordered pairs in the given relation is inverse to that relation. For
example;
R1 = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4)} and
R2 = {(2, 1), (3, 2), (4, 3)} are inverse relation to each other.
The inverse of any relation R is denoted by R – 1.
Example 2
Let A = {4, 5, 6}. Find
a) A × A
b) A relation R1 in A that is reflexive.
c) A relation R2 in A that is symmetric.
d) A relation R3 in A that is transitive.
e) Two relations R4 and R5 in A that are inverse to each other.
Solution:
Here, A = {4, 5, 6} Therefore,
a) A × A = {(4, 4), (4, 5), (4, 6), (5, 4), (5, 5), (5, 6), (6, 4), (6, 5), (6, 6)}
b) R1 = {(x, x): x ∈ A} = {(4, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6)}
c) R2 = {(x, y): (x, y)∈R and (y, x)∈R}
= {(4, 5), (5, 4), (5, 6), (6, 5)}
d) A set R3 is transitive in A if xR3y → yR3z → xR3z.
Therefore, R3 = {(4, 5), (5, 6), (4, 6)}
e) Let R4 = {(4, 5), (4, 6), (5, 6)} and
R5 = {(5, 4), (6, 4), (6, 5)} be two relations in A  A, then R4 and R5 are inverse
relation to each other. This is just an example; there are in fact many relations in
A having their inverse relation also defined in A.
Example 3
Let R be the relation defined on a set of all lines in the plane such that R denote
the relation "is parallel to" show that R is an equivalence relation.

18
Solution:
Consider a set of parallel lines,
x
y
z
a) Here x//x, y//y and z//z because every line is parallel to itself. Hence xRx →
the relation R is Reflexive.
b) We have, x//y → y//x, y//z → z//y, x//z → z//x. Hence. xRy → yRx → the
relation R is Symmetric.
c) Here, x//y and y// z → x//z. That is xRy and yRz → xRz, the relation R
is Transitive.
Since, relation R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive, so, it is an Equivalence
Relation.
Exercise 1.3 (B)
1 (a) Define ‘domain’ and ‘range’ of a relation with example.
(b) What is meant by an inverse relation? Give an example.
(c) Define the following relation with an example in each.
(i) Symmetric relation (ii) Reflexive Relation
(iii) Transitive relation (iv) Equivalence relation
2. Find the domain and range of the following relations.
a) {(1, 3), (1, 5), (2, 3), (2, 5), (3, 3), (3, 5)}
b) {(2, 4), (2, 6), (3, 6), (3, 9), (4, 8), (4, 12)}
c) {(5, 8), (6, 9), (7, 10), (8, 11)}
d) {(8, 6), (7, 5), (6, 4), (5, 3), (4, 2), (3, 1)}
3. Find the inverse relation to each relation given in question 2 and state
their domain and range.
R
4. The relation R from A → B is denoted by an arrow A B
diagram 1 5
a) Write the relation R as the set of ordered pair
of numbers. 2 6
b) State the domain and range of the relation. 3

19 4 7
 c) Write down the inverse relation R – 1 in the form of set of ordered pairs.
5. If A = {1, 2, – 3, – 4} is the domain of relation, find:
a) The range of the relation R1, if the second element of the ordered
pair in R1 is double of the first element.
b) Range of the relation R2, if the second element is one more than the
double of the first element in the set of ordered pairs in R2.
c) Range of the relation R3, if the second element of the ordered pairs in R3
added to the first gives the sum equal to –2.
d) Range of the relation R4, if the second element of the ordered pairs in R4
is equal to 2.
6. Let A = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} be the given set and a relation R in A × A is
define as R = {(x, y) : y is the multiple of x}. Write the relation R in the
form of ordered pairs and find:
a. Domain of R
b. Range of R
c. Inverse relation R – 1
d. Domain and range of the inverse relation R – 1.
7. Find the range of the each of the following relations.
a. {(x, y): y = 2x + 1, 0 ≤ x ≤ 3, x ∈ W}
b. {(x, y): y = x2  1, 0 ≤ x ≤ 3, x ∈ W}
c. {(x, y): y = 3x2  2x 1, 1≤ x ≤ 4, x ∈ W }
d. {(x, y): y = 52  3x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 5, x ∈ W }
8. Find the inverse of each of the following relations.
a. {(1, 0), (2, 1), (3, 2), (4, 3)}
b. {( – 1, – 1), (0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 2)}
c. {(3, – 1), (4, – 2), (5, – 3), (6, – 4)}
d. {(4, – 2), (4, 2), (1, – 1), (1, 1)}
9. Find the inverse of each in the form of set of ordered pairs for each of the
relation given in question no.7.
10. Identify any two suitable example of daily life which satisfies all
conditions of equivalence relation.

20
1.4 Functions
Look at the graph alongside. It gives 8
the growth of a plant recorded
6
weekly.

Height in cm
4
Here, for each number of weeks there
corresponds a unique height of the 2

plant. We say that the height increase 0

as the function of time. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Number of weeks

Sin ?

Look at the graph of sine ratio:

To each  positive or negative, there
corresponds a unique value for sin . We say
that sine ratio is the function of .

R1
Consider the following arrow diagrams A B

1. Each element of the domain set A has unique

image in the range set B. There is one to one a p
pairing between the elements of two sets. We b q
say that R1 is a function.
c r

R2
A B

2. Here one element a of domain set A is paired a p

with two elements of the range set B. we say
b q
that R2 is not a function. It is simply a relation.
c r

A R3 B

3. Here the element c of the domain set A has no a p

image in the range set B. We say R3 is not a
function. It is simply a relation. b q
\
c r
21
 R4
A B

4. Here, however a and b of the domain set A have a p

one image p in the range set B, we say that each
element in the domain set has unique image in the b q
range set, and as such R4 is a function.
c r

Let A and B be two non–empty sets, then a special type of relation f: A→B
becomes a function if each element of set A has unique image in set B. If x is an
element in set A, then its image in set B is denoted by f(x). Symbolically,
y = f(x) , xA, yB.
Domain and range of a function
Let f:A→B be a function . Then set A is called the domain of the function f and
the set B is called the co – domain of the function 'f '. If the elements of set A are
denoted by the variable x and their images by the variable y then the subset of the
co – domain containing the elements y is called the range of the function f. Here,
the element x is called the pre – image and y is called the image of x under the
function f.
If f:A→B be a function Domain of f = A
Co – domain of f = B Range of f = {f(x):x∈A}  B

Example 1
Which of the following relations are functions?
a) f = {(3, 2), (4, 1), (5, 0), (4, 2)}
b) g = {(2, 1), (1, 0), (0, – 1), ( – 1, – 1)}
c) h = {(3, 2), (4, 2), (5, 2), (6, 7)}
d) k = {(1, a), (2, b), (3, c), (4, d)}

22
 f
Solution
a. In the relation f, there are two ordered pairs (4, 3 2
1) and (4, 2) with same pre image 4 and by
4 1
definition f is not a function. (In a mapping if
two images have the same pre – image; it is not a 5 0
function.)

2 1

b. In the relation g, each element in the domain set has 1 0

unique image in the co–domain and by definition g 0 - -1

is a function.
-1 -2

c. In the relation h, one image 2 has three pre –

images 3, 4 and 5 and 6 has an image 7. We say 3
2
that each element in the domain has an unique 4
image in the co – domain and by definition h is a 5
function.
6 7

d. In the relation K, each element in the domain has 1 a

unique image in the co – domain, the relation k 2 b
defines a function.
3 c

4 d

23
Example 2
Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b, c} be given sets and a function f is defined by.
f(1) = a, f(2) = a, f(3) = c
A B
Find the domain, co–domain and range of f
f.
1 a
Solution: Range
Here, domain of f is A = {1, 2, 3}
2 c
Co – domain of f = {a, b, c} 3 b
Given that, f(1) = a
3
f(2) = a
f(3) = c
∴ Range of f = {a, c}
If f:A→B is a function then each element of A must have image in co – domain B
but it is not necessary that each element of the co – domain has a pre – image in
A.
Exercise – 1.4(A)
1. a) Define a function with an example.
b) What is meant by domain of a function?
c) What is meant by range of a function?
d) What does co – domain mean?
2. Define the following term with example.
a) Image b) pre – image
3. State whether the following relation are function or not.
a) f = {(1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9), (4, 16)}
b) g = {(±1, 1), ( ±2, 4), ( ±3, 9)}
c) h = {(4, 3), (5, 3), (6, 3), (7, 3)}
d) i = {(5, 2), (5, 3), (5, 4), (6, 1)}

24
4. State whether the following relation are function or not.

f g
A B A B

3 2
1 a
4 1
2 b
5
3 c
6 0

h i
A B A B

1 1 1 a

2 0 2 b

3 1 3 c

4 2 4 d

j
A B k
A B
5 10
1
6 15 a
2
7 20 b
3
8 25 c
4

25
5. Represent each of the following relation by an arrow diagram and state
clearly which of these relation represent the function.
a) {(1, 2), (3, 6), ( – 2, – 4), ( – 4, – 8)}
b) {( – 5, 3), (0, 3), (6, 3)}
c) {(9, – 5), (9, 5), (2, 4)}
d) {( – 2, 5), (5, 7), (0, 1), (4, – 2)}
6. State whether the following relation is a function or not.
a)

X 3 4 5 6

Y 2 2 1 0

b) 2 → 4, 3 → 2, 4 →1, 2→5
c) Y d) Y

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1
X' X X' X
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Y' Y'
y
7. Graph shows the bouncing of the lawn
tennis ball in the duration of 6 seconds.
Is this a relation, function or neither?
Give your answer with reason.

x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

26
Vertical line Test
We can define a function as the set of ordered pairs (x, f(x)) where each x is
distinct and no two x's will have the same f(x) or y. This concept helps us to test
whether a given graph represents a function or not by applying the vertical line
test. We can draw several vertical lines perpendicularly to x – axis and check if
anyone of them intersects the graph of a function at two or more points. If it is the
case the graph doesn’t represent a function. Consider the following example:
Example 1
a. Consider f(x) = {(1, 2), (3, 4), (5, 6), (7, 8)}. 7

Graphing these ordered pairs 6

we get, the graph as shown. 5

By drawing several vertical lines 4

perpendicular to x – axis, it can be
3
seen that there is no vertical line
2
that intersects the graph of f(x) at
1
more than one point. We say that the 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
graph represent the function.

Y
b. Consider, g(x) = {(1, 5), (3, 5), (5, 5)}.
Graphing these ordered pairs,
we get the graph as shown.
Here, too, there is no vertical
lines that intersects the graph at
more than one point. We X’
O
X
say that g(x) is a function.

Y
c. Consider h(x) = {(1, 1), (1, 5), (3, 2), (3, 4),
(4, 3), (5, 2)}. Graphing these ordered pairs,
we get the graph as shown. Did you notice here,
the vertical lines are intersecting the graph at Y’
two points (more than one point). We say that
h(x) is not a function. X' X
Y'
27
If a vertical line interests the graph of f(x) at only one point then f(x) is a
function, otherwise it is not.
Example 2
Which of the following graph represents a function?
Solution:
a) b)

Drawing vertical lines perpendicular to x – axis in each we get,

R
P

The vertical line intersects the graph in (a) at one point only. Therefore, it is a
function. The vertical line intersects the graph in (b) at two points. Therefore, it is
not a function.
Exercise 1.4(B)
1. Apply vertical line test and determine which of the following graph represents
a function.
a) Y b) Y

X
O

X
O

28
 Y
Y
c) d)

X
X O
O
Y
Y
e) f)

X
X O
O

g) h) Y
Y

X
O X O

i) Y j) Y

X
O

O X

29
Types of function f1 f2
a) Onto function A B A B
1 a a
A function f: A→B is an onto 1
function if its range is equal to its 2 b b
co – domain. In the arrow diagram 2
f1 and f2 are onto functions. 3 c c

g1 g2
b) Into function A B A B
function f:A→B is an into function a
1 a
if its range is proper subset of its co- 1
domain. In the given arrow diagram 2
b b
g1 and g2 are into functions. 2
c c
3 3
d d

c) One to one function

A function f:A→B is an one to one
h1 h2
function if each image has an A B A B
unique pre–image in the domain. In a
1 1 a
the given arrow diagram, h1 and h2
b
are one to one functions. Moreover, 2 2 b
h1 is one to one and into function, c
whereas h2 is one to one and onto 3 3 c
d
function.

d) Many to one function:

A function f:A→B is many to one i1 i2
function if an image has more than A B A B
one pre–image in the domain. For 1
1 a
example, in the arrow diagram a
functions i1 and i2 are many to one 2 2 b
b
onto and many to one into function
c
respectively. 3 3
c d
4 4

30
More types of Function
h(x)
a. Constant function: 3 f(x)
A function f:A→B is a A B
2
constant function if each
1
element in the domain has 1
only one image in the range. 2
2
For example, f(x) and h(x) in 10 1 2 3
4
the given figure are constant functions. 3

b. Identity function: 4
g2(x) g1(x)

A function f : A → B is an A B
3
identity function if its image 1 1
and pre-image are same. In 2
another word, if an element 2 2
maps onto itself, this type of 1
3 3
function is an identity function. 0 1 2 3 4

Here, the figure g1(x) and g2(x) are identity function.

c. Linear function:
A function of the form f(x) = mx + c, which gives a straight line having slope
m and y – intercept c when graphed is a linear function. Based on the value of
m, a linear function has different forms of graphs as shown below.
Y Y

y=c y = mx + c

c

X' X X' X
O O
Y'
Y'
m=0 m has definite value

31
Exercise 1.4 (C)
1. State the kind of function in each of the following.
a) f b) g
A B A B
a 1
a 1
b 2
b 2
c 3
c 3
d 4

h i
c) d)
A B A B
a 1
1
a
b 2
2
b
c 3
3

e) j f) k
A A B
B
a
1 a
b d
2 b
c
3 c

2. State the types of function represented by the following graph.

a) b)

y=f(x)
y=g(x)

32
 c)

y=h(x)

3. Draw mapping diagram to each function given below and state the type
of function.
a) f = {(1, 2), (2, 4), (3, 6)} b) g = {(1, 1), ( – 1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9)}
c) h = {(1, 0), (2, 0), (3, 0)}
4. If A = {1, 2} and B = {p, q, r} how many functions from A→B can be
defined which is:
a) one to one b) many to one
c) one to one and onto d) many to one and into.

33
Values of a function
Let f:A→B be a function that associates xA to unique yB then y is called the
value of the function. It is denoted by y = f(x).
Here, f(x) is the image of x under the function f and x is called the pre – image of
f(x) or the pre – image of y.
Example 1
If f(x) = x2 + 2, find the value of f(–1), f(1), f(2) and f( – 2).
Solution:
To find f(1), we have substitute x = – 1 in f(x) = x2 + 2.
Hence, f(1) = (1)2 + 2 = 3.
Likewise,
f(1) = (1)2 + 2 = 3
f(2) = (2)2 + 2 = 6
f(2) = (2)2 + 2 = 6
Example: 2
If f:A→B is defined as f(x) = 2x + 1 and A = {1, 0, 1, 2} find the range of f.
Solution:
As the range of f is the set of all images obtained by substituting x = 1, 0, 1, 2 in
the given function.
Hence, we have,
f(–1) = 2(1) + 1 = 1
f(0) = 2(0) + 1 = 1
f(1) = 2(1) + 1 = 3
f(2) = 2(2) + 1 = 5
Therefore, the range of f is the set {1, 1, 3, 5}
Example 3
If f(x) = 3x 5 and 7 is one of the image, then find the pre – image of 7.
Solution:
Here, 7 is the image of f(x)

34
∴f(x) = 7
Or, 3x  5 = 7
Or 3x = 12
∴x = 4 is the pre – image of 7
Example 4
If f(x + 2) = 3x2, find f(2)
Solution:
Here, f(x + 2) = 3x  2
Or, f(x + 2) = 3(x + 2)  8
∴ f(x) = 3x 8
And f(2) = 3 × 2  8 =  2

Exercise 1.4(D)
1. (a) If f(x) = 4x + 5, find f(2), f(3), f(5).
(b) If f(x) = 2x2 1, find f(1), f(0), f(2).
(c) If f(x) = 3x2 + 2x1, find f(0), f(2), f(4)
(d) If g(x) = x3 2, find g(1), g(1), g(2), g( – 2)
2. Find the range of each of the function given below if the domain D is
given.
a. f(x) = 2x – 4, D = {1, 0, 3}
b. g(x) = 3x + 1, D = {1, 3, 5}
c. h(x) = 2 3x D = {1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
d. k(x) = x2 + 2 D = {1, 0, 1, 2}
3. (a) If f(x + 2) = 5x8, find f(x) and f(5)
(b) If f(x + 1) = 3x + 4, find f(x) and f(3).
(c) If f(2x  1) = 4x + 7, find f(x) and f( 2)
(d) If f(3x + 2) = 12x 5, find f(x) and f(6).
f(x+h)- f(x)
4. (a) If f(x) = x 5, find f(h), f(x + h) and where h ≠ 0.
h

35
 g(2+h)- g(2)
(b) If g(x) = x2 – 2x, find g(2), g(2 + h) and where h ≠ 0.
h
3𝑥 − 1, 𝑥 > 0
(c) If f(x) = { is a given function, find f( – 1), f(1/5), f(0).
𝑥 + 1, 𝑥 < 0
4𝑥 − 1 𝑖𝑓 − 3 < 𝑥 < 0
(d) If f(x) = { 1 + 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 2 is a given function, find f(4), f(1)and
𝑥 2 + 9 𝑖𝑓 4 ≤ 𝑥 < 5
f( – 2).
5. (a) If P = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} be a given set and a relation R:P→P is
defined as R = {(x, y) :x + y≤7}, find the domain and range of R. Is R
a function?
(b) If f(x) = x2 – 3 and one of the image is 22, find the pre – image.
(c) If g(x) = x2 – 2x + 1 and one of the image is 1, find the pre – image.
(d) What is the use of function in your daily life? Discuss in small group
with your friends and prepare a report.

1.5 Polynomials
Introduction to Polynomials
We can classify the algebraic expression (or the algebraic function) in the
following categories.
(1) On the basis of number of terms in a function

Function Number of terms Name

f(x) = 4x 1 Monomial

f(x) = 4x + 5 2 Binomial

f(x) = 4x2 + 4x + 7 3 Trinomial

(2) On the basis of power (degree) of the variable

Function Degree Name of function

f(x) = 4x + 3 1 Linear function

36
 f(x) = 3x2 + 4x + 5 2 Quadratic Function

f(x) = x10 + 3x7 + 12 10 Polynomial function

Hence, a polynomial might be a monomial, binomial, trinomial etc. based on

the number of terms, may be linear, quadratic, cubic or of higher degree based
on the highest power (degree) of the polynomials and may be polynomial over
integers, over rational number, or over real number according to the nature of
coefficients in it.
The expression of the form P(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 +…. + anxn an  0 where a1,
a2, a3…, an are real numbers and n is a non – negative integer, is called a
polynomial of degree n in x.
In the polynomial function,
P(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + …….. + anxn,
i) If the coefficient a0, a1, a2, a3, …… , an are all positive integers, it is a
polynomials of degree n in x over non – negative integers.
ii) If the coefficients a0, a1, a2, a3, ……, an are rational numbers, it is a
polynomial of degree n in x over rational numbers.
iii) If the coefficient a0, a1, a2, a3, ……, an are real number, it is a polynomial
of degree n in x over real numbers.
For example,
(i) P(x) = 3x2  2x + 7 is a polynomial of degree 2 in x over integers.
3 3
(ii) P(x) = 5x5  7x4 + 10x3 + 7 is a polynomial of degree 5 in x over rational
numbers.
(iii) P(x) = 7x4 +√2𝑥 2 + √5x + 6 is a polynomial of degree 4 in x over real
numbers.
Note that, a polynomial may be expressed in the ascending power of the variable
or in descending power of the variables as in the following:
(i) P(x) = x5 + 2x4 + 3x3 – 5x2 + 2x – 7 is in descending power of variable x.
(ii) P(x) = – 7 + 2x – 5x2 + 3x3 + 2x4 + x5 is in ascending power of variable x.
These are examples of polynomials in standard form.

37
Example 1
Which of the following expression is a polynomial?
7
(a) 3x4 + 2x3 – 9x2 + √2𝑥 + 7

(b) 4x3 + 3x1/2 + 5 √𝑥 + 9

3

Solution:
a) It is a polynomial because the power of the variable is positive integers.
b) It is not a polynomial because the power of the variables in 2nd and 3rd terms
are not integers.
Literal coefficient and numerical coefficient
If 2xy + 5 is a polynomial in x, then y is literal coefficient of x, 2 is numerical
coefficient of x and 5 is constant term.
Degree of a polynomial
The degree of a polynomial is the highest power of the variable in it. If a
polynomial consists of more than one variable, the degree of such polynomial is
highest number obtained by adding the power of these variables in it.
Example 2
Find the degree of the following polynomials:
a) P(x) = 3x7 – 4x3 + 3
b) Q(x) = 5x2y + 7x3y3 + 11 x4y3
Solution:
a) It is a polynomial in x, where the highest power of the variable x is 7.
Therefore, it has the degree 7.
b) It is a polynomial in x and y where the highest power of the variables is 4 + 3
= 7. Hence the degree of this polynomial is 7.
Equality of Polynomials
Two polynomials p(x) and q(x) are equal if they have,
 Same degree
 Same number of similar terms
 The terms having same index of x have equal coefficients.

38
Example 3
Find value of a if p(x) = q(x) where p(x) = 5x3 + 7x + 8, and
q(x) = 5x3 + ax + 8
Solution:
Here, p(x) = 5x3 + 7x + 8, and q(x) = 5x3 + ax + 8,
Since p(x) = q(x) then equating the coefficients of like terms, a = 7.
Exercise 1.5 (A)
1. Define the following terms.
a) Polynomial
b) Polynomials in standard form
c) Degree of a polynomial
d) Equality of polynomials
2. Which of the following function is a polynomial function ?
a) f(x) = 2x + 3
b) g(x) = √𝑥 + 3
3

c) h(x) = 2x3 + √𝑥
3

1 5
d) i(x) = 4x3 – 2x2 + 7x + 6
3. State the degree of polynomials given in question 2.
4. Find the numerical and literal coefficients in each of the following
polynomials.
a) If 2xy is a polynomial in x.
b) If 2xy is a polynomial in y.
c) If 3x2y is a polynomial in x
d) If 3x2y is a polynomial in y.
2𝑥𝑦 + 5
e) If is a polynomial in xy.
8
5. Find the degree of each polynomial function given below:
a) f(x) = 2x2y
b) g(x) = 3xyz2

39
 c) f(x) = 3x2 – 4x5 + 2x.
d) g(x) = 8x3 – 3 x+ 4x4 + 5
e) h(xy) = 6x3y2 + 7xy37xy4
f) g(xy) = 3x4y – 5x2y5 + xy3.
6. Express each of the following polynomials in standard form in
i) ascending order ii) descending order.
a) 2x3 + 5x2 + 9x4 + 7x.
b) √3𝑥3 + 7x2 + 3x4 + 5
c) 2x2 – x + 8 + 3x3.
d) 4x3 + 2x2 – 3 + 4x5
7. Write each of the following polynomials in standard form in ascending
order?
a) f(x) = 5x4 – 7x3 + 2x2 – 8x + 9
1
14 3
b) g(x) = √25x4 – x + 42 x2 – 8x + 9
2
c) h(x) = 3x3 – x2 + 7x + 8
d) j(x) = √9x3 – 2x2+ 7x – 8
e) k(x) = 5x4 – 9x3 + 2x – 6
f) l(x) = 5x4 + √729x3 + 2x – 6
3

8. If the pair of following polynomial functions are equal, find a and b.

a) f(x) = 6x6 – 4x2 – bx + 8 and g(x) = ax6 – 4x2 + 2x + 8
b) f(x) = 7x4 – ax3 + 3x + b and g(x) = 7x4 + 3x
c) f(x) = 19x5 – 12x4 + ax + 12 and g(x) = bx5 – 12x4 + 15x + 12
d) f(x) = √8x4 + ax3 – 3x – 7 and g(x) = bx4 + 9x3 + bx – 7.
3

Operation on polynomials
In this section we shall discuss on addition, subtraction and multiplication of two
or more than two polynomials.
a. Addition and subtraction of polynomials
Consider the following example

40
Example 4
If p(x) = 4x3 – 3x2 – 7x and q(x) = 2x2 – 5x + 7 find,
i. p(x) + q(x)
ii. p(x) – q(x)
Solution:
Here both polynomials could be expressed as the polynomials of the same degree
with zero coefficient for the absent term. Hence, expressing p(x) and q(x) in
standard form of the same degree in descending order, we get.
p(x) = 4x3 – 3x2 – 7x + 0
q(x) = 0x3 + 2x2 – 5x + 7
Now,
i. p(x) + q(x) = ( 4x3 – 3x2 – 7x + 0) + ( 0x3 + 2x2 – 5x + 7)
= (4 + 0)x3 + ( – 3 + 2)x2 + ( – 7 – 5)x + (0 + 7)
= 4x3 – x2 – 12x + 7
Here, we have added the coefficients of like terms
ii. p(x)  q(x) = (4x3 3x2 7x + 0) (0x3+2x2  5x+7)
= (4x3 3x2 7x + 0) + (0x3 2x2 + 5x – 7)
= (4  0)x3 + ( 3 2)x2 + (7 + 5)x + (0 – 7)
= 4x3 5x2 2x 7
Here we have subtracted the coefficients of like terms.
We can perform the above addition and subtraction without introducing the absent
term as in the following.
i. p(x) + q(x) = (4x3 3x2 7x) + (2x2 5x + 7)
= 4x3 + (3 + 2)x2 + (7  5)x + 7
= 4x3 x2 12x + 7
Here, we have added the like terms.
ii. p(x)  q(x) = ( 4x3 – 3x2 – 7x) – (2x2 – 5x+7)
= ( 4x3 – 3x2 – 7x) + ( – 2x2 + 5x – 7)
= 4x3 + ( – 3 – 2)x2 + ( – 7 + 5)x – 7

41
 = 4x3 – 5x2 – 2x – 7
We can add or subtract two polynomials by adding or subtracting the coefficients
like terms.

b. Multiplication of polynomials
Consider the following example:
If f(x) = x2 + 2x – 1 and g(x) = x2 – x + 5, find f(x) x g(x)
Here,
f(x) = x2 + 2x – 1 and g(x) = x2 – x + 5
Now,
f(x) x g(x) = (x2 + 2x – 1) x (x2 – x + 5)
= x2(x2 – x + 5) + 2x(x2 – x + 5) – 1(x2 – x + 5)
= x4 – x3 + 5x2 + 2x3 – 2x2 + 10x – x2 + x – 5
= x4 + x3 + 2x2 + 11x – 5
We can multiply two polynomials by multiplying each term of the multiplicand
polynomials by each term of the multiplier polynomial.
Example 1
If f(x) = 2x – 1, g(x) = 2x + 1 and h(x) = 5x2 + 6x + 2, find f(x) x g(x) + h(x)
Solution:
Here,
f(x) x g(x) = (2x – 1), (2x + 1)
= 2x(2x + 1) – 1(2x + 1)
= 4x2 + 2x – 2x – 1
∴f(x) x g(x) = 4x2 – 1
Now,
f(x) x g(x) + h(x) = (4x2 – 1) + (5x2 + 6x + 2)
= (4 + 5)x2 + 6x + ( – 1 + 2)
∴f(x) x g(x) + h(x) = 9x2 + 6x + 1

42
Example 2
If f(x) = 5x + 1, g(x) = 25x2 – 5x + 1 and h(x) = 128x3 – 4x2 + 6x + 9, find h(x) –
f(x) x g(x).

Solution:
Here,
f(x) x g(x) = (5x + 1), ( 25x2 – 5x + 1)
= 5x(25x2 – 5x + 1) + 1(25x2 – 5x + 1)
= 125x3 – 25x2 + 5x + 25x2 – 5x + 1
∴f(x) x g(x) = 125x3 + 1.
Now,
h(x) – f(x) x g(x) = (128x3 – 4x2 + 6x + 9) – ( 125x3 + 1)
= (128x3 – 4x2 + 6x + 9) + ( – 125x3 – 1)
= (128 – 125)x3 – 4x2 + 6x + (9 – 1)
∴h(x) – f(x) x g(x) = 3x3 – 4x2 + 6x + 8
Exercise – 1.5 (B)
1. Find f(x) + g(x) in each of the following.
a. f(x) = 3x3 – 4x2 + 5x – 7
g(x) = 2x2 – 3x + x3
b. f(x) = 7x3 + 4x2 – 5
g(x) = x3 – x2 + 1
c. f(x) = 9x4 + 8x3 + 7x – 15
g(x) = 11x4 – 8x2 – 12
2. Find f(x) – g(x) in each of the polynomials given in question no. 1.
3. Verify: f(x) + g(x) = g(x) + f(x), from the polynomials given in question
no. 1.
4. Find f(x) x g(x) and g(x) x f(x) in each of the following.
a. f(x) = (x3 – 1), g(x) = x3 + 1.
b. f(x) = (x2 – x + 1), g(x) = (x + 1)

43
 c. f(x) = x3 – 2x2 + x – 1, g(x) = x2 – 2x + 4
d. f(x) = x2 – 2x + 1, g(x) = (x3 + 7x2 – 5)
5. Verify f(x) x g(x) = g(x) x f(x) using the results in question 4.
6. If f(x) = 2x2 + 7, g(x) = 3x – 9 and h(x) = 5x2 + 7x – 9 find
a. [f(x) x g(x)] x h(x)
b. f(x) x [g(x) x h(x)]
c. f(x) x [g(x) + h(x)]
d. g(x) x [f(x) – h(x)]
7. Based on the result of question no. 6, verify that (a) = (b)
𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟕
8. If f(x) = 𝟑x3 + 5 – 𝟗x, g(x) = 𝟐x2 + 𝟗x – 6 and h(x) = x2 + x. find
a. [f(x) + g(x)] + h(x)
b. f(x) + [g(x) + h(x)]
c. [f(x) – g(x)] + h(x)
d. f(x) – [g(x) – h(x)]
9. If p(x) = 2x2 + 3, q(x) = 3x2 + x + 1and r(x) = 5x + 7 Verify the following:
a) p(x) + q(x) = q(x) + p(x)
b) [p(x) + q(x)] + r(x) = p(x) + [q(x) + r(x)]
c) p(x) x q(x) = q(x) x p(x)
d) p(x)[q(x) + r(x)] = p(x) x q(x) + p(x) x r(x)
e) p(x)[q(x) – r(x)] = p(x) x q(x) – p(x) x r(x)
10. a) What must be added to 3x2 + x + 1 to make it 5x2 + 7x – 15?
b) What must be added to 5x3 – 7x + 13 to make it 5x3 + 7x2 + 3x – 17?
c) What must be subtracted from x3 + 3x2y – 4xy2 to make it 5x3 + 7x2y +
12xy2 ?
d) What must be subtracted from x3 – y3 to make it x3 + 2xy2 – 3x2y + 4y3?

44
1.6 Sequence and Series
a) Sequence:
Consider the dot pattern for numbers, see the numbers they represent and
continue to the next two terms.
: :: ::: ::::
2 4 6 8
Here, the dot pattern represents the arrangement of number in the definite
pattern as 2, 4, 6, 8, which can be continued to the desired number of terms
and therefore the next two numbers are 10 and 12. We say that this is an
arrangement of rule that the number in desired term is obtained by
multiplying the number of term by 2, giving
2 × 1 = 2 first term of the sequence
2 × 2 = 4 second term of the sequence
2 × 3 = 6 third term of the sequence
2 × 4 = 8 fourth term of the sequence
2 × 5 = 10 the desired terms to be continued
2 × 6 = 12 the next desired term to be continued.
In general, the nth term of this sequence is given by tn = 2n, by giving different
values to n, we can get the desired terms of the sequence.
A sequence is an ordered set of numbers each of whose term is governed by a
fixed rule.
Once we have the general rule, the formula for the nth term, we can play
different games with sequences as in the following.
Consider for example
tn = 2n implies 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, … as the sequence of even numbers.
Subtracting 1, from the rule, we get:
tn = 2n – 1 implies 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, … as the sequence of odd numbers.
Adding 1 in the formula, we get:
tn = 2n + 1implies 3, 5, 7, 9, … as the sequence of odd numbers greater than 2.
These different kinds of sequence can be graphed by plotting tn against n as in the
following:

45
 tn =2n
tn
5
It seems that all the points
4
representing the terms of a sequence
3 lie in a straight line, as such these are
2 linear sequences.
1
Similarly, the quadratic and cubic
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 n sequences are generalized.

tn tn=2n-1
5
4 In fact, a sequence is a function whose
3 domain is the set of natural numbers and the
range is subset of the real number.
2
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 n

Example 1
What are the next two terms in the given sequences?
a. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …?
b. 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, … ?
Solution:
a. Here the sequence is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …, it is seen that each term in the
sequence is one more than the immediate preceding term. Therefore, the next
two terms are, 5 + 1 = 6 and 6 + 1 = 7. In the general sense, it is a sequence
of natural numbers whose nth term is tn = n and the desired terms are the 6th
and the 7th term.
∴ tn = n
→t6 = 6
t7 = 7

46
b. 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, … is the given sequence; each of the term is 3 more than the
immediate preceding term. Hence, the required next two terms are 14 + 3 = 17
and 17 + 3 = 20. In general, the rule gives tn = 3n – 1 as the nth term of the
sequence.
 The required next two terms, 6th and 7th terms are:
t6 = 3 × 6 – 1 = 17
t7 = 3 × 7 – 1 = 20
Example 2
If f(n) = 75 + 5n, n∈N is a rule for the nth term of the sequence, find the first four
terms and write them as a sequence of numbers.
Solution:
We have,
f(n) = 75 + 5n.
Giving value to n such that 1 ≤ n ≤ 4, we get.
f(1) = 75 + 5 × 1 = 80
f(2) = 75 + 5 × 2 = 85
(3) = 75 + 5 × 3 = 90
f(4) = 75 + 5 × 4 = 95
Hence, the required first four terms are 80, 85, 90, 95 and the sequence
corresponding to these terms is 80, 85, 90, 95.

Exercise – 1.6 (A)

1. Find the next two terms of the sequences:
a. 3, 5, 7, 9, …
b. – 4, – 2, 0, 2, …
c. 18, 14, 10, 6, 2, …
d. 20, 15, 10, 5, …
e. 5, 10, 20, 40, …
f. 64, 32, 16, 8, …
2. By drawing graph of tn against n for the above sequences, decide whether
they are linear sequences or not.
47
3. Look at the following patterns of dots that represent sequence of numbers.
a. Find two more patterns.
b. Draw graph and decide whether the following sequences are linear,
quadratic or cubic sequences.

i.
1 3 6 10 ? ?

ii.

1 4 9 16 ? ?
4. Find the first five terms of the following function and write them as
sequence where n is the natural number.
a. f(n) = 3n + 2 b. f(n) = n2 – 1
c. f(n) = 2n d. f(n) = ( – 1)n x n2
5. Consider the nth term of the sequence tn = n2.
a. Find first six terms of the sequence.
b. In the formula tn = n2, subtract 1 and find the first six terms of this
sequence.
c. In the formula tn = n2, multiply by 2 and subtract 3, and find the first
six terms of the sequences.
6. The adjoining figure gives the tiling structure of a house; where the
shaded part is red tile and the rest is white.
P indicates the order of the structure of the tiles.

48
 Find the formula for each structure to find the number of tiles needed for the
red tile.
a. Find the formula for each structure to find the number of tiles needed
for the white tile.
b. Write the formula in terms of p for the total number of tiles?

3.2 The General terms of a sequence:

Consider the set of natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, …..n. Tabulate them and try to find
the nth term under these operation.

Natural number 1 2 3 4 5 . . . n tn

Multiply by 2 2 4 6 8 10 . . . 2n 2n

Multiply by 2 1 3 5 7 9 . . . 2n – 1 2n – 1
and subtract 1

Square it 1 4 9 16 25 . . . n2 n2

Square it and add 3 6 11 18 27 . . . n2 + 2 n2 + 2

2

Now take any one nth term from the table, for example tn = 2n – 1 and substitute n
= 1, 2, 3, ….n etc. from natural number you get the terms as
t1 = 2 × 1 – 1 = 1
t2 = 2 × 2 – 1 = 3
t3 = 2 × 3 – 1 = 5
t4 = 2 × 4 – 1 = 7
t5 = 2 × 5 – 1 = 9 and so on.
We get the same sequence 1, 3, 5, 7, 9….. as in the table. We say that tn = 2n – 1
is the generator of the terms of a sequence. In the language of sequence, it is
called the general term.
To find the general term of a sequence means to find its nth term tn expressed in
terms of n. When given different values to n from the natural numbers, it
generates the desired terms of a sequence and the sequence up to desired number
of terms.

49
Method of finding general term of sequence
a) Hit and trial method.
By guessing and testing different values for the common pattern and generate
the general term of sequences. For instance, find the nth term of the sequence
1, 4, 9, 16, 25, ………
Make a guess; and rewrite the terms as
1 = 11 = 12→ 1st term 4 = 2 × 2 = 22→ 2nd term
9 = 3 × 3= 32→ 3rd term 16 = 4 × 4 = 42→ 4th term
25= 5 × 5 = 52→ 5th term
Therefore, nth term = (number of term)2 = n × n
i.e. tn = n2 .
In this method we identify the common pattern among the terms and then
generalize for the nth term.
b. Term difference method
In the previous lesson we have been introduced that tn = dn + c is a linear
sequence. Where d is the common difference and c is constant.
Giving different values 1, 2, 3, 4, … to n from the set of natural numbers we
have the sequence as.
d + c, 2d + c 3d + c 4d + c 5d + c, …

Working out the difference

d d d d
Here, the first difference is d. A sequence of this type has the general term tn =
dn + c, and is a linear sequence.
Example 1
Find the nth term of the sequence, 18, 14, 10, 6, 2, …
Solution:
working out the difference
18 14 10 6 2

–4 –4 –4 –4 (first difference)

50
 As the first difference is the same number – 4, its nth term has the form tn =
dn + c; where d = – 4 and given that:
d + c = 18
or,  4 + c = 18
∴ c = 22
Hence, tn = dn + c
→ tn = – 4n + 22
This is a linear sequence.
ii) Again, we know that tn = an2 + bn + c is a quadratic sequence. Substituting
n = 1, 2, 3….. from the set of natural number, we get the sequence as
a+b+c 4a + 2b + c 9a + 3b + c 16a + 4b + c

3a + b 5a + b 7a + b (first difference)

2a 2a (second difference)
Here, the second difference is 2a, and the sequence having the second
difference constant is a quadratic sequence that has the nth term tn = an2 + bn +
c, in which 1st difference has the first term 3a + b, second difference is 2a and
the first term is a + b + c.
Example 2
Find the nth term of the sequence. 3, 6, 11, 18, 27, 38, …
Solution:
Sequence 3 6 11 18 27 38 …

3 5 7 9 11 (first difference)

2 2 2 2 (second difference)
As the second difference is a constant number 2, the sequence is a quadratic
sequence and has the nth term as tn = an2 + bn + c.

51
 Here, second difference 2a = 2
∴a=1
The first term of first difference 3a + b = 3.
or, 3 × 1 + b = 3.
b =0
The first term of the sequence
a+b+c=3
or, 1 + 0 + c = 3
∴c=2
Hence, the sequence has the general term
tn = an2 + bn + c.
or, tn = 1(n)2 + 0(n) + 2
or, tn = n2 + 2.
c. Sequence that does not turn into the same difference.
Consider the sequence 3, 9, 27, 81, 243, … Working out the difference.
3 9 27 81 243…

6 18 54 162

12 36 108

24 72
It seems that the sequence does not turn into the same difference. In such
situation we have to go for hit and trial method as sited earlier.
We have,

No of term (n) 1 2 3 4 5

Value of the term 3 = 31 9 = 32 27 = 33 81 = 34 243 = 35

Hence, tn = 3n; n ∈ N

52
Example 5
𝟏 𝟒 𝟗 𝟏𝟓
Find the nth term of the sequence: 𝟒 , 𝟗 , 𝟏𝟔 , 𝟐𝟓, …
Solution:
It seems somehow different than the one we have discussed earlier. Hence, we
may go far hit and trial method.

No of 1 2 3 4 nth
term

Value 1 1 4 2 2 9 3 2 16 4 2 𝑛 2
= ( )2 = ( ) = ( ) = ( ) ( )
of the 4 2 9 3 16 4 25 5 𝑛 + 1
2
term 1 2 2
3 2
4 2
= ( ) = ( ) = ( ) = ( )
1 + 1 2 + 1 3 + 1 4 + 1

𝑛 2
Hence, the general term (tn)= (𝑛 + 1)
Alternatively,
Take the numerator only, it is 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, …
Working out with the difference
1 4 9 16 25

3 5 7 9 (first difference)

2 2 2 (second difference)
It is quadratic sequence, where
The second difference 2a = 2→ a = 1
The first term of first difference 3a + b = 3 or, 3(1) + b = 3 gives b = 0.
And the first term a + b + c = 1.
or, 1 + 0 + c = 1 gives c = 0
And
or, tn = an2 + bn + c
or, tn = 1n2 + 0n + 0

53
or, tn = n2.
Taking the denominator and working out the difference we get,
4 9 16 25 36

5 7 9 11 (first difference)

2 2 2 (second difference)
Here, 2a = 2 or a = 1
3a + b = 5 or 3(1) + b = 5 ∴b = 2
a + b + c = 4 or 1 + 2 + c = 4 ∴c = 1 and
or, tn = an2 + bn + c
or, tn = 1n2 + 2n + 1
or, tn = (n + 1)2
Now combining the numerator and denominator, we get.
𝑛2 𝑛 2
tn = (𝑛 + 1)2 or, tn = (𝑛 + 1)

Example 4
−1 2 −3 4 −5
Find the nth term of the sequence.0, ,3, ,5, ……..
2 2 6
Solution
The sequence may be written as
0 1 2 −3 4 −5
,−2,3, ,5, , ………….
1 4 6
This is an alternative sequence, where the terms come + , – , + , – , + , – , …
For the sequence of this type the nth term is multiplied by ( – 1)n + 1 why?
Taking only positive values and making a table, we get:
No of 1 2 3 4 n
terms
Value of 0=1=
0 1−1 1 2−1 2 3−1 3 4−1 𝑛−1
the term 1 = = =
2 2 3 3 4 4 𝑛

54
 𝑛−1
Hence from the table, tn = ( – 1)n + 1( )
𝑛

For the alternative method:

Take the numerator sequence as 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …….
And denominator sequence as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ……
And work out the difference method as in Example 3
Exercise – 1.6 (B)
1. Find the first five terms of the sequence if its nth term is given.
a. tn = 3n + 1 b. tn = n2 + 4 + 5 c. tn = 3n2 – 5 d. tn = n3 – 3
2. Find the general term of the following sequences.
a. 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, …….. b. 5, 2, – 1, – 3, – 7……..
c. 7, 11, 15, 19, 23…… d. 2, 6, 12, 20, 30, …..
1 4 10 2 5 8 11
e. 3 , 5 , 1, , …. f. 7 , 8 , 9 , 10………..
9

3. Find the nth term of the following patterns of numbers.

a. b. c.

2 4 2

7 16 5

12 36 8

…. 64 11

…. 100 ….

144 ….

…. ….

…. ….

55
c. …

d.

…
F
G E
4. In the given figure (n + 10)2 = n2 + 20n + 100. When
n = 1, 2, 3, 4, …, how does the area of the rectangle D
H I
and square change.

A C
B
Introduction to Series and Sigma () Notation:
In everyday speech, the words sequence and series are often used synonymously,
however in mathematics they have different meaning. We have discussed earlier
about sequence. There is situation we have to sum up the series up to the desired
number of terms like as,
S1 = 1 (summing the first term)
S2 = 1 + 2 (summing up to first two terms)
S3 = 1 + 2 + 3 (summing up to first three terms)
S4 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 (Summing up to the first four terms) and so on.
These expression giving the partial sums of the terms of a sequence up to desired
number of terms are all series.
The sum of the terms of any types of sequence is called the series. i.e if t 1,
t2, t3, t4, ... be a sequence then t1 + t2 + t3 + t4 +... is series.

56
Sigma notation:

One of the effective way to represent the partial sum of the series is by means of
sigma notation () where a gives the starting term and b gives the ending term of
the series to be added.

Example 7
Let 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, …(2n – 1) be a sequence. Represent the following partial sums
using sigma () notation.
S1 = 1
S2 = 1 + 3
S3 = 1 + 3 + 5
S4 = 1 + 3 + 5 + 7
S5 = 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9.
To express any partial sum into sigma notation is to find the general term of the
sequence that corresponds the partial sums. Here the general term is tn = (2n – 1).
With this general term we express the above partial sums as.
S1 = 1 = ∑𝑛 = 1(2𝑛 − 1) has one term only.
S2 = 1 + 3 = ∑2𝑛 = 1(2𝑛 − 1) has two terms to be added.
S3 = 1 + 3 + 5 = ∑3𝑛 = 1(2𝑛 − 1) has three terms to be added.
S4 = 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = ∑4𝑛 = 1(2𝑛 − 1) has four terms to be added.
S5 = 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 = ∑5𝑛 = 1(2𝑛 − 1) has five terms to be added.
Example 8
Expand and evaluate the sum∑5𝑛 = 1(3𝑛 + 2).
Solution:
Here ∑5𝑛 = 1(3𝑛 + 2) is given. Giving the value of n from 1 to 5 in (3n + 2) we
get.
When, n = 1, (3n + 2) = 3 × 1 + 2 = 5
When, n = 2, (3n + 2) = 3 × 2 + 2 = 8
When, n = 3, (3n + 2) = 3 × 3 + 2 = 11
When, n = 4, (3n + 2) = 3 × 4 + 2 = 14.

57
When, n = 5, (3n + 2) = 3 × 5 + 2 = 17.
∴∑5𝑛 = 1(3𝑛 + 2) = 5 + 8 + 11 + 14 + 17 = 55

The symbol sigma  stand to mean the sum of all term between a and b.
Example 9
Express the series 1 + 8 + 17 + 28 + 42 in ∑ notation.
Solution:
Let the sequence corresponding to the sum 1 + 8 + 17 + 28 + 42 be 1, 8, 17, 28, 42.
Working out the difference, we get.
1 8 17 28 42

7 9 11 13 (first difference)

2 2 2 (second difference)
As the second difference is the constant number 2, the sequence is quadratic
sequence with nth term tn = an2 + bn + c.
Here,
2a = 2
or a = 1.
3a + b = 7
or 3 × 1 + b = 7
or b = 4.
a+b+c=1
or 1 + 4 + c = 1
or c = – 4
Hence,
tn = an2 + bn + c
or, tn = 1(n)2 + 4(n) – 4
∴tn = n2 + 4n – 4.

58
Therefore, 1 + 8 + 17 + 28 + 42 = ∑5𝑛 = 1(𝑛2 + 4𝑛 − 4)
Exercise – 1.6 (C)
1. (a) Define a series with suitable example.
(b) Differentiate between sequence and series.
(c) What does ∑ notation mean?
(d) How many terms shall be added when ∑10
𝑛 = 3 𝑡𝑛 is given?
2. Which of the following are sequences and which are series?
4 5 6 7
a) 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11 b) 3 , 3 , 3 , 3
c) ∑5𝑛 = 1 2𝑛 + 3 d){2n + 5}
e) {(1, 5), (2, 7), (3, 9), (4, 11)} f) 4 + 7 + 10 + 11 + …
g) 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + …
3. Express in ∑ notation for the following series:
a) 2 + 5 + 8 + 11 + 14 + 17 + 20
b) – 1 + 2 – 3 + 4 – 5 + 6 – 7
c) (a – 1), (a – 2)2, (a – 3)2, …….(a – 14)14
6 10 15 21 28
d) 2 + + + + + ……. up to 10 terms
2 2 2 2
4. Find the value of
a) ∑3𝑛 = 1 3𝑛 b) ∑4𝑛 = 1(3𝑛 − 1)
2𝑛−1
c) ∑6𝑛 = 3(𝑛2 + 1) d) ∑4𝑛 = 1 2𝑛 + 1
e) ∑8𝑛 = 3(−1)𝑛 (2𝑛 + 1) f)∑8𝑛 = 3(−1)𝑛 (2𝑛2 + 3𝑛 − 3)
5. (a) Find the total amount due at the end of 10th year on the sum of
Rs. 25, 000 invested at the rate of 8% p.a simple interest by using
∑ notation.
(b) Find the total amount due at the end of 12th year on the sum of
Rs. 20, 000 invested at the rate of 10% p.a simple interest by using
∑ notation.

59
 Unit 2 Concept of Limit

2.0 Review
Discuss on the following problems in small groups of students.
i) What is function? What will be the value of f(5) if f (x) = 5x2 + 8?
ii) What shape will be formed when the number of sides of a regular polygon
increases infinitely?
iii) May you complete the running course in the given condition that "you are
allowed to run half the distance between end point and your position at a
time?
1
iv) What will be the value of n2 when n = 10?

v) Two persons are walking towards a point form opposite side. Will they
coincide exactly?
2.1 Limit of Number Sequence
Take a line segment of length 12 cm. Mark at C such that C is the midpoint of
AB. Again divide AC into two equal parts with point D. Continuing the same
process, divide the segment AD into two halves. What will be the length of the
part of line segment We can write it as 12, 6, 3, 1.5, 0.75, 0.375, ………. and so
on.

A F E D C B

12
6

1.5
Observe the sequence of number. This sequence is decreasing sequence. Here
when the number of piece of line segment increase the length of line segments
decreases.
If we further divide into finite parts, what will happen? Discuss.

60
At the time the length of the piece of segment approaches to zero (but not zero)
Then 0 (zero) is limit value of number sequence 6, 3, 1.5, 0.75, 0.375, … In other
words, the limit of a sequence of numbers is the value at which the sequence
seems to be terminated but not exactly terminated.
Example 1
(a) What will be 7th term of the sequence of 81, 27, 9, 3, . . . .. ?
Solution: Here,
The first term = 81, second term = 27, third term = 9, fourth term = 3 and so
on.
27 1
ratio of second and first term = 81 = 3

9 1
ratio of third and second term = 27 = 3

Here, the ratio of two successive numbers is equal.

1
So the next term = 3 times of preceding term.

1
Hence, fourth term = 9 3 = 3

1
Fifth term = 33 = 1

1 1
Sixth term = 1 3 = 3

1 1 1
Seventh term = 3 3 = 9

(b) Is '0' is limit value of this sequence?

Solution: Here,
When the number of term increasing the value of term is decreasing by the
1
ratio of 3 . So, when n approaches to infinitely large value (∞) the value of
sequence approaches to zero. So '0' is limit of given sequence.

61
Exercise 2.1
1 1
1. The sequence of number is given as 10,1, , ,………….. .
10 100
a) Find 6th term.
b) At which value will this sequence approaches when the number of term
increases?
c) What will be the value of the term when the value of n approaches to
infinity?
2. a) What will be the 8th terms of sequence 5.01, 5.001, 5.0001, ……….. ?
b) What will be the terminating value of this sequence when the number of
the terms approaches to infinity?
3. Take a line segment of length 1 foot. Divide it into two equal half and again
divide that one half into two equal parts. What will be the length of the piece
of line segment if the same process continues up to 10th time. Show your work
in number line, number sequence of length of the line segments.

2.2 Limits from Geometric Figures

Observe the following geometric shapes and discuss on the given questions.

(a) Which regular polygon will form by minimum numbers of line segment?
(b) Which geometric figure will form if we increase the number of sides of
regular polygon infinitely?
(c) What is the relationship between the number of sides and the geometric figure
formed as (b)?
Here, the minimum number of sides required for a closed figure is 3.So equilateral
triangle is a regular polygon having minimum number of equal sides. When the
number of sides increases we get regular polygon like square, pentagon, hexagon,
heptagon, octagon, … and so on. So we get a sequence of polygons with number
of sides as Equilateral triangle, square, pentagon, hexagon, heptagon, octagon and
so on. If we increase number of sides successively we get a polygon having
infinitely small length of side.

62
i.e. If we continuously increase the number of sides the geometric figure
approaches to the circle. So the limiting value of regular polygon is circle.
Example 1

When the length of the intervals in histogram decreases the number of intervals
increases. When the number of intervals in data set increases, then the length of
line segments of frequency polygon decreases and the number of line segment
increases. If the number of intervals increases with the given range of data, the
frequency polygon tends to be a curve. This curve is called the frequency
distribution curve.
The process of making size small is called binning and the intervals such formed
are called bins.
The limiting position of frequency polygon is frequency curve of distribution
curve. i.e, if bins become small in length the frequency polygon becomes a curve.

Exercise 2.2
1. Observe the following figures and solve the given question .

a) What will be the trend of difference in area of regular polygon and

circle?
b) What is the trend of difference between the perimeter and circumference
of circle?

63
 c) What is the limiting value of difference in areas and perimeter of
polygon and circle?
2. Observe the pattern of triangles formed and solve the following question.
Here ABC is an equilateral triangle.
P, Q, R be midpoint of AB, BC and AC A
respectively and continuously.
a) If the area of ABC is 10 sq. meter. What
P X Q
will be the area of PQR and XYZ?
b) If we continuously divide the triangle what Y Z
will be the sequence of area of triangle? B C
c) When the above process goes infinitely, R
what will be the limiting value of area of triangle? Estimate.
3. Draw a circle with suitable radius. Draw another circle with same center and
radius half of first circle. Similarly draw another circle with same center and
radius half then the second circle. Continuing the same process and draw 10
circle.
a) What will be the sequence of areas of these circles?
b) What will be the limiting value of area of these circles?
Y
4. The line in the given figure is the demand curve of
the commodity when the price increases the demand
decreases. What will be the value of demand (Y)
Demand

if price tends to ∞ in X?

X
O Price
5. What will be the remaining amount after 20th
division if you have to divide Rs. 2,621,440?
X
6. The figure given aside XYZ is an
equilateral triangle with length of a side 'l'. If the
1
area of PQR is 4 of XYZ and similar to other P Q

shaded small triangles. Find the area of shaded

region of the given figure and complete the
Y Z
following. R

64
Triangle Area Remark
XYZ
PQR

What will be the area if the side of the triangle is infinitely small?

2.3 Limit as sum of infinite series

Let us start from an example of infinite series.
1 1 1
Consider an infinite series; 1 + + + +……………….
2 4 8
What will be the sum of the above series? Will it be equal to 2 or more? By
taking sufficiently large number of terms of series we can say the sum
approach near to 2.
Let Sn be the sum of n-terms of the series, So,
1 1 1
Sn= 1 + + + + ………………. up to n terms
2 4 8
1 1 1
=1+ + + + ………….up to n power of 2
2 22 23
1 1 1 1
For n = 4 there are 5 terms such as S5 = 1 + 2 + 22 + 23 + 24 and sum is

1 1 1 1 8+4+2+1 15
S5 =1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 = 1+ 16 = 1+ 16 = 1 + 0.937 = 1.937
which is very close to 2. So, for sufficient large n, the sum is 2. i.e, when n
approaches to infinity, Sn approaches to 2
i.e. the limiting value of Sn is 2.
Example 1
Suppose the area of equilateral ∆ABC is 1 sq unit P, Q and R be mid points of
AB, BC and AC. What will be the area of shaded part of the figure?

65
Solution: Here,
Triangle ABC is an equilateral triangle with area = 1 sq. unit
1 1 1
Now, the first shaded part is of 1 = 14 sq. unit = 4 sq. unit
4
1 1 1
The second shaded part is ( ) =
4 4 16
1 1 1
The third shaded part is ( ) = and so on. X
4 16 64
1 1 1 1
So, Sn= + + + + ….. up to n
4 16 64 256
P Q
terms
1 1 1 1 1 1
If n = 6, S6 = 4 + 16 + 64 + 256 +512 + 1024
Y Z
1 64 + 16 + 4 + 2 R
=4+ 1024
1 86
= 4 + 1024 which is close to 0.333333.

So, when n is sufficiently large, Sn approaches to 0.33. Hence the limit of the sums
1
of the shaded part is 0.33 = 3 .

Example 2
Write the first 6 terms and find its limit of tn = n2-1.
Solution: Here,
The general term is (tn) = n2-1
so the first six terms are:
when n = 1 , t1 = 12 – 1 = 0
when n = 2 , t2 = 22 – 1 = 3
when n = 3 , t3 = 32 – 1 = 8
when n = 4 , t4 = 42 – 1 = 15
when n = 5 , t5 = 52 – 1 = 24
when n = 6 , t6 = 62 – 1 = 35
Continuing the same process,
when n approaches to 20, the value of tn approaches to t20 = 202 – 1 = 399.

66
Exercise 2.3
1. Find sum of first five terms of the following series and estimate limiting
value of the following series for sufficiently large value of n.
1 1 1 1
(a) + + + + ……………..
3 9 27 81
1 1 1 1
(b) + + + + ……………….
2 4 8 16
1 1 1
(c) + + + ⋯………
5 25 125
(d) 0.5 + 0.005 + 0.0005 + ……………… A B
2. If the area of the given square ABCD in
adjoining figure is 1 square unit, estimate the
sum of total shaded parts for sufficiently large n.

D C
3. The sequences and their general terms are given
below. Find first 6 terms of each of the sequence and find their limit.
1
a) t n = 2n b) tn = n2 + n c) tn =
𝑛2
d) tn = (–1)nn e) tn = (–1)n + n + 1

2.4 Limit of a Functions

Observe the following example,
Let us consider a function 𝑓 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1.
Find the values of 𝑓(𝑥)𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 1,2 and 3.
We have, f (1) = 2 x 1 + 1 = 3
f (2) = 2 x 2 + 1 = 5
f (3) = 2 x 3 + 1 = 7
Also complete the following table for the function f(x) = 2x + 2

x 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 1.9 1.99 1.998 …… 2

y = f(x) 4 4.4 4.8 5.2 5.6 5.8 5.98 5.998 …… 6

By using number line we can see that, x approaches to () 2

67
 f(x) approaches to () 6 x=1 2

f(x) = 4 6

Here, when x approaches to 2 the value of f (x) approaches to 6 and when

value of x = 2 the value of f (𝑥) = 6.
Hence, 6 is limiting value of function f (𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 2 when x approaches to 2.
Symbolically we can write limit x 2 implies f (𝑥) = (2𝑥 + 2) 6
i.e, f(x)approaches to 6, when x approaches to 2.
Let y = f(x) be a function and l be a real number. Then l is said to be limit of
function y = f(x) as x approaches to a real number 'a'.
Symbolically, when x a, then f (x)  l
lim
i.e. x →a f(x) = l
i.e. f (x)  l when x  a
Example 1
Complete the following table and write the limit in notation from y = f (x) = x2 – 2

x 1 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 2.9 2.99 3

y = f (x)

Solution:
Here, f (x) = x2 – 2.
Then the table can be obtained by putting the value of x as 1, 2, 2.2, … and so on
simultaneously. So these values are given as follows:

x 1 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 2.9 2.99 3

y = f (x) –1 2 2.84 3.76 4.76 5.84 6.41 6.94 7

Here, when x approaches to 3, the value of f(x) = x2 – 2 approaches to 7.

lim
i.e. x →3x2 – 2 = 7

68
Example 2
Write the following table in terms of limit.

x 1 2 3 4 5 6 10

f (x) = x3 1 8 27 64 125 216 1000

Solution:
Here x approaches to 10 from 1 and f (x) approaches to 1000 from 1.
So, symbolically we can write f (x)  100 when x  10
i.e, when x approaches to 10 ,the value of f(x) = x3 approaches to 1000.
lim
i.e, in limit form , x →10x3= 1000

Exercise 2.4
1. Find the functional value of given functions at given points.
a) f (x) = 3x2 – 2x + 2 at x = 2
b) f (x) = x3 – x2 –x + 1 at x = –2
c) f (x) = 2x2 – 5x + 6 at x = 5
d) f (x) = 5x2 + 6 at x = –3
2. Write the following statements in symbolic form.
(a) x approaches to 3 b) x approaches to – 4
c) a approaches to 10 d) a approaches to∞
3. Complete the following tables.

(a) x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

f (x) =3x -4 -1 2 5

(b) x 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.6 3.8 3.9 3.99 4

y = f (x) = x2-x

69
 (c) x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10
x
f (x) = 2

(d) x 4 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 4.9 4.99 5

f (x) = 3x+1
4. Write the following in the symbolic form of limit.
(a) x 1 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.9 1.99 1.999 2
f(x) =2x 2 2.2 2.6 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.8 3.98 3.998 4
1
(b) f(x) =
𝑥

x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
f (x) =
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑥
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1
(c) f(x) = x2

x 1 10 100 1000 ∞
1 1 0.0.1 0.0001 0.000001 0
f (x) = x2

x+2
(d) f(x) = 2
x 2 4 6 8 10 12 … 120
x+2
f(x)= 2 2 3 4 5 6 7 … 61

5. In an I.Q test there are two persons, one from Biology background and the
next from mathematics background. They were asked to across a room with
two doors of one enter and the next exit. The condition was given that "every
person only can run the half the distance from their position and exit door in
each step". At that time the person from Biology started to run but the person
from Mathematics background sat down at the first door. Why? Discuss in
small group and prepare a report.

70
 Unit 3 Matrices

3.0 Review
In the process of the development of mathematics when matrices came into
existence, they served hugely in different branches of mathematics. The very
simplest but the most important application of matrices is to present data in a
rectangular arrangements and use them in several decisions making.

For example, the grade sheet of a student is given as follow:

Subject Credit hour Total GP Obtained GP highest GP

of the class
Nepali 5 4.0 3.5 3.8
Mathematics 5 4.0 4.0 4.0
English 5 4.0 3.8 3.9
Science 5 4.0 3.9 4.0
Social study 5 4.0 3.7 3.8
HPE 5 4.0 3.8 3.9
Opt. Mathematics 5 4.0 3.9 4.0
Here, the subjects and the data related to respected subjects are presented in the
form of rows and columns. The first row gives the information of Nepali while the
last row gives the information about optional mathematics. The subjects are
represented by seven rows and their data are represented by four columns.
Representing numbers in the form of a rectangle into rows and columns is called a
Matrix. Based on the grade sheet of a student we can discuss different questions as
below:

a) Which rows represents information for Social Studies?

b) Which column represents the obtained GP?
c) Which is the highest GP in Science?

Discuss in groups and present the conclusion in classroom.

Example 2

a) How many rows does the grade sheet have? What are the numbers
representing in the fifth row?

71
b) How many columns does the grade sheet have? What are the numbers in the
third columns representing?
c) What does the number in the intersection of the fifth row and the third column
represent?

In mathematics we omit the columns of the subjects like Nepali, Mathematics,

etc. and write only the number in the arrays of rectangle by any one of the
following methods by using square brackets or round brackets.

   
5 4.0 3.5 3.8 5 4.0 3.5 3.8

   
5 4.0 4.0 4.0 5 4.0 4.0 4.0
5 4.0 3.8 3.9 5 4.0 3.8 3.9
M= 5 4.0 3.9 4.0  or M = 5 4.0 3.9 4.0 
   
5 4.0 3.7 3.8 5 4.0 3.7 3.8

   
5 4.0 3.8 3.9 5 4.0 3.8 3.9
5 4.0 3.9 4.0 5 4.0 3.9 4.0

This way of writing number is called matrix. The matrix we wrote here is denoted
by a capital letter M.

The rectangular arrangement of numbers in rows and columns enclosed by a pair

of square or round brackets is called a matrix. The number that make the matrix
are called its elements or entries.
Notation of matrix and it's order
Matrices are generally denoted by capital letters A, B, C,….. etc. and its entries by
a b c
small letter like a, b, c etc. For example, A = ( ) and
p q r
1 2 3
B = ( 0 −1 2) are two matrices.
−3 2 4
Now answer the following questions.
a) How many rows are there in matrix A?
b) How many columns are there in the matrix A?
c) How many rows are there in matrix B?
d) How many columns are there in matrix B?
Here, matrix A has two rows and three columns, we say that matrix A has the
order of 2 × 3 (two by three) that doesn’t mean 2 × 3 = 6. Likewise, matrix B has

72
three rows and three columns; we say that matrix B has the order 3 × 3 (three by
three) that doesn’t mean 3 × 3 = 9.
The number of rows followed by number of columns in a matrix is called its
order. If a matrix A has m rows and n columns, then it is the matrix of order m × n
and written by Am × n.
If a matrix A has i rows and j columns, then A is of order i x j and written by Ai×j.
For example,
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎14
A = (𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 𝑎24 ) = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ) where i = 3 and j = 4
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎34
Here, the elements 𝑎23 is in the second row and third column. Likewise the
element in the third row and second column is 𝑎32 . Here 𝑎23 and 𝑎32 are different
elements having different values for i and j, in which i represents the number of
rows and j represents the number of columns.
Example 3
The following P, Q, R, S are four matrices.
8
a) P = (1 2 3) b) Q = (9)
7
1 2 3 −2 3
c) R = (7 8 9) d) S = ( 1 −4)
3 4 2 0 5
In each above matrices, find
i) Number of rows and columns in each and hence the order of each matrix.
ii) Write the elements in the first row and second column of matrix P.
iii) Write the elements in the second row and third column of the matrix R.
iv) Write the element in the third row and first column of the matrix Q.
Solution:
i) a) Matrix P has one row and three columns. It has the order 1×3. Likewise,
matrix Q has the order 3×1, R has the order 3×3 and S has the order 3×2.
ii) The elements in the first row and second column in matrix P is 2

P = (1 2 3)

73
iii) The element in the second row and third column of the matrix R is 9.
1 2 3
R = (7 8 9)
3 4 2
iv) The elements in the third row and first column of matrix Q is 7.
8
Q = (9)
7
Example 4
7 9 12
If A = ( 2 4 9 ) be a given matrix,
10 11 12
a) How many elements has A?
b) What is the order of the matrix A?
Solution:
a) Matrix A has 9 elements.
b) The order of the matrix A is 3×3.
Example 5
8 12 16
If P = ( ) write down the elements represented by a11, a12, a22, a23.
1 3 5
Solution:
a11 = An element lies in first row and first column = 8
a12 = An element lies in first row and second column = 12
a22 = An element lies in second row and second column = 3
a23 = An element lies in second row and third column = 5

Exercise 3.1
1. a) Define a matrix. How are matrices denoted?
b) What is meant by the order of a matrix?
c) How are the elements of a matrix denoted? Give an example.
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
d) If P = (𝑎 ), find the number of elements in P.
21 𝑎22 𝑎23

74
2. Find the order of the following matrices
11 12 13 𝑏11 𝑏12
a) A = (14 15 16) b) B = (𝑏21 𝑏22 )
17 18 19 𝑏31 𝑏32
13
c) C = (𝑖 𝑜 𝑢) d) D = (10)
7
3. a) In matrix A of Q. 2(a) find the elements in the second row and third
column.
b) In matrix A of Q. 2(a) if the element 16 is in the second row and third
column, Find the value of i and j if the elements are denoted by aij.
c) In matrix C of Q. 2(c) what is the element a13 equal to?
d) In matrix D of Q. 2(d), aij = 10, find the value of i and j.
𝑎11 𝑎12
4. If M = ( 21 𝑎22 ), what is the order of matrix M? Write also the order of M
𝑎
𝑎31 𝑎32
in ij-form of matrix.
−2 4 6
5. A = ( 1 3 −5) is a given matrix. If its elements are written in the form aij
3 7 −9
what are the values of element a11, a22, a32?
6. Table below gives the grade sheet of 2 students in three subjects.

Name Maths Science Nepali

Kusum 3.2 3.6 3.6

Kapil 3.6 3.2 2.8

a) Construct a matrix A having elements (aij) where i = 2 and j = 3.

b) Construct a matrix B having elements (aij) where i = 2 and j = 2.

75
3.2 Types of Matrices
We will discuss on different types of matrices in the following:
a. Row matrix
A matrix having only one row is called a row matrix, for example
A = (0 1 -3) is a 1×3 row matrix. Therefore, a matrix aij is row matrix if i = 1.
b. Column matrix
A matrix having only one column is called a column matrix. For example
3
B = (−2) is a 3×1 column matrix. Therefore, a matrix aij is a column matrix
1
when j = 1.
c. Square Matrix
−2 4 6
A matrix aij is a square matrix if i = j. for example S = ( 1 3 −5) is a 3×3
3 7 −9
square matrix.
Likewise P= (2 −1) is a 2×2 square matrix. Did you notice here, a square
3 2
matrix has equal number of rows i and columns j.
d. Rectangular matrix
A matrix in which the number of rows is not equal to the number of column is
a rectangular matrix. For example,
5 3 4
1 2 3 −1
P=( ), Q = ( 2 0
7 ) are rectangular matrices.
−2 4 −6 3 5
−1 2 8
e. Zero or Null matrix
A matrix is a zero matrix if each element in the matrix is zero. It is denoted by
O. For example,
0 0 0
O = (0 0 0), is null or zero matrix of order 3 3.
0 0 0
f. Diagonal Matrix
A square matrix in which the main diagonal element (from top left to bottom
right) are non-zero and all the elements except main diagonal are zeros is a
diagonal matrix. For example,

76
 a 0 0
1
0
A=( ), B = (0 b 0) etc. are diagonal matrices.
0
2
0 0 c
g. Scalar Matrix
It is a diagonal matrix in which all elements in the main diagonal are equal (or
the same). For example,
3 0 0
2 0
A=( ), B = (0 3 0) etc. are the scalar matrices.
0 2
0 0 3
h. Unit or Identity Matrix
It is a scalar matrix having each element in the main diagonal equal to 1. For
example,
1 0 0
1 0
P=( ), Q = (0 1 0) etc. are unit or identity matrices.
0 1
0 0 1
i. Triangular Matrix
A square matrix A is upper triangular matrix if elements below main diagonal
are all zeros. For example,
1 2 3
1 2
M=( ), N = (0 2 −1) etc. are upper triangular matrix.
0 3
0 0 4
A square matrix B is a lower triangular matrix if elements above main
diagonal are all zeros. For example:
1 0 0
1
0
P=( ), Q = (2 −1 0) etc. are lower triangular matrix.
2
3
3 2 4
j. Symmetric Matrix
It is a square matrix that doesn’t change if its row and columns are
interchanged. In general, a matrix A is symmetric if aij = aji. For example,
𝑥
𝑦 5 2 3
A = (𝑦
𝑧 ), B = ( 2 4 8) etc. are symmetric matrices.
3 8 1
k. Equal Matrices
Two matrices of the same order are equal if and only if their corresponding
elements are equal. For example,

77
 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 1 2 −3
If A = ( ) and B = ( ) then A = B if and only if a = 1,
𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 −2 4 7
b = 2, c = –3, d = –2, e = 4 and f = 7.
Example 1
2𝑎 3 𝑐
a) Find a, b, c, d if ( ) = ( )
𝑏4 𝑑 5
𝑥+𝑦 7 6 7
b) Find the value of x and y if ( ) = ( )
5 𝑥−𝑦 5 2
Solution:
a) Here ( a 2) = (3 c ).
4 b d 5
Equating corresponding elements in two equal matrices, we get
a = 3, b = 5, c = 2 and d = 4 as required.
𝑥+𝑦 7 6 7
b) Here, ( ) = ( )
5 𝑥−𝑦 5 2
By equating corresponding elements in two equal matrices, we get
x + y = 6………….i)
x – y = 2………….ii)
Adding (i) and (ii) we get
2x = 8 this implies x = 4
From equation (i)
4+y= 6
Or, y = 2.
Hence, x = 4, y = 2 are required values.
Example 2
If matrix A = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 )2×3 and aij = (i×j)2, construct a matrix A.
Solution:
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
We have A = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 )2×3 = (𝑎 𝑎22 𝑎23 ), then
21
a11 = (1×1)2 = 12 = 1 a12 = (1×2) 2 = 22 = 4 a13 = (1×3) 2 = 32 = 9
a21 = (2×1) 2 = 22 = 4 a22 = (2×2) 2 = 42 = 16 a23 = (2×3) 2 = 62 = 36

78
 𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
Therefore, A = (𝑎 𝑎22 𝑎23 )
21
1 4 9
i.e. A = ( ) is required matrix.
4 16 36
Example 3
𝒙−𝟏 𝟐𝒒 − 𝟒
If ( ) is an identity matrix, find the value of x, y , p and q.
𝟑𝒑 − 𝟔 𝒚+𝟐
Solution:
𝑥−1 2𝑞 − 4 1 0
Here, ( ) = ( ), By equality of matrices, we get.
3𝑝 − 6 𝑦+2 0 1
x – 1 = 1 this implies x = 2
y + 2 = 1 this implies y = –1
3p – 6 = 0 this implies p = 2
2q – 4 = 0 this implies q = 2; are required values.

Exercise: 3.2
1. Define the following matrices with example.
a) Row matrix b) Column matrix
c) Square matrix d) Diagonal matrix
e) Scalar matrix f) Triangular matrix
f) Symmetric matrix g) Identity matrix
2. State the types of following matrices.
1 0 0 11
a) (0 2 0) b) (13) c) (1 −2 3
)
4 5 −6
0 0 3 17
0 0 0 1 2 3
d) (𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 ) e) (0 0 0) f) (0 3 −1)
0 0 0 0 0 4
3. a. Construct a square matrix M2 × 2, if M = (aij) and aij = 2i + j.
b. Construct a matrix N2 × 3 if N = (aij) and aij = i-j
c. A = (aij) is a given matrix where aij = (i × j)2, construct a square matrix
A3 × 3.

79
 d. If P = (aij) is a given matrix where aij = (i – j)2, construct a square matrix
P3 × 3.
a 1 2 c
4. (a) Find a, b, c, d, if ( ) = ( )
3 b d −2
p+q
(b) If (p − q) = (6), find the value of p and q.
2
𝑥−1 3 −3 𝑥+𝑧
(c) If A = ( ), B = ( ) and A = B find the value of w,
5 𝑦 𝑤−𝑦 2
x, y, and z.
𝑥−6 4𝑦 − 6
(d) If (5𝑝 − 10 𝑞+2
) is an identity matrix, find the value of x, y, p and q.

3.3 Operation on Matrices

In this chapter we shall discuss on the addition, subtraction and multiplication
operations with matrices.
Look at the following example:
Example 1
a. Addition of Matrices
Nepal Airlines have two kinds of flight services; namely domestic services
and international services.
During the first three days of the last week, the flight services of Nepal
Airlines were recorded as in the following:
Lot A

Domestic service International service

Sunday 14 6

Monday 30 4

Tuesday 36 5

During the last three days of the last week the flight services of Nepal
Airlines were recorded as:

80
 Lot B

Domestic Service International Service

Wednesday 40 5

Thursday 42 7

Friday 38 6

How many flights were made in these two categories in the last week?
Solution:
To find the total flight service in these two lots in two categories, we add the
flights in corresponding rows as in the following.
Lot A + Lot B

Days National flight International flight

Sunday + Wednesday 14 + 40 = 54 6 + 5 = 11

Monday + Thursday 30 + 42 = 72 4 + 7 = 11

Tuesday + Friday 36 + 38 = 74 5 + 6 = 11

Representing the above information in matrix from we have.

14 6 40 5
A = (30 4) and B = (42 7)
36 5 38 6
Adding the matrices, A and B by adding corresponding entries, we get.
14 6 40 5
A+B = (30 4) + (42 7)
36 5 38 6
14 + 40 6 + 5
= (30 + 42 4 + 7)
36 + 38 5 + 6
54 11
= (72 11)
74 11

81
 Here, both added matrices have the same order, and their sum is also of the
same order.
Two matrices of the same order Am × n and Bm × n could be added by adding
corresponding entries and the sum (A+B) will have the same order as A or B;
i.e. Am × n + Bm × n = (A + B)m × n.
By definition, we have.
a b c p q r a+p b+q c+r
( ) +( ) =( )
d e f 2×3 s t u 2×3 d + s e + t f + u 2×3
Example 2
If M = ( 3 7 9
) and N = (
2 4 6
) find M + N and N + M.
11 13 15 8 10 12
3 7 9 2 4 6
M+N =( )+( )
11 13 15 8 10 12
3+2 7+4 9+6
=( )
11 + 8 13 + 10 15 + 12
= ( 5 11 15)
19 23 27
N+M = (2 4 6 ) + ( 3 7 9 )
8 10 12 11 13 15
2+3 4+7 6+9
=( )
8 + 11 10 + 13 12 + 15
5 11 15
=( )=M+N
19 23 27
Did you notice here M + N = N + M. This property of addition is called
commutative property of addition.
While adding matrices the order at which they are added does not matter. This
means, commutative property holds in matrix addition.
b. Subtraction of matrices:
Subtraction of two matrices of same order is also carried out exactly in the
same way as adding matrices. In subtraction we subtract the corresponding
elements.
Example 3
5 7 3 3 4 −1
If A = ( 4 6 −5) and B = (−3 4 2 ), find A-B and B-A
−7 3 10 5 1 −8

82
Solution:
5 7 3 3 4 −1
A–B = ( 4 6 −5) − (−3 4 2 )
−7 3 10 5 1 −8
5−3 7−4 3+1
= ( 4 + 3 6 − 4 −5 − 2)
−7 − 5 3 − 1 10 + 8
2 3 4
=( 7 2 −7)
−12 2 18
3 4 −1 5 7 3
B–A = (−3 4 2 ) − ( 4 6 −5)
5 1 −8 −7 3 10
3 − 5 4 − 7 −1 − 3
= (−3 − 4 4 − 6 2+5 )
5 + 7 1 − 3 −8 − 10
−2 −3 −4
= (−7 −2 7 )
12 −2 −18
Here A – B ≠ B – A.
This means subtraction of matrices does not obey commutative rule.
c. Properties of Matrix Addition
i. Closure property
Consider P = (11 13) and Q = ( 8 10
)
17 19 2×2 12 14 2 × 2

Then P + Q = (11 13) 8 10

+( )
17 19 2×2 12 14 2 × 2
11 + 8 13 + 10
=( )
17 + 12 19 + 14 2 × 2
19 23
=( )
29 33 2 × 2
The sum of two matrices of the same order gives the matrix of the same order. This
property of matrix addition is called the Closure Property of matrix addition.
ii. Commutative Property
2 4 −1 5
Consider the matrices A = ( ) and B = ( ).
6 8 −3 7

83
 Now,
2 4 −1 5
A+B =( )+( )
6 8 −3 7
2−1 4+5 1 9
=( )=( )
6−3 8+7 3 15
Again,
−1 5 2 4
B+A =( )+ ( )
−3 7 6 8
−1 + 2 5 + 4 1 9
=( )=( )
−3 + 6 7 + 8 3 15
Here, A + B = B + A
Matrix addition follows commutative property.

iii. Associative Property

1 2 2 −3 −3 4
Let A = ( ), B = ( ) and C = ( ) be the given matrices of
3 4 −4 5 5 −6
the same order.
1 2 2 −3 3 −1
Now (A+B) = ( )+( ) = ( )
3 4 −4 5 −1 9
3 −1 −3 4 0 3
And (A+B)+C = ( )+( ) = ( )……….(i)
−1 9 5 −6 4 3
2 −3 −3 4 −1 1
Again, (B+C) = ( )+( ) = ( )
−4 5 5 −6 1 −1
1 2 −1 1 0 3
And, A+(B+C) = ( )+( ) = ( )………….(ii)
3 4 1 −1 4 3
From (i) and (ii) (A+B)+C = A+(B+C). This property of addition of matrices
is called the Associative Property of Addition.
To add matrices with more than two addends, they can be added by desired
grouping. This property of matrix addition is called the Associative Property
of Addition.

iv. Identity Property:

12 14 16 0 0 0
Let A = ( ) and Z = ( )
9 12 15 0 0 0

84
 12 14 16 0 0 0
Then A+Z =( )+( )
9 12 15 0 0 0
12 14 16
=( )=A
9 12 15
0 0 0 12 14 16
And, Z+A =( )+( )
0 0 0 9 12 15
12 14 16
=( )=A
9 12 15
Here, Z + A = A + Z = A.
If Z is the zero matrix of same order as A such that A+Z = Z+A = A, then, Z
is called the additive identity of matrix A.

v. Additive Inverse Law of matrix

1 4 −1 −4
Let A = ( ) and B = ( )
9 16 −9 −16
1 4 −1 −4
Then A+B = ( )+( )
9 16 −9 −16
−1 + 1 −4 + 4 0 0
=( ) = ( )……(i)
−9 + 9 −16 + 16 0 0
−1 −4 1 4
And B+A = ( )+( )
−9 −16 9 16
−1 + 1 −4 + 4 0 0
=( ) = ( )……(ii)
−9 + 9 −16 + 16 0 0
From (i) and (ii) A+B = B+A = 0.
Here B is additive inverse of A and A is additive inverse of B.
Two matrices A and B are such that A+B = B+A = O then A and B are
additive inverse of each other.
When A+B = O, then A = -B and A+B = -B+B = O is the application of
additive inverse property of matrix addition.
Example 4
8 −6
If A = ( ) and A+B = O find the matrix B, where O is 2 × 2 null matrix
3 0
Solution:
We have A + B = O
or, B = O - A

85
 0 0 8 −6
or, B = ( )-( )
0 0 3 0
0−8 0+6
or, B = ( )
0−3 0−0
−8 6
or, B = ( ) as required
−3 0
Example 5
2 1 5 −2 −2 8
Let A = ( ), B = ( ) and C = ( ), then prove that
3 0 0 7 6 −3
(a) A + B = B + A
(b) (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
(c) (A - C) ≠ (C - A)
Solution:
2 1 5 −2
a. Here, A + B =( )+( )
3 0 0 7
2+5 1−2 7 −1
=( ) = ( ) ………..… (i)
3+0 0+7 3 7
5 −2 2 1
B+A =( )+( )
0 7 3 0
5 + 2 −2 + 1 7 −1
=( ) = ( ) ………………. (ii)
0+3 7+0 3 7
Here from (i) and (ii) A + B = B + A
2 1 5 −2
b) We have, (A + B) = ( )+( )
3 0 0 7
2+5 1−2 7 −1
=( ) = ( )
3+0 0+7 3 7
7 −1 −2 8
(A+B)+C = ( )+( )
3 7 6 −3
7 − 2 −1 + 8 5 7
=( ) = ( ) ……………. (i)
3+6 7−3 9 4
5 −2 −2 8 5 − 2 −2 + 8
Again, (B+C) = ( )+( ) = ( )
0 7 6 −3 0+6 7−3
3 6
∴ (B+C) = ( )
6 4
2 1 3 6
And A+(B+C) =( )+( )
3 0 6 4

86
 2+3 1+6 5 7
( ) = ( )……….(ii)
3+6 0+4 9 4
From (i) and (ii) (A+B)+C = A+(B+C)
2 1 −2 8
c) (A-C) = ( )-( )
3 0 6 −3
2−2 1−8
=( )
3−6 0+3
0 −7
=( )............................(i)
−3 3
−2 8 2 1
And (C-A) = ( )-( )
6 −3 3 0
−2 + 2 8 − 1 0 7
=( ) = ( ) ............................(ii)
6 − 3 −3 + 0 3 −3
Hence, from (i) and (ii) A-C ≠ C-A
Exercise 3.3
1. (a) Under what conditions two matrices could be added?
(b) How do you define addition of two matrices?
(c) How do you define subtraction of two matrices?
(d) List down five properties of matrix addition.
2. From the matrices given below make as many pair of matrices as you can that
could be added or subtracted each other.
11
a b 3 4
M = ( ) N=( ) P = (13)
c d 7 9
14
1 2 0 0 1 2
Q=( ) R=( ) S = (7 8 9)
2 3 0 0 2 3
𝑒 −𝑓 𝑔
T=( )
−ℎ 𝑖 −𝑗
3. (a) Using the matrices given in question 2, carry out the following
operations.
(i) Q+R (iii) M-N (v) T+(Q+R) (vii) (T+Q)-R
(ii) R+Q (iv) N-M (vi) (T+Q)+R (viii) T+(Q-R)
(b) Find the additive inverse of the matrix A = (a b
)
c d

87
 1 𝑦 6 7
4 (a) If (5 6)+( ) = ( ), find the value of x and y.
7 𝑥 0 1 7 3
9 𝑥 5 2 4 3
(b) If ( )-( ) = ( ), find the values of x and y
10 7 7 1 3 4
3𝑥 − 2 5𝑦 + 4 𝑥+2 𝑦−4
(c) If ( ) = ( ), find x, y and z.
2 4 + 2𝑥 2 𝑧−2
𝑥 − 1 −4 −1 4
(d) If ( )and ( )are additive inverse to each other, find
𝑦+3 5 −4 −5
the value of x and y.
5. (a) If A = (4 5 6), B = (−3 7 2)and C = (8 9 −4), find the
matrix X such that
(i) X = A+B+C (ii) A-X = B+C (iii) X-C = B
2 −2 1
(b) If A = ( ), B = ( ) and C = ( ), find the matrix Y such that
3 1 −3
(i) Y = A+B-C (ii) Y-A = B (iii) A+Y = B+C
6. Solve the following equation for the matrix X
2 1 5 −1 5 2 7 −3
(a) X+( ) = ( ) (b) X- ( ) = ( )
3 −2 −2 3 −2 1 −4 8
(c) X+(2 4) = (6 8) (d) X-(5 3) = 2X +(7 8)
5 9 8 −3
(e) X+(2) = (−3) (f) X-(−2) = ( 2 )
7 4 4 6
5 8
7. If A = ( ), find
−9 3
a) a matrix B such that A+B = O b) a matrix C such that A+C = A
c) a matrix D such that A+D = B+C.
2 1 5 2 −8 2
8. If A = ( ), B = ( ) and C = ( ), show that.
3 −5 −3 4 7 6
(a) A+B = B+A (b) (A+B)+C = A+(B+C)
(c) A-B-C = A-(B+C) (d) A+(-A) = O

88
9. Tables below show the order of sports T-shirts made by a sporting house.
Using matrices, find the total order made in these two lots.
Lot A
Small Medium Large
Red 48 62 91
Blue 38 57 55
Green 62 98 37
Yellow 55 65 75

Lot B
Small Medium Large
Red 58 72 80
Blue 42 67 70
Green 50 80 65
Yellow 45 55 85

3.4 Transpose of a Matrix

2 3 4
Consider the matrix A = ( ), and answer the following questions.
5 −2 7
a. What is the order of matrix A?
b. If you interchange the row and columns of the matrix A, what matrix
will you get? Name this matrix by AT
c. What is the order of the matrix AT?
A matrix obtained by interchanging the rows and columns is called the
transpose of the given matrix. If the given matrix is A, its transpose is denoted
by AT. Symbolically if Aij is a matrix then Atji is transpose of A.
Note that if a matrix A has order m×n, then its transpose AT will have order
n×m.
Example 1
Find the transpose of the following matrices:
1 0 0
𝑎 𝑏
a) A = ( ) b) I = (0 1 0)
𝑐 𝑑
0 0 1

89
 1 −2 3
c) S = (−2 4 −7) d) R = (5 9 7)
3 −7 5
Solution:
𝑎 𝑏
a) Here A = ( )2×2
𝑐 𝑑
𝑎 𝑐
Then AT = ( )
𝑏 𝑑 2×2
Did you notice here, the order of A and AT is equal !
1 0 0
b) Here, I = (0 1 0)
0 0 1 3×3
1 0 0
Then IT = (0 1 0)
0 0 1 3×3
Did you notice here, I = IT !
1 −2 3
c) Here S = (−2 4 −7)
3 −7 5 3×3
1 −2 3
Then ST = (−2 4 −7)
3 −7 5 3×3
Did you notice here, S = ST
d) Here, R = (5 9 7)1×3
5
Then RT = (9)
7 3×1
Form above examples, we can observe:
1. The Transpose of a square matrix has the same order as the given matrix.
2. The transpose of an identity matrix is the matrix itself.
3. The transpose of a symmetric matrix is the matrix itself.
4. The transpose of a row matrix is the column matrix of different order.
Properties of Transpose Matrices
𝑎 𝑏
1. Consider A = ( )
𝑐 𝑑

90
 𝑐𝑎
Then AT = ( )
𝑏
𝑑 2×2
𝑎 𝑏
And (AT)T = ( )=A
𝑐 𝑑
The transpose of the transpose of a given matrix is the matrix itself.

2. Let M = ( 1 12
) and N = (
4 9
)
14 3 15 21
Now, M+N = ( 1 12)+( 4 9 ) = ( 5 21)
14 3 15 21 29 24
5 29
And (M+N)T = ( )……………..(i)
21 24
Again, MT = ( 1 14) and NT = (4 15)
12 3 9 21
1 14 4 15 5 29
Then MT+NT = ( )+( ) = ( )……….(ii)
12 3 9 21 21 24
From equation (i) and (ii) (M+N)T = MT+NT.
The transpose of sum of two or more matrix is equal to the sum of their transposes.

3. Let P = [40 42] and k be any scalar,

4143
40 42 40𝑘
42𝑘
Then kP = k[ ] = [ ]
41 43 41𝑘
43𝑘
40 41
And (kP)T = [40𝑘 42𝑘] = 𝑘[ ] = kPT
41𝑘 43𝑘 42 43
If P is any matrix and k is a scalar then (kP)T = kPT
Exercise 3.4
1. a) What is meant by Transpose of matrix? Give an example.
b) List down the three properties of Transpose of a matrix.
2. Find the transpose of the following matrices.
𝑚
a) A = (𝑝 𝑞 𝑟) b) B = (𝑛)
𝑝
1 2
3 5 −9
c) C=( 3 −1) d) D=( )
−2 −7 4
−2 5

91
 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
e) E = (𝑑 𝑒 𝑓)
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖
1 5 −3 6
3. If M = ( ) and N = ( ), prove that.
2 7 2 8
a) The order of M and MT is the same.
b) The order of N and NT is the same.
c) (MT)T = M
d) (NT)T = N
e) (M+N)T = MT+NT
1 0 0
1
0
4. If A = ( ) and B = (0 1 0), prove that
0
1
0 0 1
T
a) A =A b) BT = B.
c) Write your finding in a sentence.
1 −1 4
2 0
5. If P = ( ) and Q = (−1 2 1) verify that,
0 2
4 1 3
a) PT = P b) QT = Q.
c) Write your findings in words.
2 3 −4
6. If P = ( 3 5 −9) show that
−4 −9 8
T
a) P = P. b) Write your findings in words.
1 2 3 1 0 0
7. If R = (0 −2 4) and S = (2 −2 0)
0 0 6 3 4 6
T T
a) Show that R = S and S = R.
b) Write your findings in words.
1 3
8) If Q = ( ) show that Q+QT is a symmetric matrix. Can this be generalized
2 4
to any square matrix?

92
3.5 Multiplication of Matrices
a) Multiplication of a matrix by a scalar
𝑎 𝑏
Consider a matrix A = ( )
𝑐 𝑑
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
Then A+A = ( )+( )
𝑐 𝑑 𝑐 𝑑
𝑎+𝑎 𝑏+𝑏 2𝑎 2𝑏
Or, 2A = ( ) = ( )
𝑐+𝑐 𝑑+𝑑 2𝑐 2𝑑
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
Again A+A+A = ( )+( )+( )
𝑐 𝑑 𝑐 𝑑 𝑐 𝑑
𝑎+𝑎+𝑎 𝑏+𝑏+𝑏 3𝑎 3𝑏
Or, 3A = ( ) = ( )
𝑐+𝑐+𝑐 𝑑+𝑑+𝑑 3𝑐 3𝑑
Here, to the matrix A, 2A is the scalar multiplication of A by 2 and 3A is the
scalar multiplication of A by 3. We have seen here when a matrix A is
multiplied by 2, each of its elements are multiplied by 2 and when A is
multiplied by 3, each of its elements are multiplied by 3 and so on.
If A is any matrix and k is a scalar, then kA is a matrix obtained by multiplying each
element of A by k.
Example 1
1 2 3
If A = ( ) find kA and hence 2A, 3A, 4A.
4 5 6
Solution:
1 2 3
We have A = ( )
4 5 6
1 2 3 1𝑘 2𝑘 3𝑘
Then kA = k( ) = ( )
4 5 6 4𝑘 5𝑘 6𝑘
1 2 3 2 4 6
And, 2A = 2( ) = ( )
4 5 6 8 10 12
1 2 3 3 6 9
3A = 3( ) = ( )
4 5 6 12 15 18
Example 2
9 1 1 5
M=( ) and N = ( ) and P is a 2 × 2 square matrix and if 3M + 5N +
5 3 7 −11
2P = O, where O is a zero matrix of order 2 × 2, find the matrix P.

93
Solution:
Here, 3M + 5N + 2P = 0, given.
9 1 1 5 0 0
or, 3( )+5( )+2P = ( )
5 3 7 −11 0 0
27 3 5 25 0 0
or, ( )+( )+2P = ( )
15 9 35 −55 0 0
32 28 0 0
or, ( )+2P = ( )
50 −46 0 0
0 0 32 28
or, 2P = ( )-( )
0 0 50 −48
−32 −28
or, 2P = ( )
−50 48
1 −32 −28
or, P = ( )
2 −50 48
−16 −14
or, P = ( )
−25 24
b) Multiplication of matrices
The multiplication of a matrix by another matrix is defined by the rule “row
versus column” as in the following:
𝑥
(𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 )1×3 (𝑦) = (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧)1×1
𝑧 3×1
Here, the column of the first matrix (multiplier) is equal to the row of the
second matrix, (the multiplicand) that provides a check for the existence
(confirmability) of the multiplication of two matrices, that is stated
schematically in the following illustration.
Am × n x Bn × p = ABm × p
Columns in
A = Rows in B

Order of AB is

There are many examples of matrix multiplication in day to day activities.

Here is one for example. Tables below show the weekly supply of
commodities in a hostel and their corresponding prices.

94
 Table 1 Table 2

Weekly purchase Rice Pulses Commodities Price

First week 500kg 30kg Rice 80/kg

Second week 600kg 32kg Pulses 120/kg

Third week 550kg 25kg

To work out the total cost for the last three weeks, we work out it as in the
following:
Cost of commodities for the first week
500 × 80 + 30 × 120 = 43600
This can be done by writing the rows and columns of the matrix for the first
week and apply “row versus column” as in the following.
80
(500 32)1×2( ) = (500 × 80 + 30 × 120) = (43600)1×1
120 2×1
Similarly, for the second and third weeks the prices are
80
(600 32)1×2( ) = (600 × 80 + 32 × 120) = (51840)1×1
120 2×1
80
And, (550 25) ( ) = (550 × 80 + 25 × 120) = (45800)1×1
120
The process might be worked out in compact form as:
500 30 500 × 80 + 30 × 120 43600
80
(600 32) ( ) = (600 × 80 + 32 × 120) = (51840)
120
550 25 550 × 80 + 25 × 120 45800
Two matrices Am × n and Bp × q are said to be confirmable for matrix multiplication if and
only if (iff) n = p and the product matrix will have the order m × q.
Multiplication of two matrices could be explained as in the following.
𝑎 𝑏 𝑤 𝑥
Consider A = ( ) and B = ( 𝑦 𝑧 )
𝑐 𝑑
𝑎 𝑏 𝑤 𝑥 𝑎𝑤 + 𝑏𝑦 … … . .
Then, AB = ( )( )=( ) step-1: row1 × column1
𝑐 𝑑 𝑦 𝑧 ………. ……..
𝑎 𝑏 𝑤 𝑥 𝑎𝑤 + 𝑏𝑦 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑧
AB = ( ) ( 𝑦 𝑧) = ( ) step-2: row1 × column2
𝑐 𝑑 ………. ……..

95
 𝑎 𝑏 𝑤 𝑥 𝑎𝑤 + 𝑏𝑦 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑧
B=( )( 𝑧 ) = ( 𝑐𝑤 + 𝑑𝑦 ) step-3: row2 × column1
𝑐 𝑑 𝑦 ……..
𝑎 𝑏 𝑤 𝑥 𝑎𝑤 + 𝑏𝑦 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑧
AB = ( ) ( 𝑦 𝑧) = ( ) step-4: row2×column2
𝑐 𝑑 𝑐𝑤 + 𝑑𝑦 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥
Example 3
5 8 7 −4
Given that A = ( ) and B = ( ), find
2 −3 3 2
a) A×A b) A×B c) B×A.
Solution:
5 8 5 8
a) Here, A×A =( )( )
2−3 2 −3
5×5+8×2 5 × 8 + 8 × (−3)
=( )
2 × 5 + (−3) × 2 2 × 8 + (−3) × (−3)
41 16
=( )
4 25
5 8 7 −4
b) Here, A×B =( )( )
2 −3 3 2
5×7+8×3 5 × (−4) + 8 × 2
=( )
2×7+ (−3) × 3 2 × (−4) + (−3) × 2
59 −4
=( )
15 −14
7 −4 5 8
c) Here, B×A =( )( )
3 2 2 −3
7 × 5 + (−4) × 2 7 × 8 + (−4) × (−3)
=( )
3 × 5 + 2 × −3 3 × 8 + 2 × −3
27 68
=( )
9 18
From (b) and (c) AB≠BA.
Matrix multiplication is not commutative.
Example 4
2 0
1 5
If A = (−3 4) and B = ( ) find AB and BA where ever applicable.
−2 3
5 2

96
Solution:
2 0
1 5
Here A = (−3 4) and B = ( )
−2 3
5 2
Since the column of matrix A equals to the rows of matrix B, so, A × B exists.
2 0
1 5
Therefore, A  B = (−3 4)( )
−2 3
5 2
2 × 1 + 0 × (−2) 2×5+0×3
= ((−3) × 1 + 4 × (−2) (−3) × 5 + 4 × 3)
5 × 1 + 2(−2) 5×5+2×3
2 10
= (−11 −3)
1 31
2 0
1 5
Again B = ( ) and A = (−3 4)
−2 3
5 2
Here, the number of column of first matrix B is not equal to the number of rows of
A, and hence by the conformability of matrix multiplication BA does not exist.
Example 5
4 20 12
Find the matrix X if ( )X = ( )
1 5 3
Solution: Here,
4
The order of the multiplier matrix ( ) is 2×1 and the order of the product matrix
1
is 2×2, the order of the multiplication matrix X must be 1×2.
Let (𝑎 𝑏)be required matrix.
4 20 12
Then, ( ) (𝑎 𝑏) = ( )
1 5 3
4𝑎 4𝑏 20 12
Or, ( ) = ( )
𝑎 𝑏 5 3
By equality of matrices, a = 5 and b = 3. Hence the required matrix is(5 3).
Example 6
1 2
If M = ( ) and I is an identity matrix of 2×2, prove that M2– 2M-5I = O.
3 1

97
Solution: Here,
M2 = M x M
1 2 1 2
=( )( )
3 1 3 1
1+6 2+2
=( )
3+3 6+1
7 4
=( )
6 7
1 2 2 4
2M = 2( ) = ( ) and
3 1 6 2
1 0 5 0
5I = 5( ) = ( )
0 1 0 5
Therefore,
7 4 2 4 5 0
M2 – 2M – 5I = ( ) [( )+( )]
6 7 6 2 0 5
7 4 7 4
=( )( )
6 7 6 7
7−7 4−4
=( )
6−6 7−7
0 0
=( )
0 0
Hence, M22M 5I = O

c. Properties of Matrix Multiplication

In matrix algebra, multiplication of matrices do not follow exactly the rule
that have been verified in algebraic multiplication of variable or constants.
For example, in algebra x × y = xy and y × x = yx this implies xy = yx, but in
matrices we have seen that A  B ≠ B  A, and A B = B A is true only
when A = B and both square matrices. Hence in this sub unit, we shall check
on different properties of matrix.
i) Associative Property
1 2 5 8 −1 −2
Let A = ( ), B = ( ) and C = ( )
3 −1 7 3 −2 3
1 2 5 8
Now, AB =( )( )
3 −1 7 3

98
 1×5+2×7 1×8+2×3
=( )
3 × 5 + (−1) × 7 3 × 8 + (−1) × 3
5 + 14 8 + 6
=( )
15 − 7 24 − 3
19 14
=( )
8 21
19 14 −1 −2
∴ (AB)C =( )( )
8 21 −2 3
19 × (−1) + 14 × (−2) 19 × (−2) + 14 × 3
=( )
8 × (−1) + 21 × (−2) 8(−2) + 21 × 3
−19 − 28 −38 + 42
 =( )
−8 − 42 −16 + 63
−47 4
∴ (AB)C = ( )……………(i)
−50 47
5 8 −1 −2
Again, BC = ( )( )
7 3 −2 3
5 × (−1) + 8 × (−2) 5 × (−2) + 8 × 3
=( )
7× (−1) + 3 × (−2) 7 × (−2) + (3) × (3)
−5 − 16 −10 + 24
=( )
−7 − 6 −14 + 9
−21 14
∴ A(BC) = ( )
−13 −5
1 2 −21 14
And A(BC) = ( )( )
3 −1 −13 −5
1 × (−21) + 2(−13) 1 × 14 + 2(−5)
=( )
3× (−21) + (1)(−13) 3 × 14 + (−1)(−5)
−21 − 26 14 − 10
=( )
−63 + 13 42 + 5
−47 4
∴ A(BC) = ( )…………………….(ii)
−50 47
From (i) and (ii)
(AB)C = A(BC).
Multiplication of matrices is associative; i.e. associative property holds true in matrix
multiplication.

99
ii) Distributive Property
5 8 2 −7 −5 −3
Let A = ( ), B = ( ) and C = ( ).,
3 −2 4 −6 1 −2
2 −7 −5 −3
Now, B+C = ( )+( )
4 −6 1 −2
2 − 5 −7 − 3
or, B+C = ( )
4 + 1 −6 − 2
−3 −10
∴ B+C = ( )
5 −8
5 8 −3 −10
Then A(B+C) = ( )( )
3 −2 5 −8
5 × (−3) + 8 × 5 5 × (−10) + 8 × (−8)
or, A(B+C) = ( )
3× (−3) + (−2) × 5 3 × (−10) + (−2)(−8)
−15 + 40 −50 − 64
or, A(B+C) = ( )
−9 − 10 −30 + 16
25 −114
∴ A(B+C) = ( )……………(i)
−19 −14
Again,
5 8 2 −7
AB = ( )( )
3 −2 4 −6
5×2+8×4 5 × (−7) + 8(−6)
Or, AB = ( )
3×2+ (−2) × 4 3 × (−7) + (−2) × (−6)
10 + 32 −35 − 48
Or, AB = ( )
6−8 −21 + 12
42 −83
∴AB = ( )
−2 −9
5 8 −5 −3
And, AC = ( )( )
3 −2 1 −2
5(−5) + 8 × 1 5(−3) + 8 × (−2)
Or, AC = ( )
3(−5) + (−2) × 1 3(−3) + (−2)(−2)
−25 + 8 −15 − 16
Or, AC = ( )
−15 − 2 −9 + 4
−17 −31
∴ AC = ( )
−17 −5
42 −83 −17 −31
Now, AB+AC = ( )+( )
−2 −9 −17 −5

100
 42 − 17 −83 − 31
Or, AB+AC = ( )
−2 − 17 −9 − 5
25 −114
∴ AB+AC = ( )…………………….(ii)
−19 −14
From (i) and (ii) we get,
A(B +C) = AB+AC.
Also, (A+B)C = AC + BC (verify it)
Multiplication of matrix distributes over addition; i.e. distributive property
holds true in matrix multiplication.
Similarly, A(B – C) = AB –AC is true.
iii) Identity Property
1 2
Let A = ( ) be a square matrix and I be the identity matrix of order same
3 4
as A, then,
1 2 1 0
AI =( )( )
3 4 0 1
1×1+2×0 1×0+2×1
=( )
3×1+4×0 3×0+4×1
1+0 0+2
=( )
3+0 0+4
1 2
∴AI = ( ) = A………………….(i)
3 4
1 0 1 2
And IA =( )( )
0 1 3 4
1×1+0×3 1×2+0×4
=( )
0×1+1×3 0×2+1×4
1+0 2+0
=( )
0+3 0+4
1 2
∴IA = ( ) = A……………….(ii)
3 4
Here, from (i) and (ii) it is seen that AI = A = IA.
The square matrix I acts as the identity matrix in matrix multiplication This
means, identity matrix exists in matrix multiplication.

101
(iv) Property of Transpose of matrix product
5 1 −2 3
Let, A = ( ) and B = ( )
2 3 4 −1
5 1 −2 3
Now, AB = ( )( )
2 3 4 −1
5 × (−2) + 1 × 4 5 × 3 + 1 × (−1)
=( )
2 × (−2) + 3 × 4 2 × 3 + 3 × (−1)
−10 + 4 15 − 1
=( )
−4 + 12 6 − 3
−6 14
∴ AB = ( )
8 3
−6 8
And (AB)T = ( )………………(i)
14 3
5 2 −2 4
Again, AT = ( ) and BT = ( )
1 3 3 −1
−2 4 5 2
Then, BT x AT =( )( )
3 −1 1 3
(−2) × 5 + 4 × 1 (−2) × 2 + 4 × 3
=( )
3 × 5 + (−1) × 1 3 × 2 + (−1) × 3
−10 + 4 −4 + 12
=( )
15 − 1 6−3
−6 8
∴ BTAT = ( )
14 3
Hence (AB)T = BTAT
This property is called the property of transpose of Matrix Product.
The transpose of product of two square matrices equals is to the product of
their transpose matrices multiplied in opposite order.
Example 7
If I is the unit matrix of order 2×2, show that I = I2 = I3 = I4 = ………In.
Solution:
1 0
Let I = ( )
0 1
1 0 1 0
Then, I2 = ( )( )
0 1 0 1

102
 1×1+0×0 1×0+0×1
=( )
0×1+1×0 0×0+1×1
1 0
∴ I2 = ( )
0 1
1 0 1 0 1 0
Now, I3 = I2 x I = ( )( ) = ( )as above.
0 1 0 1 0 1
This process could be continued till nth power of I.
Hence, I = I2 = I3 = I4 = ………In.
If I is the unit matrix, then I = I2 = I3 … In. This property of identity matrix is called
the idempotent property.

Exercise 3.5
1 3 2 3
1. If A = ( ), B = ( )
2 4 3 2
𝑎 𝑑 𝑝 𝑞 𝑟
C = (𝑏 𝑒 ), D = (𝑤 𝑥 𝑦)
𝑐 𝑓
√2 √7
3 4 5
E=( ), F = (√3 √11)
6 7 8
√5 √13
5
G = (2 5 3) and H = ( ) are given matrices.
25
a) Which of the pair of two matrices are confirmable for matrix
multiplication. Justify with reason.
b) Which of the matrices given above could by multiplied by itself like
A×A = A2?
c) Under which condition the cube of any matrix is defined as A3 =
A×A×A?
d) Define scalar multiplication of matrix with suitable example.
e) List out the properties of matrix multiplication.
3 −1 1 3 5 1
2. If A = ( ), B = ( ) and C = ( ), find
4 8 2 4 2 3
a) 7A f) A(B+C)
b) 2A+3B g) A2-AB-BA+B2

103
 c) 2A+3B-C h) A(B+C)
d) (A+B)2 i) AB+AC
e) A2+AB+BA+B2 j) A(BC)
k) (AB)C l) If 3A+B+X = C, find the matrix X.
3. a) Carry out the multiplication of the following matrices.
1
4 1
i) (2 3) ( ) ii) ( ) (1 5) (iii) (1 2 3) (−2)
5 3
−3
1 3 −1 2 2 1
b) If A = ( ), B = ( ) and C = ( ), find
2 1 1 −1 1 2
i) AB ii) BA iii) BC iv) CB
v) A2 vi) B2 vii) (A+B)C viiii) A(B+C)
−1 2
2 03
c) If M = ( ) and N = ( 2 2 ) work out MN and NM. What
−1 49
−3 −3
can you say about these two products?
4 −1 2 −5 1 2
d) If A = ( ), B = ( ) and C = ( ), prove that
−7 −3 2 −5 3 −4
i) AB≠BA ii) A(B+C) = AB+AC
iii) A(B+C) ≠ AB+CA iv) (AB)T = BTAT
v)A×I = I×A where I is 2×2 identity matrix.
4 0 1 2
4. a) If X = ( ) and XY = ( ) find the matrix Y.
0 5 2 4
−4 0 (𝑋) 4
b) If ( ) = ( ) find the matrix X.
5 7 9
2𝑥 + 3 5 −8
7
c) If ( 𝑦 − 2 ) = ( 12 20 ) ( ), find the value of x, y and z.
2
3𝑧 + 4 −3 4
4 9 4 9
d) If P = ( ) and PQ = ( ), find the matrix Q.
16 25 16 25
8 −2 6
e) If ( ) 𝐴 = 2( ), find the matrix A.
1 4 9
3 0 𝑥 𝑦
f) If M = ( ), N = ( ) and MN = M+N, find the values of x, y
0 4 0 𝑧
and z.

104
 4 1
5. a) If X = ( ), I and O are 2×2 identity matrices and zero matrix
−1 2
respectively, prove that X2-6X+9I = 0.
4 2
b) If A = ( ) and I is a 2×2 unit matrix, prove that (A+2I) (A-3I) = O
−1 2
where O is a 2×2 zero matrix.
1 1
c) If P = ( ) prove that.
1 1
i) P2-2P = O ii)2P2 = P3 where O is a zero matrix of order 2×2.
3 −5
d) If A = ( ), prove that A2-5A = 14I. Where I is a unit matrix of
−4 2
order 2×2.
0 2 3 5 6 8 1 0
e) If A = ( ), B = ( ), C = ( ) and I = ( ), prove that.
1 3 4 6 7 9 0 1
i) AB≠BA ii) A(BC) = (AB)C
iii) A(B+C) = AB+AC (iv) IA = AI = A.
T T T 4
v. (AB) = B A (vi) I = I,
10 8 18
6. a) If ( )X = ( ), find X.
2 4 6
1 −1
b) If X( ) = (13 7), find X.
2 3
3 1 𝑥 9
c) If ( ) (𝑦) = ( ), find x and y.
2 −1 1
1 1
d) If x = ( ), show that X2 = 2X.
1 1
4 0 𝑥 𝑦
e) If A = ( ), B = ( )and AB = A+B, find x, y and z.
0 5 0 𝑧
2 0
f) If A = ( ), prove that.
0 2
i) (A+B)T = AT+BT ii) (AB)T = BTAT.
A
7. The adjoining figure shows that the places and
routes of travel from one place to another. construct
table to represent different routes of each place and B
D
write in terms of a matrix.

105
 Unit 4 Coordinates Geometry

4.0 Review
Work in groups of students.
1. Divide all students in suitable groups. Ask all groups to plot any two points in
XY-plane in a graph or grid paper. After that tell them to join those two points
by using scale.
Ask them to find the distance between these two points by using the formula.
Distance = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2
2. Distribute different triangles and quadrilaterals (equilateral triangles, isosceles
triangles, scalene triangles, square, rectangle, parallelogram and rhombus)
with the coordinates of vertices. Then ask to verify the given geometric figure
and their characteristics without measuring the length of sides or by using
distance formula.
4.1 Locus

Observe the above figures and discuss about the path made by the moving object.
The word locus is derived from Latin word. The set of all points that
satisfy a given condition is called locus. It is the path made by a moving point
under certain condition.
A locus is the set of points which satisfies a given condition. In other words, a
locus is the path of a moving point under the given condition.
In above figure the first figure show the path obtained by a moving stone. In
second figure a cow in a ground makes a circular path when it moves from fixed
point. These all are the examples of locus.
How to represent a locus in co-ordinate geometry?

106
The set of points under the given conditions can be represented in terms of
Cartesian coordinates and the locus is analytically defined by an equations.
Equation of the locus:
The values of x and y for a locus are given as follows.

x 2 3 4 5 6

y 1 2 3 4 5

Plotting these points on Cartesian coordinate, we get a straight line.

Y

X’ X
O

Y’

Here in each case y coordinates is 1 less than x-coordinate, so the relation of x

and y can be expressed as y = x-1.
i.e. The locus of a point is x-y-1 = 0
How to find locus of a point?
To find the equation of locus, the following procedure should be followed.
 Assume that (x, y) lies on the locus.
 Write algebraic condition that (x, y) satisfy.
 Express the conditions in terms of x and y.
 Simplify the algebraic expression.

107
Note: If any point lies on the locus its coordinates must satisfy the equation of
locus.
Example 1
Does the point (0, 5) lies on x2+y2 = 25 ?
Solution:
Here, (x, y) = (0, 5)
Equation of locus is x2+y2 = 25 ………… (i)
By putting (0, 5) in (i) we get,
02 + 52= 25
or, 25 = 25 (satisfied)
Hence, (0, 5) lies on the locus x2+y2 = 25
Example 2
Find the equation of a locus of a point which moves such that its distance from
(3, -2) is always 5 units.
Solution:
Here, A (3, -2) be a given point and let P (x, y) be a 5 units
point on the locus such that d(PA) = 5 units P(x,y) A(3,-2)
We know that
Distance d(PA) = (x2 - x1 )2 + (y2 - y1)2
or, 5 units = (3 - x)2 + (-2- y)2
On squaring both side we get,
or (3-x)2+(-2-y)2 = 25
or 9 – 6x+x2+4+4y+y2 = 25
or, x2+y2-6x+4y+13 = 25
 x2+y2-6x+4y-12 = 0 is required equation of locus.
Example 3
Find the equation of locus of a point P which moves such that its distance from
L(-4, 3) and M (1, 0) satisfies the condition PL2 = PM2.
Solution:
We have given, L(-4, 3) and M (1, 0). Let P (x, y) be any point on the locus By
given condition, (PL)2 = (PM)2

108
𝑜𝑟, (𝑥 + 4)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 = (𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 0)2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 16 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑦 + 9 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 + 𝑦 2
𝑜𝑟, 8𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 2𝑥 + 25 − 1 = 0
𝑜𝑟, 10𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 24 = 0
𝑜𝑟, 5𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 12 = 0
Therefore, 5x – 3y +12 = 0 is required equation of locus.

Exercise 4.1
1. Find the locus of P (x, y) which moves such that
a) Its distance from (-4, 5) is 5.
b) Its distance form x-axis is always 5 units.
c) Its distance from y-axis is always – 3.
d) Its distance from (-5, -2) is always 6 units.
e) Its distance from origin is 3.
f) Its distance from (1, 6) is 7
2. a) Find which of the following points lie in x2+y2+2x+4y-8 = 0
i) (1, 1) ii) (–1, 2) iii) (3, 1)
2 2
b) Which of the points below lie on x +y +10x+4y-32 = 0
i) (1, 3) ii) (2, –3)
c) Does the point (3, 4) lie on the loci given below.
i) x2+y2 = 25 ii) 2x+3y = 12
iii) 3x+4y = 25 iv) 2x+2y+3 = 0
d) If (4, 4) lies on the locus y2 = ax, prove that (16, 8) lies on the same
locus.
e) If (2, -3) lies on the locus kx2+3y2+2x–6 = 0, find the value of k.
x y
f) If (0, 4) and (4, 0) both lie on a + b =1 find the values of a and b.

3. a) Find the equation of locus of a point which moves in such a way that its
distances from (a, b) is k.
b) Find the equation of the locus of a point lying equidistant from

109
 i) (0, 2) and x-axis ii) (3, 5) and (6, 0)
iii) (2, –3) and (–1, 8) iv) (–2, 7) and (5, 6)
v) both the axes
c) Let A (5, 0) and B (5, 0) be two fixed points. Find the locus satisfying the
following conditions:
a) PA2+PB2 = AB2 b) PA = 2PB c) PA:PB = 2:3

4.2 Section formula

Let AB be a line segment and P be any m1 m2
point lying on the line segment such that
the point P divides AB into two segments P B
A
AP and PB.
AP m1
In this case PB = m
2

What will be the coordinates of P? Discuss.

Internal division of a line segment
To find the coordinates of a point that divides the given line segment in the
given ratio m1:m2
Let P(x, y) be a point on the line joining A(x1, Y
y1) and B(x2, y2). Let the point P divides AB in B (x2, y2)
m2
the ratio of m1:m2.
P
Draw AM, PQ and BN perpendiculars on x-axis, m1 R

Also draw ACPQ and PRBN. A (x1, y1)

C
From the figure,
OM = x1 AM = QC = y1 X' O
X
M Q N
OQ = x PQ = NR = y Y'

ON = x2 BN = y2
PC = PQ – QC = y – y1
AC = MQ = OQ – MO = x – x1
BR = BN – NR = y2 –y
PR = QN = ON – OQ = x2 – x

110
 In right angled triangles APC and BPR,
(i) ACP = PRB = 90º
(ii) PAC = BPR (Corresponding angles)
APC  PRB (By AA similarity)
AP AC PC
PB = PR = BR (Ratio of corresponding sides of similar triangles)
m1 x – x1 y – y1
or, m2 = x2 – x = y2 – y ………………..(i)
From first and second ratios of (i)
m1 x – x1
m2 = x2 – x
or, m1x2 – m1x = m2x – m2x1.
m1x + m2x = m1x2 + m2x1
or, (m1 + m2)x = m1x2 + m2x1
m1x2 + m2x1
or, x = m1 + m2
Again taking first and third ratio of (i)
m1 y – y1
m2 = y2 – y
or, m1y2 – m1y = m2y – m2y1
or, m1y2 + m2y1 = m1y +m2y
or, m1y2 + m2y1 = (m1 + m2)y
m1y2 + m2y1
or, y = m1 + m2
m1x2 + m2x1 m1y2 + m2y1
 The coordinates of P(x, y) = P m + m , m + m 
 1 2 1 2 

 The coordinates of point P that divides the line segments in the ratio m1:m2 is
m1x2 + m2x1 m1y2 + m2y1
 m +m , m +m 
 1 2 1 2 

111
For memory technique we can use the following idea:

m1 is multiplies by x2 (or y2) and m2 is

multiplied by x1 (or y1) and their sum
is divided by sum of m1 and m2. A(x1,y1) m1 P(x,y) m2 B(x2,y2)
Example 1
Find the coordinates of the point P (x, y) that divides the line segment joining A
(2, 3) and B (7, 8) internally in the ratio 2:3.
Solution:
We have, x1 = 2, x2 = 7, y1 = 3, y2 = 8
Now, m1 = 2 and m2 = 3
Since P (x, y) divides AB in the ratio 2:3 then
𝑚1 𝑥2 +𝑚2 𝑥1 𝑚1 𝑦2 +𝑚2 𝑦1
x = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 =
𝑚1 +𝑚2 𝑚1 +𝑚2
2×7+3×2 2×8+3×3
or x = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 =
2+3 2+3
20 25
𝑥= = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = = 5
5 5
The required point is P (4, 5).
Midpoint formula of a line segment
If the point P (x, y) divides the line segment AB in two equal parts then m1 = m2
and the coordinates of point P is
m1 x2 +m2 x1 m1 y2 +m2 y1
=( , )
m1 +m2 m1 +m2 m1 m2 B(x2,y2)
A(x1,y1) P(x,y)
m1 x2 +m1 x1 m1 y2 +m1 y1
=( , )
m1 +m1 m1 +m1
m1 (x2 +x1 ) m1 (y2 +y1 )
=( , )
2m1 2m1
x1 +x2 y1 +y2
=( , )
2 2

If P (x, y) be the midpoint of line segment joining A (x1, y1) and B(x2, y2), then the
𝑥 +𝑥 𝑦1 +𝑦2
coordinates of P is ( 1 2 , )
2 2

112
Example 2
Find coordinates of a point which divides the line segment joining C(4, –12) and
D(6, 8) into two equal parts.
Solution:
Let P(x, y) be the point that divides the line segment joining C (4, –12) and
D(6, 8) into two equal parts. Then P is midpoint of line segment CD and the
coordinates of mid-point is
𝑥1 +𝑥2 𝑦1 +𝑦2
x = , y=
2 2
6+4 −12+8
or, x = , 𝑦=
2 2
or, x = 5 y =- 2
The coordinates of midpoint is (5, –2)
Example 3
Find midpoint of line segment joining (4, 6) and (–6, –4).
Solution: Here,
(x1, y1) = (4, 6) and (x2, y2) = (–6, –4)
(x, y) = ?
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
We have x = 2 , y = 2
4 + (–6) 6 + (–4)
or, x = 2 , y = 2
–2 2
or, x = 2 , y =2

 x = –1, y=1
 (–1, 1) is midpoint of the given line segment.
External Division of a Line Segment
Let Enjal and Enjila start to walk from a O C
A B
fixed point O for the point C. After some time

113
Enjal and Enjila reached at the points A and B respectively. Enjal have to walk 8
km and Enjila has to walk 6 km to cover the all distance then the ratio of AC and
BC is 8: 6
𝐴𝐶 8 4
i.e. = =
𝐵𝐶 6 3
4
Enjal has to cover 3 of Enjila

In this case point C is said to divide the segment AB externally in the ratio of 4:3.
To find the coordinates of a point that divides the line segment joining (x1, y1)
and (x2, y2) externally.
Y
Let A (x1, y1) and B (x2, y2) be two points. Let P P(x,y)
(x, y) divides the line segment AB externally in
the ratio m1:m2.
B (x2,y2)
ie, AP : PB = m1 : m2
Draw AL, BM and PN perpendiculars on OX (x- C
axis) and A(x1,y1) D
ACPN which meets BM at point D. X
O L N
AL || BM since BM || PN.
From figure, AD = LM = OM – OL = x2 – x1, AB = AP – BP
AC = LN = ON – OL = x–x1
BD = BM – MD = y2 –y1
PC = PN – CN = y – y1
Since ABD  APC, we have
AB AD BD
= = ……………….. (i)
AP AC PC
AB m1
Now, =
PB m2
PB m2
or, =
AB m1
AP−AB m2
or, =
AP m1
AP AB m2
or, − =
AP AP m1
AB m2
or, 1 − =
AP m1

114
 AB m2 m1 −m2
or, =1− =
AP m1 m1

Substituting the values above, we get

𝑚1 −𝑚2 𝑥2 −𝑥1 𝑦2 −𝑦1
or, = = …………………(ii)
𝑚1 𝑥−𝑥1 𝑦−𝑦1

By taking first and second ratio from (ii)

𝑚1 − 𝑚2 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
=
𝑚1 𝑥 − 𝑥1
𝑜𝑟, (𝑚1 − 𝑚2 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) = 𝑚1 𝑥2 − 𝑚1 𝑥1
𝑜𝑟, (𝑚1 − 𝑚2 )𝑥 − 𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑚2 𝑥1 = 𝑚1 𝑥2 − 𝑚1 𝑥1
or, (𝑚1 − 𝑚2 )𝑥 = 𝑚1 𝑥2 − 𝑚2 𝑥1
𝑚1 𝑥2 −𝑚2 𝑥1
or, x =
𝑚1 −𝑚2

Similarly taking first and third ratio from equation (i)

𝑚1 − 𝑚2 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
=
𝑚1 𝑦 − 𝑦1
(𝑚1 − 𝑚2 )(𝑦 − 𝑦1 ) = 𝑚1 𝑦2 − 𝑚1 𝑦1
or, (𝑚1 − 𝑚2 ) 𝑦 − 𝑚1 𝑦1 + 𝑚2 𝑦1 = 𝑚1 𝑦2 − 𝑚1 𝑦1
𝑚1 𝑦2 −𝑚2 𝑦1
or, 𝑦 =
𝑚1 −𝑚2
𝑚1 𝑥2 −𝑚2 𝑥1 𝑚1 𝑦2 −𝑚2 𝑦1
The coordinates of external divisor P is ( , )
𝑚1 −𝑚2 𝑚1 −𝑚2

Example 4
Find the coordinates of a point that divides the line segment joining (6, –2) and (–
3, 4) externally in the ratio of 5:2.
Solution:
We have (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (6, 2)
(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) = (−3, 4)
𝑚1 = 5, 𝑚2 = 2
Let P (x, y) be coordinates of the point that divides the segment in given ratio,
then
𝑚1 𝑥2 −𝑚2 𝑥1 𝑚1 𝑦2 −𝑚2 𝑦1
𝑥 = and 𝑦 =
𝑚1 −𝑚2 𝑚1 −𝑚2

115
 5×−3−2×6 5×4−2×−2
or, 𝑥 = , and 𝑦 =
5−2 5−2
−27 24
or, 𝑥 = , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 =
3 3

or, 𝑥 = −9, 𝑦 = 8
𝑃 (𝑥, 𝑦) = (−9, 8)
Example 5
Find the coordinates of a point which divides the line joining (6, –3) and (–1, 4)
in the ratio of 3 : 4 (i) internally (ii) externally.
Solution:
Here, A(x1, y1) = (6, –3) B(x2, y2) = (–1, 4) B

m1: m2 = 3 : 4
P (x, y)
(x, y) = ?
A
Now, (i) for internal divisor
m1x2 + m2x1 m1y2 + m2y1
x = m1 + m2 and y = m1 + m2
3 × −1 + 4 × 6 3 × 4 + 4 × –3
= and y = 3+4
3−4

–3 + 24 12 – 12
= 7 = 7
21
= 7 =3 =0

 (3, 0) divides AB in the ratio of 3:4 internally.

(ii) For external divisor
m1x2 – m2x1 m1y2 – m2y1
x = m1 – m2 , y = m1 – m2
3 × (–1) – 4 × 6 3 × 4 − 4 × −3
x = 3–4 , y =
𝑚1 −𝑚2

–3 –24 12 + 12
x = –1 , y = 3–4

–27 24
= –1 , y = –1

116
 = 27 = –24
 P(27, –24) divides externally in the ratio 3:4.
Example 6
Find the coordinates of the point dividing the line joining point (5, –2) and (9, 6)
in the ration of 3:1 (i) internally (ii) externally
Solution: We have,
𝑥1 = 5, 𝑦1 = −2, 𝑥2 = 9, 𝑦2 = 6
𝑚1 = 3, 𝑚2 = 1
(i) Let P(x, y) divides the line internally. So,
m1x2 + m2x1 m1y2 + m2y1
x = m1 + m2 , and y = m1 +m2
3×9+1×5 3 × 6 + 1 × −2
𝑥 = , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 =
3+1 3+1
32 16
𝑥 = , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 =
4 4
𝑥 = 8, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 4
 (x, y) = (8, 4)
(ii) Let P'(x, y) divides the line externally then
m1x2 – m2x1 m1y2 – m2y1
x = m1 – m2 , and y = m1 – m2
3×9−1×5 3×6−1×−2
or, 𝑥 = , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 =
3−1 3−1
22 20
or, 𝑥 = , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 =
2 2

or, 𝑥 = 11, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 10

 P' (x, y) = (11, 10)
Example 7
Find the ratio in which point P (1, 4) divides the line segment joining the points
A (–1, 6) and B (2, 3) internally.
Solution: Method I
Suppose the ratio is m1 : m2.

117
 Then by using formula for x = 1, 𝑦 = 4, 𝑥1 = −1, 𝑦1 = 6, 𝑥2 = 2, 𝑦2 = 3
we get
𝑚1 𝑥2 +𝑚2 𝑥1
𝑥 =
𝑚1 +𝑚2
𝑚1 ×2+𝑚2 (−1)
or, 1 =
𝑚1 +𝑚2

or, 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 = 2𝑚1 − 𝑚2
or, 2𝑚1− 𝑚1 = 2𝑚2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑚1 = 2𝑚2
𝑚1 2
or =
𝑚2 1

The required ratio is 2:1

Similarly, by using the formula for y as;
m1y2 + m2y1
y = m1 + m2 we can get same result.
Method II
Also, if we take the ratio is k:1 instead of m1:m2, we get the same ratio as
follows:
𝑚1 𝑥2 +𝑚2 𝑚2
Let, 𝑥 =
𝑚1 +𝑚2
𝑘 × 2 + 1 × (−1)
or, 1 =
𝑘+1

or, 𝑘 + 1 = 2𝑘 − 1
or, 2𝑘 − 𝑘 = 1 + 1
𝑘 = 2
 The ratio is k:1 = 2:1
Example 8
Find the coordinates of points which divides the line segment joining the points
(-4, 0) and (0, 6) in three equal parts.
Solution:
Suppose P and Q be the two points which divides the line segment joining (-4, 0)
and (0, 6) in three equal parts. Then P divides the line in 1:2 ratio and Q divides
the line in 2:1 ratio

118
 For P, P divides in 1:2 ratio 1 2
𝑚1 𝑥2 +𝑚2 𝑥1 𝑚1 𝑦2 +𝑚2 𝑦1
𝑥 = , 𝑦 = A(-4,0) P Q B(0,6)
𝑚1 +𝑚2 𝑚1 +𝑚2
2 1
1.0+2.(−4) 1.6+2.0
= , =
1+2 1+2
−8 6
= = = 2
3 3
−8
= ( , 2)
3

For Q, Q divides AB in 2:1 ratio.

𝑚1 𝑥2 +𝑚2 𝑥1 𝑚1 𝑦2 +𝑚2 𝑦1
(𝑥, 𝑦) = ,
𝑚1 +𝑚2 𝑚1 +𝑚2
2×0+1×−4 2×6+1.0
= ( , )
2+1 2+1
−4 12 4
= ( , ) = ( , 4)
3 3 3

Example 9
Prove that A (–2, 2), B (0, –2), C(5, 3) and D (5, 7) are the vertices of a
parallelogram ABCD.
Y
Solution: D
We have the given four points as
A(–2, 2), B (0, –2), C(5, 3), D(3, 7).
where, AC and BD are diagonals.
A
Now the midpoint of A (–2, 2) and C C

(5, 3) is
X’
O X
−2 + 5 2 + 3 3 5
( , ) = ( , )
2 2 2 2 B

Again the midpoint of (0, –2) and D

(3, 7) is
Y’
0 + 3 −2 + 7 3 5
( , ) = ( , )
2 2 2 2
3 5
Since the mid points of diagonals AC and BD are same ( , ).
2 2
So ABCD is a parallelogram.

119
Example 10
P(3, 4), Q(–2, 1) and R(–5, 6) be the coordinates of the mid points of the sides
AB, BC and CA of a ABC respectively. Find the coordinates of the vertices A,
B, C of the triangle.
Solution
P (3, 4), Q (–2, 1) and R(–5, 6) are the mid points of sides AB, BC and AC with
coordinates A (x1, y1), B (x2, y2) and C (x3, y3).
Now, from figure
PQCR is a parallelogram and S(x, y) is common midpoint of diagonals PC and
QR.
𝑥3 +3 𝑦3 +4 −5−2 6+1
Therefore, ( , ) =( , )
2 2 2 2
𝑥3 +3 𝑦3 +4 −7 7
or, ( , ) = ( , )
2 2 2 2

Now, equating the coordinates we get,

or,
𝑥3 +3
=
−7
𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑦3 +4
=
7 A(x1, y1)
2 2 2 2
or, 𝑥3 + 3 = −7 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦3 + 4 = 7
or, 𝑥3 = −10 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦3 = 3
 C(𝑥3 , 𝑦3 ) = C(−10, 3) R(–5, 6) P(3, 4)
Since R(-5, 6) is midpoints of AC.
𝑥1 +𝑥3 𝑦1 +𝑦3 S(x, y)
So, ( , ) = (–5, 6)
2 2
C(x3, y3) B(x2, y2)
𝑥1 −10 𝑦1 + 3 Q(–2, 1)
or, ( , ) = (–5, 6)
2 2
𝑥1 −10 𝑦1 +3
 = –5 and =6
2 2
or, x1 = –10 + 10 and y1 = 12 – 3
or x1 = 0, y1 = 0
 (x1, y1) = (0, 9)
Again, Q (–2, 1) is the midpoint of BC.
𝑥2 +𝑥3 𝑦2 +𝑦3
So, ( , ) = (–2, 1)
2 2
𝑥2 −10 𝑦2 + 3
or, ( , ) = (–2, 1)
2 2

120
 𝑥2 −10 𝑦2 +3
 = –2 and =1
2 2
or, x2 = –4 + 10 and y2 = 2 – 3
or, x2 = 6 and y2 = 1
 (x2, y2) = (6, –1)
 The coordinates of the vertices of ABC are A(0, 9), B(6, –1) and C(–10, 3)।

Centroid of a triangle
The line joining the midpoint of a side and the A
opposite vertex of the triangle is called median of the
triangle. There are three medians of a triangle.
The point of intersection of these three medians is P Q
called Centroid of the triangle. O
The centroid divides each median in the ratio of 2:1
from the vertex to the midpoint. B C
R
In the given figure, O is centroid of ABC
Therefore, BO:OQ = CO:OP = AO:OR = 2:1
The coordinates of O (x, y) can be determined by
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 + 𝑦3
𝑥 = , 𝑦 =
3 3
Example 11
If A (1, 1), B(1, 7) and C (7, 1) be the coordinates of vertices of ABC then find
the centroid of ABC.
Solution: Here
A (1, 1), B(1, 7) and C (7, 1) be the coordinates of vertices of ABC, then the
centroid of ABC has coordinates
𝑥1 +𝑥2 +𝑥3 𝑦1 +𝑦2 +𝑦3
𝑥 = , 𝑦 =
3 3
1+1+7 1+7+1
or, 𝑥 = , 𝑦 =
3 3

or, (𝑥, 𝑦) = (3 , 3) = (3, 3)

9 9

121
Exercise 4.2
1. Find distance between following pair of points.
(a) (o, 3) and (4, 0) (b) (–5, 2) and (3, 8)
(c) (7, 2) and (5, 4) (d) (3, 2) and (–3, –5)
2. Find the coordinates of P in the followings cases.
(a) P (x, y) which divides the line segment joining (–1, 2) and (4, –5)
internally in the ratio 2 : 3.
(b) P (x, y) which divides the line segment joining (3, 9) and (1, –3)
internally in the ratio 2 : 3.
(c) P (x, y) which divides the line segment joining (–1, 3) and (8, 7)
internally in the ratio 2 : 5.
(d) P (x, y) which divides the line segment joining (2, –4) and (–5, 8)
internally in the ratio 2 : 3.
3. Find the coordinates of a point which divides the line segment joining the
following points externally in the given ratio.
(a) A (–1, 1) and B (8, 9) in the ratio 3 : 4.
(b) A (0, –5) and B (5, 10) in the ratio 2 : 1.
(c) A (–3, 9) and B (1, –3) in the ratio 2 : 3.
(d) P (–1, –3) and Q (8, 7) in the ratio 2 : 5.
4. Find mid points of the line segment joining the following points.
(a) (2, 5) and (4, 4) (b) (0, 7) and (6, 3)
(c) (–10, 6) and (2, –4) (d) (–2, –1) and (4, 3)
(e) (3, –5) and (9, –3)
5. (a) Find the ratio of internal division of the line segment joining the points
(5, –3) and (–9, 4) by the point (3, –4).
(b) In what ratio does the point (15, 11) divides the line segment joining the
points (5, 15) and (20, 9)?
(c) Find the ratio in which the line segment joining (6, 21) and (1, –7) is
divided internally by (x, 0). Also find the value of x.
(d) Find the ratio that the line segment joining the points (2, –4) and (5, 8)
divided by the x-axis.

122
 (e) Find the ratio that the line segment joining the points (–2, 4) and (5, 4)
divided by y-axis. Also find value of y.
6. (a) Find the coordinates of the points which divides the line segment
joining the points (–8, 0) and (4, –8) in four equal parts.
(b) Find the coordinates of the points of trisection of the line segment
joining the points A (–3, 9) and B (6, 3).
(c) Show that P (–2, 1) is a point of trisection of line segment joining the
points A (1, 2) and B (–8, 5).
(d) Show that P (–2, 3) is point of trisection of line segment joining the
points A (4, –5) and B (–6, 15).
7. (a) If P (–3, 3) divides the line segment joining A(x, 0) and B (0, y) in the
ratio 2 : 3, then find coordinates of A and B.
(b) What will be the coordinates of points A on x-axis and B on y-axis if
the point P (4, 5) intersects the line segment AB in the ratio 5 : 3?
(c) Find the value of a and b by using the
B(0,b)
information in the adjoining figure.
2
8. (a) Show that A (-4, 9), B (6, 9), C (7, 0)
and D (–3, 0) are the vertices of a P(4,3)
parallelogram. 1

(b) Show that the midpoint of line joining A O(0,0) A(a,0)

(5, 7), and B (3, 9) is equal to the
midpoint of line segment joining the points C (8, 6) and D (0, 10). Also
write the name of quadrilateral thus formed.
(c) If ABCD be a parallelogram with vertices Y
A(10, 6), B (0, –1), C (2, –5) and D (x, y).
Find coordinates of D. B(0,b) C(a,b)
(d) In adjoining figure the coordinates of O, A, C
and B are given. Show that OACB is a
X
rectangle. O(0,0) A(a,0)
(e) Prove that A (1, –1), B (–2, 2), C (4, 8) and
D (7, 5) are the vertices of a rectangle.
(f) If P (2, 1), Q (–2, 3) and R (4, 5) be the three vertices of a
parallelogram PQRS, find coordinates of S opposite to Q.

123
 (g) If A (1, 1), B (7, –3), C (12, 2) and D (7, 21) are the four vertices of a
quadrilateral, prove that the mid points of segments AB, BC, CD and
AD forms a parallelogram.
9. (a) Find centroid of the triangles whose vertices are
i) (4, 8), (–9, 7) and (8, 13)
ii) (3, –5), (7, 4) and (10, –2)
iii) (2, 1), (5, 2) and (3, 7)
(b) If two vertices of a triangle are (–3, 1) and (0, –2) and the centroid is
(0, 0), then find third vertex of the triangle.
(c) If P (x, 7), Q (5, –2) and R (0, y) be three vertices and O (0, 0) be the
centroid of a triangle PQR, find value of x and y.
(d) If P (4, –2), Q (–2, 3) and R (6, 4) are the
vertices of a triangle, find the length of
B
median drawn from Q to PR.
(e) If P (2, 3) is midpoint of the line segment, P(2,3)
find coordinates of A and B and show that
OP = AP = BP.

O A

4.3 Equation of Straight Lines Y

Take any two points on a cartesian plane.
Join these points by using scale, what will
we get discuss in group about the figure. P

In figure points P(3, 4) and Q(-2, -3) are

X
joined and line segment PQ is formed. X’ O
This is a type of straight line. How many
different kinds of straight lines can be Q
formed from two points? Discuss in group
of two.
Y’

124
Equations of the Coordinates Axes Y

A
(a) Equation of X-axis
What will be the coordinates of the B
point P, Q and R in given figure?
They are P(1, 0), Q(4, 0), R(–3, 0) .
In each cases the value of y is always X’ O X
P Q
0. R
C
Also each above point lie in x-axis.
Hence, all over the X -axis the value
of y is always zero.
The equation of X-axis is y = 0.
(b) Equation of Y-axis
The coordinates of A, B and C are (0, 6), (0, 4) and (0, -2) respectively. In each
case the value of x is zero and the above all points lie in y-axis. So, All over the
y-axis the value of x is always zero.
The equation of Y-axis is x = 0.
(c) Equation of a straight line parallel to X-axis
Let AB be a line parallel to X'OX. Which intersects y-axis at M
such that OM = b. Y
Let P (x, y) be any point on AB. Draw PN 
OX then OMPN is a rectangle. So PN = OM B M P(x,y)
A
Since PN = y and OM = b X’ X
O N
Hence, at point P(x, y) the value of y is b.
Since P (x, y) be arbitrary point on AB so,
throughout the line AB, we can say the value
of y is equal to b i.e. y = b. Y’

The equation of a straight line parallel to X-axis is y – b = 0.

(d) Equation of a straight line parallel to Y-axis Y A

Let AB be a line parallel to YOY' (Y-axis) which

intersects x–axis at N such that ON = a. Let M P(x,y)
P(x, y) be any point on AB. Draw PMOY, then X’ X
ON = PM = x, also ON = a O N

B
Y’
125
 Hence, at point P(x, y) the value of x is a.
x–a = 0 is the equation of line AB. Since P(x, y) is arbitrary point on AB and
AB is parallel to y-axis, the value of x throughout line AB is equal to a.
The equation of a straight line parallel to Y-axis is x – a = 0.

(e) Slope or Gradient of a straight line B

In figure, a straight line intersects the x-axis and y-
axis at point A and B respectively then AOB is a
right angled triangle. The angle BAO, is the angle 
made by AB in positive x-axis (anticlockwise
direction) is called inclination of AB. A O

The slope of a straight line (gradient of straight line) is the tangent of

inclination of the line. The slope of a line is denoted by m. If  be the angle
made by a line with x-axis in positive direction, then the slope is given by m =
tan. For example, the slope of the following straight lines are:

B
B B B B

B B


  135
135 30
3030
45
45
A
OO A A A A O OO
A A OO

(i) (ii) (iii)

(i) m = tan = tan135 = –1

(ii) m = tan = tan45 = 1
1
(iii) m = tan(180 – 30) = tan150 = –
3
(f) Slope of a Straight Line Joining two
Points Y

Let P (x1, y1) and Q (x2, y2) be two points Q(x2,y2)

and θ be the angle made by PQ with
P(x1,y1) 
positive X-axis. Draw PM and QN L
perpendiculars on X-axis and PL  QN.

X
O A M N

126
 In figure,
PL = MN = ON – OM = x2 – x1
QL = QN – LN = y2 – y1
Since PL||OX so, QPL = QAN = 
In right angled triangle QPL,
𝑄𝐿 y2 - y1
tan𝜃 = =
𝑃𝐿 x2 -x1
𝑦2 −𝑦1
Hence the slope of a straight line joining (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is m = .
𝑥2 −𝑥1

Instruction:
To find slope of the straight line we first recall the values of fundamental
angles of tan  such as

 0 30 45 60 90

tan 0 1 1 √3 ∞
3

Example 1
Find the slope of a straight line whose angle of inclination is 30.
Solution: Here, we have
inclination () = 30
Slope (m) = ?
Now, slope (m) = tan 
= tan 30
1
m=
√3

Example 2
What will be the inclination of a line with slope 1?
Solution: Here, we have
slope (m) = 1
Angle of inclination () = ?
Now, slope (m) = 1

127
or, tan  = 1
tan  = tan 45
 = 45.
 The inclination of the line is 45.
Example 3
What will be the slope of a line joining the points P (4, 7) and Q (3, 4)?
Solution: Here, we have
P (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (4, 7), Q (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) = (3, 4)
Slope (m) = ?
𝑦2 −𝑦1
We know that, slope (m) =
𝑥2 −𝑥1
4−7 −3
= = = 3
3−4 −1

 Slope (m) = 3.
Collinear Points: Three points A, B, and C are said to be collinear if slope of AB
and BC or slope of AB and AC are equal.
Example 4
Show that A (3, 4), B(7, 8) and C (11, 12) are collinear points.
Solution: Here,
A (3, 4), B(7, 8) and C (11, 12) are given . C (11,12)
We have,
𝑦2 −𝑦1
Slope of AB = B (7,8)
𝑥2 −𝑥1
8- 4
= = 1
7- 3
𝑦2 – 𝑦1 12 – 8
Slope of BC = = A (3,4)
𝑥2 −𝑥1 11 – 7

=1
Hence, slope of AB and slope of BC are same (i.e. 1). B is common to AB and
BC. So A, B, C are collinear points.
P B
Intercepts in the axes
Suppose PQ be a line which intersects X-axis at A
and Y-axis at B. The distance of point A from origin

O A
128 Q
O is called x-intercept and the distance of point B from origin O is called y-
intercept. Generally, they are denoted by a
and b respectively. Y

ie. OA = x-intercept (a) A

OB = y-intercept (b) B

X’
Example 5: R
O P Q X
C
Find x-intercept and y-intercept of the
given lines in graph.
Solution: Here, Y’
Three straight lines BQ, RC and PC are
given.
Now, the intercepts of the straights line BQ, RC and PC are:
Line X-intercept (a) Y-intercept (b)
BQ 4 4
RC -3 –2
PC 1 –2
Exercise 4.3
1. Find slope of straight lines having following inclinations:
(a) 30 (b) 45 (c) 0 (d) 60
2. Find the inclination of straight lines with following slope.
1
(a) 1 (b) √3 (c) (d) 0
√3

3. Find the slope of the line joining the following points.

(a) (2, 5) and (3, 4) (b) (1, 3) and (9, 1) (c) (6, 2) and (4, 3)
(d) (–3, 5) and (5, 9) (e) (4, 3) and (7, 5)
4. (a) If slope of line joining (2, y) and (4, 5) is 1 find the value of y.
2
(b) Find the value of x, if the slope of (4, 3) and (x, 5) is
3
(c) What will be the value of k if the slope of line joining (6, k) and (4, 3)
−5
is .
2

129
5. Find the equation of following straight lines.
(a) X-axis (b) Y-axis (c) 3 units right to Y–axis
(d) 2 units left to Y-axis (e) 5 units above X-axis
(f) 4 units below X-axis (g) Passing through (3, 2) parallel to X-axis
(h) Passing through (–3, –3) parallel to Y-axis
6. Show the following points are collinear.
(a) (2, 5), (5, 8), (8, 11) (b) (–2, 3), (2, 5) and (8, 8)
7. (a) Find intercepts of line joining (2, 4) and (5, 1) by plotting on Cartesian
plane.
(b) Find intercepts of line joining (5, 5) and (8, 2) by plotting on Cartesian
plane.

4.4 Equations of Straight Lines in Standard Forms

Y
Slope intercept from P(x,y)

(When slope of a straight line m and y-intercept 'c' C(0,c)

are given)
Let AB be a straight line which meets x-axis at A

and y-axis at the point C. Let θ be the angle made X' X
A O
by AB with x-axis in positive direction then BAX
= θ, OC = c then the coordinates of C is (0, c).
Y'
Now, tan θ = m is slope of AB.
Let P (x, y) be any point on AB then slope of the line AB is same as the slope of
𝑦−𝑐
line joining C(0, c) and P (x, y) and is given by m =
𝑥−0

𝑜𝑟, 𝑦 − 𝑐 = 𝑚𝑥
𝑜𝑟, 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐, is required equation of straight line AB.
Note:
If the line AB passes through origin (0, 0) then y-intercept c = 0 and the equation
of straight line is y = mx + 0. i.e, y = mx
i.e. If constant term is absent in a linear equation then it passes through origin.
Example 1
Find the equation of a straight line making angle 45 with x-axis and makes
y-intercept 3.

130
Solution:
We have, Angle of inclination () = 45,
y- intercept (c) = 3
Slope (m) = tan = tan 45 = 1
Now, the required equation of line is y = mx + c
or, 𝑦 = 1𝑥 + 3
or, 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 3
or, x−y+3 = 0
which is required equation of straight line.
Example 2
What will be the equation of straight line which makes the angle of 60 with
positive x-axis and meet y-axis at (0, –7)
Solution:
We have the angle of inclination (θ) = 60
Slope (m) = tanθ = tan60 = 3
y-intercept (c) = –7
Now the equation of the straight line is y = mx + c
or, y = 3 x – 7
or, 3 x – y – 7 = 0 is required equation.
Example 3
Find the equation of straight lines which makes 45 with positive X- axis and
-45 with negative X- axis and both pass through (0, 4).
Solution:
Let, AC and AB be straight lines passing through (0, 4). The angle made by AC
with positive X-axis is 45 and the angle made by AB with positive X-axis is 135
= –45.
For AC
m = tan 45 = 1
𝑐=4
The required line is 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐

131
𝑜𝑟, 𝑦 = 1𝑥 + 4
𝑜𝑟, 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 4
𝑜𝑟, 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 4 = 0
For line AB
m = tan135 = –1
c=4
The required line is y = mx+c
or, 𝑦 = −1𝑥 + 4
r, 𝑥+𝑦 = 4
or, x + y – 4 = 0 is required equation.

Y
Double Intercept Form
B(0,b)
The equation of straight line when two
intercepts x-intercept (a) and y-intercept (b) are P(x,y)
given.
Let AB be a straight line which intersects x-axis
at A (a, 0) and y-axis at B (0, b). Let P (x, y) by X O A(a,0)
X'
any point on AB, then Y'
b−0 b
Slope of the line joining A (a, 0) and B (0, b) is m1 = =−
0−a a
Also AP is the part of AB
y−0 𝑦
Slope of AP = m2 = =
x−a x−a
Since AP is a part of AB, so slope of AP = slope of AB
y −𝑏
or, =
x−a a
or, ay = –xb + ab
or, bx + ay = ab
Dividing both side by ab

132
 bx ay ab
ab + ab = ab
x y
Or, a + b = 1

x y
Since P(x, y) is arbitrary point on AB. So, a + b = 1 is the equation of AB.

x y
Hence, a + b = 1 is required equation of straight line in double intercepts form.

Example 4
Find equation of a straight line which meets x-axis at –3 and y-axis at 4.
Solution:
We have,
B(0,4)
X-intercept (a) = –3 Y- intercept (b) = 4

x y
Now, equation of straight line is a + b =1
A(-3,0) O
x y
Or, -3 + 4 =1
-4x + 3y
Or, 12 = 1
Or, -4x + 3y = 12
Or, -4x + 3y – 12 = 0
Or, 4x – 3y + 12 = 0
is required equation of the straight line.
Example 5
Find the equation of a straight line which passes through (3, 5) and makes
equal intercepts on x-axis and y-axis.
Solution:
Let the line makes both intercepts a = b = k.
𝑥 𝑦
+ = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑘…………………. (i)
𝑘 𝑘

133
Since the line (i) passes through (3, 5) so, 3+5 = k
k=8
Substituting the value of k in (i) we get
x+y=8
Which is required equation.
(a) Perpendicular Form (Normal form) of Straight Line.
The equation of straight line when the length of perpendicular from origin to
that line (p) and the angle made by this perpendicular with X-axis (𝜶) is given.
Method I Y

Let AB be a straight line which meets x-axis at A B(0,b)

and y-axis at B. Let OM be the perpendicular α
drawn from origin O to the line AB and OM = p. M

Also MOA = 𝛼 and OBM = 𝛼.

α
So, BOM = 90° – 𝛼 and OBM = 𝛼. X
X' O A(a,0)
Now, in right angled triangle OMA Y'
base OM p
cos 𝛼 = = =
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠 OA OA
p
 OA =
cosα
Similarly, in right angled triangle OMB
OM p
sin𝛼 = =
OB OB
p
or, OB = sinα
𝑝 𝑝
 The coordinates of A is ( , 0) and B is (0, )
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼

Now, the equation of line in double intercept form is given by

𝑥 𝑦
+ = 1
𝑎 𝑏
x y
or, p + p =1
cos α sin α
x cosα + y xinα
or, p =1

or, x cos α + y sin α = p is required equation of straight line in normal form.

134
Method II
Y
In figure, AOM = 𝛼
B(0,b)
XAM = 900 + 𝛼
Slope of AB = tan(90 + 𝛼) α
= –cot 𝛼 M

90-α
Again MOB = 900 – 𝛼 and OBM = 𝛼
α
X' X
In right angled triangle OMB. O A(a,0)
OM Y'
sin𝛼 =
OB
OM p
or, OB = =
sin𝛼 sin𝛼
p
The equation of line with slope – cot 𝛼 and y-intercept is
sin𝛼
p
y = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 = −𝑐𝑜𝑡𝛼x +
sin𝛼
−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑝
or, y = 𝑥+
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑥 + 𝑝
or, y =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼

or, ysin𝛼 = –xcos𝛼 + p

or, 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = 𝑝
is required equation of straight line in normal form.
Example 6
Find the equation of the straight line in which the portion of which
intercepted between the axes is bisected at (3,4).
Solution
We have, (3, 4) is midpoint of a line intercepted between the axes. Let (x1, 0) be a
point in X-axis and (0, y1) be the point in Y-axis. Then, we have by using
midpoint formula, Y
x1+ x2
x= 2 (0, y1)
x1+0 (3, 4)
or, 3 = 2

or, x1 = 6 X' X
O (x1, 0)
Y'

135
Now, the equation of the straight line is passing with two points (3,4) and (6, 0) is
y2 - y1
y- y1 = x - x (x- x1)
2 1

0-4
or, y -4 = 6 - 3 (x – 3)

or, 3y – 12 = - 4x + 12
or, 4x + 3y – 24 = 0 is required equation of the straight line.
Example 7
Find the equation of a straight line if the length of perpendicular from origin
to that line is 𝟐√𝟐 units and the perpendicular is inclined with x-axis at 45.
Also show that it passes through (6, –2).
Solution:
We have, 𝛼 = 45, p = 2√2 units.
The equation of straight line is
xcos𝛼 + ysin𝛼 = p
or, xcos45 + ysin45 = 2√2
1 1
or, 𝑥 +𝑦 = 2√2
√2 √2
1
or, (𝑥 + 𝑦) = 2√2
√2

or, 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 2√2 × √2 = 4
 The required equation is x + y = 4. ............(i)
At (6, –2) the equation (i) becomes,
or, x + y = 4  6 – 2 = 4
or, 4 = 4
Hence, the straight line x + y = 4 passes through (6, –2).
Exercise 4.4
1. Find the equation of following straight lines.
(a) Slope (m) = 5 and y-intercept 3.
(b) Inclination 𝜃 = 45 and y-intercept –4.

136
 2
(c) Slope (m) = 3 and y-intercept 6.

1
(d) Slope m = and y-intercept (c) = 3
3
(e) Inclination 60 and y-intercept 0.
2. (a) What will be the equation of straight line which makes angle of 30
with positive x-axis and meets y-axis at (0, 4).
(b) What will be the equation of straight line which makes angle 120 with
positive x-axis and meets y-axis at (0, –5).
(c) Find equation of straight line which makes angle 135 with x-axis and
meets y-axis at (0, 6) Also show that it passes through (4, 2).
(d) Find the equation of straight line equally inclined to the axes and
passing through (0, 4).
3. Find the equation of straight lines in following conditions.
(a) x-intercept = 4 y-intercept = –3
(b) x-intercept = –3 y-intercept = 3
(c) x-intercept = 5 y-intercept = 5
(d) x-intercept = –4 y-intercept = –3
4. (a) Find equation of straight line passing through the point (3, 5) and
cutting off equal intercepts on x-axis and y-axis.
(b) Find the equation of straight line which passes through the point (6, 4)
and has intercepts on the axis.
(i) Equal in magnitude and sign
(ii) equal in magnitude but opposite in sign
(c) Find the equation of straight line which passes through (3, 2) and
making x-intercept double than y-intercept.
(d) Find the equation of the straight line of which passes through (–3, 8)
and making intercepts on the axes whose product is 12.
5. (a) Find the equation of the straight line in which the portion of which
intercepted by the axes is divided by the point (4, 1) in the ratio 1:2.

137
 (b) Find the equation of straight line which passes through the point (–5, 6)
and the portion of it between the axes is divided by the point in the ratio
3:4.
(c) Find the equation of straight line which passes through (–4, 3) such that
the portion of it intercepted between axes is divided in the ratio 5:3 at
that points.
6. Find the equation of straight line in following cases
(a) p = 2 units ,with 𝛼 = 30 (b) p = 6 units, with 𝛼 = 45
(b) p = 8 units, with 𝛼 = 90 (d) p = 3 units, with 𝛼 = 120
(c) p = 7 units, with 𝛼 = 60 (f) p = 2 2 units with 𝛼 = 45
7. (a) What will be the equation of straight line in which p = 3√2units and
slope of p is 1. Show that it passes through (7, –1).
1
(b) What will be the equation of straight line with p = 3 and slope of p is .
√3
5
(c) What will be the equation of straight line with length of perpendicular
2
and slope of p is √3. Show that it passes through (–4, √3 ).

138
4.5 Reduction of the General Equation of straight line into Standard Form
Every straight line has its equation of the first degree in x and y. Conversely, we
can say that every first degree equation in x and y represents a straight line.
The equation of the form Ax + By + C = 0 where A, B and C are constants and A
and B cannot be simultaneously zero, is known as general equation of first degree
in x and y.
Ax + By + C = 0 can be reduced into three standard form of straight lines.
(a) Reduction of Ax + By + C = 0 into slope – intercept form.
We have, the general equation of straight line is
Ax + By + C = 0
or, By = –Ax – C
Dividing on both sides by B
𝐵𝑦 −𝐴 𝐶 −𝐴 𝐶
= 𝑥− 𝑜𝑟, 𝑦 = 𝑥 + (− )..............(i)
𝐵 𝐵 𝑏 𝐵 𝐵

Comparing (i) with 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐, we get

−𝐴 −𝐶
Slope (m) = and y- intercept (c) = in both cases B  0.
𝐵 𝐵
− 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓. 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 − 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
i.e. 𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 =
𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓. 𝑜𝑓 𝑦 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓. 𝑜𝑓 𝑦

Example 1
Reduce x + 3y = 9 in slope intercept form.
Solution:
We have, x + 3y = 9
or 3y = – x + 9
dividing both side by 3
3𝑦 −1 9
= 𝑥+
3 3 3
−1
This gives 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 3 ...............(i)
3
Comparing equation (i) with y = mx + c, we get
−1
Slope (m) = and y- intercept (c) = 3
3
(b) Reduction of Ax + By + C = 0 to double intercept form.
We have, the given general equation of straight line is

139
 Ax + By + C = 0
or, Ax + By = – C
Dividing by –C on both sides, we get,
A B −C
x+ y =
−C −C −C
𝑥 𝑦
or, −𝑐 + −𝑐 = 1 …………. (i)
𝐴 𝐵
𝑥 𝑦
Comparing equation (i) with + = 1, we get
𝑎 𝑏
−𝐶 − 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
x-intercept (a) = =
𝐴 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓. 𝑜𝑓 𝑥
−𝐶 − 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑦 − intercept (b) = =
𝐵 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓. 𝑜𝑓 𝑦

Example 2
Reduce 4x + 3y – 12 = 0 into double intercept form.
Solution: Here,
The general form of equation is 4x + 3y – 12 = 0
or, 4x +3y =12
Dividing on both sides by 12, we get
4𝑥 3𝑦 12
+ =
12 12 12
or, 3 + 4 = 1.............
𝑥 𝑦
(i)
𝑥 𝑦
Comparing equation (i) with + = 1
𝑎 𝑏
We get, x-intercept (a) = 3
y-intercept (b) = 4
Example 3
Find the intercepts on the axes made by the line having equation.
√3𝑥 + 2y − 6 = 0
Solution: Here,
The general form of equation is
√3𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 6 = 0
or, √3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 6
Dividing on both sides by 6, we get

140
 √3𝑥 2 6
+ 𝑦 =
6 6 6
𝑥 𝑦
or, 6 + = 1
3
√3
x y
or, 2×3 + = 1
3
√3
𝑥 𝑦
or, + = 1 ………………. (i)
2√3 3
𝑥 𝑦
Comparing equation (i) with + = 1, we get
𝑎 𝑏

x-intercept (a) = 2√3, y-intercept (b) = 3.

(c) Reduction of Ax + By + C = 0 into normal form
We have the general equation of a line is
Ax + By + C = 0 ………… (i)
The equation of a line in normal form is
xcos𝛼 + ysin𝛼 = p ………….. (ii)
Equation (i) and (ii) will be identical if
𝐴 𝐵 −𝐶
= = = 𝑘
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑝
 A = kcos𝛼 …………….. (iii)
B = ksin 𝛼 ……………. (iv)
C = –pk ………………... (v)
from (iii) and (iv)
A2 + B2 = k 2 (cos2 α + sin2 α)
or, k2 = A2 + B2
or, 𝑘 = ±√𝐴2 + 𝐵2
Putting the value of k in (v)
C = –pk
𝐶 𝐶
or, 𝑝 = − =  ( )
𝑘 √𝐴2 +𝐵2
𝐴 𝐴 𝐵 𝐵
cos 𝛼 = =  , 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 = = 
𝑘 √𝐴2 +𝐵2 𝑘 √𝐴2 +𝐵2

 The equation of a straight line in the normal form is

𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
± 𝑥± 𝑦 = 
√𝐴2 +𝐵2 √𝐴2 +𝐵2 √𝐴2 +𝐵2

141
As the perpendicular distance (p) is always positive, therefore c has to be selected
positive or negative to make p always positive.

Steps for reducing in the normal form:

1. Divide on both sides of given equation by √(𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓. 𝑜𝑓 𝑥)2 + (𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓. 𝑜𝑓 𝑦)2 .
2. Make the constant term in RHS positive.
3. Compare the equation obtained in 2 with xcos𝛼 + ysin𝛼 = p and find the value
of 𝛼 and p.

Example 4
Reduce 𝒙 + √𝟑𝒚 + 𝟒 = 𝟎 in to normal form.
Solution
We have the general form of line 𝑥 + √3𝑦 − 4 = 0
Comparing with Ax + By + C = 0, we get
Where A = 1, B = √3 and C = 4

Now, √𝐴2 + 𝐵2 = √12 + (√3)2 = √1 + 3 = √4 = 2

𝑥 √3 4
So, + 𝑦=
2 2 2
1 √3
or, 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 2........................(i)
2 2
Comparing (i) with x cos 𝛼 + y sin 𝛼 = p
1 √3
cos 𝛼 = , sin 𝛼 = and p = 2
2 2

or, cos 𝛼 = cos600, sin 𝛼 = sin 60

 The required equation is xcos 60 + y sin 60 = 2
Example 5
Reduce √3𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2 = 0 in three standard forms.
Solution:
Here, the equation of line is
√3𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2 = 0 … … . (𝑖)

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For slope intercept form
Here, √3𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2 = 0
or, 𝑦 = √3𝑥 + 2 ...... (ii)
Comparing (ii) with y = mx+c
m = √3 and c = 2
For double intercept form
We have, √3𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2 = 0
or, √3𝑥 − 𝑦 = −2
Dividing both side of (i) by – 2
√3 𝑦 −2
𝑥− =
−2 −2 −2
𝑥 𝑦
or, −2 + =1 ......... (iii)
2
√3
𝑥 𝑦
Comparing (ii) with + = 1 we get
𝑎 𝑏
−2
x – intercept (a) = , 𝑦 − intercept (b) = 2
√3

For normal form

We have, √3𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2 = 0
or, √3𝑥 − 𝑦 = −2 ………… (iv)
2
Now, √(√3) + (1)2 = √3 + 1 = √4 = 2

Dividing both sides of equation (iv) by 2, we get

√3 1 −2
𝑥 − 𝑦 =
2 2 2
√3 1
or, − 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1.......... (v)
2 2
Comparing (v) with xcos 𝛼 + ysin𝛼 = p
−√3 1
cos𝛼 = = cos150, sin𝛼 = sin150 = , and p = 1
2 2
Hence, the required equations in three standard forms are
𝑦 = √3𝑥 + 2,

143
 𝑥 𝑦
2 + = 1 and
2
√3

xcos150 + y sin150 = 1

Exercise 4.5
1. Reduce the following equations into slope intercept form. Also find slope
and y-intercept.
(a) 4x + y + 3 = 0 (b) 3y – 8x + 6 = 0 (c) 5x + 3y – 9 = 0
(d) 12x – 3y + 5 = 0 (e) 6x + 2y + 3 = 0
2. Reduce the following equations into double intercept form and find
x-intercept and y-intercept.
(a) 3x – 4y – 12 (b) x – y + 3 = 0 (c) x + y – 5 = 0
(d) x–y+4=0 (e) 2x – 5y – 10 = 0 (f) 3x – y + 27 = 0
3. Reduce the following equation into normal form and hence find the value
of p and 𝛼.
(a) 𝑥 + √3𝑦 = 4 (b) x + y = 2 (c) √3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 11
(d) 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 25 = 0 (e) 𝑦 = √3𝑥 + 6
4. Reduce the following equation into slope intercept form, double intercept
form and normal form.
(a) √3𝑥 + 𝑦 + 6 = 0 (b) 2√3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 11
(c) 4𝑥 + 6𝑦 − 3√2 = 0 (d) 𝑥 − √3𝑦 − 6 = 0
5. (a) The equation 3x + 4y = 12 meets the x-axis and y-axis at A and B.
Find the area of right angled triangle OAB.
(b) A straight line 4x + 7y = 28 meets x-axis at A and y-axis at B What
will be the area of triangle OAB?
6. If the area of a right angled triangle AOB with AOB = 900 is 16 sq. unit,
find possible coordinates of A and B.

144
4.6 Other forms of Equations of straight Line
(a) Equation of a straight line in point slope form
"To find the equation of a straight line passing through a given point (x1, y1) and
that makes given angle of inclination 𝜃 with x-axis"
Let P (x1, y1) be any point on the straight line AB which makes an angle of
inclination  with x-axis.
P(x1,y1)
So slope (m) = tan
B
Suppose y-intercept is c then equation of straight
line AB is
y = mx + c ……. (i) 
Since line (i) passes through Q(x1, y1) A O

So, y1 = mx1 + c………………. (ii)

By subtracting (ii) from (i), we get
y – y1 = m(x– x1).
The equation of a straight line with slopes 'm' and passes through (x1, y1) is
(y – y1) = m (x– x1).
Example 1
Find equation of a straight line passing through (3, –2) and makes an angle
45 with positive X-axis.
Solution:
We have (x1, y1) = (3, –2)
Angle () = 450
Slope (m) = tan = tan45 = 1
The required equation of straight line is
y – y1 = m (x– x1)
or, 𝑦 − (−2) = 1(𝑥 − 3)
or, 𝑦+2 = 𝑥−3
or, 𝑥 − 𝑦 − 5 = 0 is the required equation.

145
(b) Equation of a line in two points form
"To find the equation of line passing through given two points (x1, y1) and
(x2, y2)."
B
Let the angle of inclination of a line AB is
Q(x2,y2)

P(x1,y1)
Which makes y-intercept 'c'. 
Then its equation is y = mx + c ----------- (i) O A
Let P (x1, y1) and Q (x2, y2) be two points, then the
equation of straight line in slope intercept form become
y1 = mx1 + c ----------- (ii)
y2 = mx2 + c ------------- (iii)
By subtracting (ii) from (iii), we get
y2 – y1 = m (x2 –x1)
y2 -y1
or, m = x - x ------------ (iii)
2 1

Also, subtracting (ii) from (i), we get

𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) ------------ (iv)
Putting value of m from (iii) we get
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
The required equation of straight line passing through given two points (x1, y1)
y2 -y1
and (x2, y2) is y – y1 = x - x (x – x1)
2 1

Example 2
Find equation of line passes through (–3, 4) and (3, 6).
Solution:
We have (x1, y1) = (–3, 4)
(x2, y2) = (3, 6)
The equation of line through given two points is
𝑦2 −𝑦1
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑥2 −𝑥1

146
 6−4
or, 𝑦 − 4 = (𝑥 + 3)
3+3
2
or, 𝑦 − 4 = (𝑥 + 3)
6
1
or, y – 4 = (𝑥 + 3)
3
or, 3y – 12 = x + 3
or, x – 3y + 15 = 0 is required equation of straight line.
Example 3
Show that three points (1, 3), (2, 4) and (3, 5) are collinear points.
Solution:
We have the three points are (1, 3), (2, 4) and (3, 5)
The equation of line through (1, 3) and (2, 4) is
𝑦2 −𝑦1
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑥2 −𝑥1
4−3
or, 𝑦 − 3 = (𝑥 − 1)
2−1 To verify the given three
or, 𝑦 − 3 =
1
(𝑥 − 1) points are collinear, first
1
find a straight line from any
or, 𝑦 − 3 = 𝑥 − 1 two points and then satisfy
or, 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2 = 0------(i) it by substituting the value
If (i) passes through (3, 5) then of remaining point.
𝑥−𝑦+2 = 0
or, 3 − 5 + 2 = 0
or, 5 − 5 = 0
or, 0 = 0 (true)
Hence, the given three points are collinear.
Example 4
Find the equation of straight line passing through (5, 5) and bisects the line
joining (–3, 5) and (–5, –1).
Solution: Here,
The midpoint of line joining (–3, 5) and (–5, –1) is
𝑥1 +𝑥2 𝑦1 +𝑦2
𝑥 = , 𝑦 =
2 2

147
 −3−5 5−1
𝑥 = , 𝑦 =
2 2
𝑥 = −4 𝑦=2
 The midpoint of the straight line joining (–3, 5) and (–5, –1) is (–4, 2)
Now, the equation of straight line passing through (–4, 2) and (5, 5) is
𝑦2 −𝑦1
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑥2 −𝑥1
5−2
𝑦−2= (𝑥 + 4)
5+4
3
or, 𝑦 − 2 = (𝑥 + 4)
9
1
or, 𝑦 − 2 = (𝑥 + 4)
3
or, 3y – 6 = x + 4
or, x – 3y + 10 = 0
 The required equation of the straight line is x–3y+10 = 0
Example 5
Find equation of median from A (2, 2) of a triangle having coordinates of
vertices A (2, 2), B (2, 8), and C (-6, 2).
Solution:
Let D be the midpoint of BC. Then the coordinates of D is
−6 + 2 2 + 8
( , ) = (−2, 5)
2 2
Again the equation of straight line passing through A(2, 2) and D(–2, 5) is
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
5−2
or, 𝑦 − 2 = (𝑥 − 2)
−2−2
3
or, 𝑦 − 2 = − (𝑥 − 2)
4
or, 4y – 8 = –3x + 6
or, 3x + 4y – 14 = 0
 Equation of median from A(2, 2) of a triangle having coordinates of vertices
A(2, 2), B(2, 8) and C(–6, 2) is 3x + 4y – 14 = 0.

148
Note: Height drawn from vertex to the base (unequal side) in an isosceles triangle
and height of equilateral triangle are also medians.
Exercise 4.6
1. Find the equation of straight line in following cases.
(a) Passing through (3, 5) and makes angle of 600 with x-axis.
(b) Passing through (–2, –4) and makes angle of 1500 with x-axis.
(c) Passing through (–5, 2) with angle 1200 with x-axis.
(d) Passing through (6, –5) and makes angle 450 with positive x-axis.
(e) Making angle of 300 and passes through (7, 4).
2. Find the equation of straight line in following cases.
(a) Passing through (3, 5) and (–4, 3).
(b) Passing through (–5, 6) and (–4, 5).
(c) Passing through (–2, –7) and (3, –4).
(d) Passing through (4, 8) and (–4, –8).
(e) Passing through (a, 0) and (0, b).
3. Show that the following points are collinear.
(a) (1, 9), (4, 10), (7, 11) (b) (–1, 3), (1, –1), (2, –3)
(c) (5, 6), (3, 4) and (8, 9) (d) (3, 2), (5, 0), (8, –3)
(e) (a, 0), (0, b) and (3a, –2b) (f) (3, 6), (–3, 4) and (6, 7)
4. (a) Find the equation of a straight line bisecting the line joining (3, 4) and
(5, 6) and having an angle of inclination 135.
(b) Prove that the line joining (3, 5) and (–2, 7) bisects the line joining the
point (7, 21) and (9, 4).
(c) Find equation of line passing through origin and bisects the line joining
the points (1, –2) and (4, 3).
(d) Find the equation of the straight line that passes through origin and
midpoint of the portion of line 3x+y = 12 intercepted between axes.
(e) Prove that the line joining (1, 2) and (2, –2) bisects the line joining
(–3, 6) and (5, –2).
5. (a) Find the equation of each sides of a triangle whose vertices are (–1, 3),
(1, –1) and (5, –2).

149
 (b) Find equation and length of median of triangle ABC through A (2, 3)
having coordinates of vertices A (2, 3), B (4, 5) and C (6, –3).
(c) If the point P (a, b) lines in x–2y – 3 = 0 and Q (b, a) lies in 2x+y–11 = 0
then find equation of length of PQ.
(d) If A (8, 0), B (1, 8) and C (5, –2) be coordinates of three vertices of a
triangle ABC, Prove that the equation of median from (5, –2) is x+
7y –4 = 0.
6. (a) If (3, 6), (–3, 4) and (a, 7) are collinear find value of a.
(b) If (8, –3), (5, 0) and (3, b) are collinear, then find the value of b.
(c) If (6, k), (10, 8) and (14, 10) are collinear then find value of k.
(d) If (a, p), (0, b) and (3a, -2b) are collinear what will be the value of p.

150
4.7 Distance between a Point and a Straight Line
(a) Perpendicular distance (length of perpendicular) from a point to
xcos𝛼 + ysin𝛼 = p
Suppose CD is a straight line with equation B
xcos𝛼 + ysin𝛼 = p …………. (i)
N
So the length of perpendicular from origin O(0, 0) to D P(x1,y1)
CD is p = OM and MOC= 𝛼 M
α Q
Let P (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) be a point on AB from which PQ  CD O A
C
is drawn then AB CD  MN  AB and ON = P1.
The equation of line AB is
x1 cos𝛼 + y1sin𝛼 = p1 ……………. (ii)
Since P(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) lies on (ii)
Now, PQ = MN = ON – OM = 𝑝1 − 𝑝 = 𝑥1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑦1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 − 𝑝.
The perpendicular distance (Length of perpendicular) drawn from point (x1, y1) to
the straight line xcos𝛼 + ysin𝛼 = p is 𝑥1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑦1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 − 𝑝1 .
Example 1
Find the length of perpendicular from point (–1, 3) to x − y + 2√2 = 0
Solution
We have the given line is
𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2√2 = 0 ………. (i)
Reducing (i) into normal form
𝑥 𝑦 2√2
− + = 0
√2 √2 √2
 cos45 x x – sin 45 x y + 2 = 0
Now the perpendicular distance from (–1, 3) to xcos45 – ysin45+ 2 = 0 is
1 1
d = −1 × −3× +2
√2 √2
−1 3
= − +2
√2 √2
−1−3+2√2 −4+2√2 2(2−√2)
= = =− = −(2 − √2)
2 2 2

151
Since d is always positive.
Therefore, length of perpendicular from point (–1, 3) to x − y + 2√2 = 0 is
2 − √2.
(b) The length of perpendicular from (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) to Ax + By + C = 0.
Let the given line is Ax + By + C = 0 ......... (i)
Reducing (i) to normal form, we get
Ax By C
+ + = 0
√A2 + B2 √A2 + B2 √A2 + B2
If C is negative then,
Ax By C
+ =
√A2 + B2 √A2 + B2 √A2 + B2
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
Where cos 𝛼 = , 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = , 𝑝 =
√𝐴2 + 𝐵2 √𝐴2 + 𝐵2 √𝐴2 + 𝐵2
𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝐶
If C is positive, + =
√𝐴2 +𝐵2 √𝐴2 +𝐵2 √𝐴2 +𝐵2
𝐴 𝐵 −𝐶
Where cos 𝛼 = , 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 = , 𝑝 =
√𝐴2 +𝐵2 √𝐴2 +𝐵2 √𝐴2 +𝐵2

The length of perpendicular from P (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) to Ax + By + C = 0 is

p = ±|𝑥1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑦1 sin 𝛼 − 𝑝| [ p is perpendicular distance, so we
take absolute value]
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= ± [𝑥1 × + 𝑦1 × + ]
√𝐴2 +𝐵2 √𝐴2 +𝐵2 √𝐴2 +𝐵2
𝐴𝑥1 +𝐵𝑦1 +𝐶
=| |
√𝐴2 +𝐵2
𝐴𝑥1 +𝐵𝑦1 +𝐶
The length of perpendicular (P) = | |
√𝐴2 +𝐵2

Example 2
Find length of perpendicular from (–3, –4) to the line 3x + 4y – 7 = 0
Solution
Here, 3x + 4y – 7 = 0 and (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (–3, –4)
The length of perpendicular is
𝐴𝑥1 +𝐵𝑦1 +𝐶
p =| |
√𝐴2 +𝐵2

152
 3×(−3)+4×(−4)−7
=| |
√32 +42
−9−16−7 −32 32
=| | = | | =
√25 5 5
32
Therefore the length of perpendicular (p) = units
5
Example 3
Find the distance between the following pair of parallel lines 2x + y = 5 and 2x +
y = 3.
Solution
We have, 2x + y = 5 ......... (i)
2x + y – 3 = 0............... (ii)
−5 5
Distance of line (i) from origin is (d1) = | |= 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
√22 +12 √5
−3 3
Distance of line (ii) from origin is (d2) = | |= 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
√22 +12 √5

Distance between parallel lines is

5 3 2
d1 – d2 = − units = units
√5 √5 √5

Alternatively, putting x = 0 in (i) we get, y = 5

Therefore, (0, 5) lies in line (i).
 The distance between (0, 5) and 2x + y – 3 = 0 is
𝐴𝑥1 +𝐵𝑦1 +𝐶
| |
√𝐴2 +𝐵2
2.0+5−3
=| |
√22 +12
2
=| |
√5
2
= units
√5
2
Therefore the distance from (0, 5) to 2x + y – 3 = 0 is units
√5

Exercise 4.7
1. Find the perpendicular distance of a point and a line given below.
(a) xcos30 + ysin30 – 3 = 0 from (3, 2)
(b) xcos45 + ysin45 + 5 = 0 from (3, 4)

153
 (c) xcos60 + ysin 60 + 8 = 0 from origin.
(d) 3x + 4y + 5 = 0 from point (0, 0)
(e) √3𝑥 − 𝑦 = 20 form (2√3, 4)
(f) 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞𝑦 = 𝑞 2 + 𝑝2 from (0, 0)
(g) x + y = 10 from (3, 6)
(h) 3x – 4y + 15 = 0 from (2, 1)
2. Find the distance between following pair of parallel lines.
(a) 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 3√2 = 0 and 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 10 √2 = 0
(b) 3x + 5y = 6 and 3x+5y+23 = 0
(c) 2x + 3y = 6 and 4x+6y+7 = 0
(d) 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 5√2 = 0 and 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 6√2 = 0
(e) 3x+2y+4 = 0 and 3x + 4y – 16 = 0
3. (a) What will be the value of k if the distance from (2, –3) to the line
kx–4y+7 = 0 is 5 units.
(b) If the length of perpendicular from (–2, y) to line 4x–3y+10 = 0 is 4
units find the value of y.

4.8 Area of Triangle and Quadrilateral

Discuss in small groups and identify the formulae of area of the following plane
figures. Also, discuss if there are any other techniques and methods of calculating
the area of the shapes?
We can easily find the area of triangle and quadrilaterals when their sides and
length of sides are given. How can we calculate the area of a polygon when the
b1
a a

a
b2
l
d1
h
b
d2
b
154
coordinates of vertices are given? Let us discuss about it.
Area of triangle
Let A (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), B (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) and C (𝑥3 , 𝑦3 ) be the Y
A(x1,y1)
vertices of a triangle ABC. Draw AM, BN and
CP perpendiculars on OX such that AM = 𝑦1 ,
BN =𝑦2 and CP = 𝑦3 , OM = 𝑥1 , ON = 𝑥2 , OP
= 𝑥3 . B(x2,y2) C(x3,y3)

From figure,
X
Area of ABC = Ar(trap. ABNM) + Ar(trap. O N M P
AMPC) – Ar (trap. BNPC)
1
We know that area of trapezium = (sum of parallel bases) × height
2
1
= (sum of parallel bases × Perpendicular distance between them)
2
1 1 1
So, Ar (ABC) = (BN+AM)× NM+ (MA+CP)×MP – (BN+CP)×NP
2 2 2
1 1 1
 = (𝑦2 + 𝑦1 )(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ) + (𝑦1 + 𝑦3 )(𝑥3 − 𝑥1 ) − (𝑦2 + 𝑦3 ) × (𝑥3 − 𝑥2 )
2 2 2
1
= (𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑥2 𝑦2 + 𝑥1 𝑦1 − 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑥3 𝑦1 − 𝑥1 𝑦1 + 𝑥3 𝑦3 − 𝑥1 𝑦3 − 𝑥3 𝑦2 +
2
𝑥2 𝑦2 − 𝑥3 𝑦3 + 𝑥2 𝑦3 )
1
= (𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑥3 𝑦1 − 𝑥1 𝑦3 − 𝑥3 𝑦2 + 𝑥2 𝑦3 )
2
1
= (𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑥1 𝑦3 + 𝑥2 𝑦3 − 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑥3 𝑦1 − 𝑥3 𝑦2 )
2
1
= [𝑥1 (𝑦2 − 𝑦3 ) + 𝑥2 (𝑦3 − 𝑦1 ) + 𝑥3 (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )] sq. unit
2

Hence the area of ABC with vertices A(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), B(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) and C(𝑥3 , 𝑦3 ) is
denoted by  and given by,
1
 = [𝑥1 (𝑦2 − 𝑦3 ) + 𝑥2 (𝑦3 − 𝑦1 ) + 𝑥3 (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )] sq. units.
2
We can put the expression 𝑥1 (𝑦2 − 𝑦3 ) + 𝑥2 (𝑦3 − 𝑦1 ) + 𝑥3 (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ) = (𝑥1 𝑦2 −
𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑥2 𝑦3 − 𝑥3 𝑦2 + 𝑥3 𝑦1 − 𝑥1 𝑦3 ) as,
x1 x2 x3 x1
- - -

+ + +
y1 y2 y3 y1

155
 1
 = (𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑥2 𝑦3 − 𝑥3 𝑦2 + 𝑥3 𝑦1 − 𝑥1 𝑦3 )
2
Note: If the area of triangle formed by three coordinates is zero, then these three
points are collinear points.
Example 1
What will be the area of a triangle with three vertices A (0, 7), B (1, 3) and C
(5, 5)?
Solution: We have, 𝑥1 = 0, 𝑦1 = 7
𝑥2 = 1, 𝑦2 = 3
𝑥3 = 5, 𝑦3 = 5
We can arrange these coordinates as

0 1 5 0
- - -

+ + +
7 3 5 7
1
The area of ABC = (0 × 3 − 7 × 1 + 1 × 5 − 3 × 5 + 5 × 7 − 5 × 0
2
1
= (0 − 7 + 5 − 15 + 35 − 0)
2
1
= × 18
2
= 9 square units.
Alternatively, by using formula
1
Ar(ABC) = [𝑥1 (𝑦2 − 𝑦3 ) + 𝑥2 (𝑦3 − 𝑦1 ) + 𝑥3 (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )] sq units.
2
1
= [0(3 − 5) + 1(5 − 7) + 5(7 − 3)]
2
1 1
= [0 + 1 × (−2) + 5 × 4] = (−2 + 20)
2 2
1
= × 18
2
= 9 square units.

156
Area of Quadrilateral B(x2,y2) C(x3,y3)
Let us consider A(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), B(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ),
C(𝑥3 , 𝑦3 ) and D(𝑥4 , 𝑦4 ) be coordinates of
four vertices of a quadrilateral ABCD.
Draw diagonal BD. Then the area of
quadrilateral ABCD is equal to sum of area D(x4,y4)
of  ABD and area of BCD. A(x1,y1)

 The area of ABCD = Ar(ABD) + Ar(BCD)

1
Ar(ABD) = 𝑥1 (𝑦2 − 𝑦4 ) + 𝑥2 (𝑦4 − 𝑦1 ) + 𝑥4 (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )
2
1
Ar(ABD) = 𝑥2 (𝑦3 − 𝑦4 ) + 𝑥3 (𝑦4 − 𝑦2 ) + 𝑥4 (𝑦2 − 𝑦3 )
2
Now, Area of ABCD
1 1
= [𝑥1 (𝑦2 − 𝑦4 ) + 𝑥2 (𝑦4 − 𝑦1 ) + 𝑥4 (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )] + [𝑥2 (𝑦3 − 𝑦4 ) +
2 2
𝑥3 (𝑦4 − 𝑦2 ) + 𝑥4 (𝑦2 − 𝑦3 )]
1
= [𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑥1 𝑦4 + 𝑥2 𝑦4 − 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑥4 𝑦1 − 𝑥4 𝑦2 + 𝑥2 𝑦3 − 𝑥2 𝑦4 + 𝑥3 𝑦4 −
2
𝑥3 𝑦2 + 𝑥4 𝑦2 − 𝑥4 𝑦3 ]
1
= [𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑥2 𝑦3 − 𝑥3 𝑦2 + 𝑥3 𝑦4 − 𝑥4 𝑦3 + 𝑥4 𝑦1 − 𝑥1 𝑦4 ] sq. units
2
We can express the expression inside the bracket as
x1 x2 x3 x4 - x1
- - -

+ + +
+
y1 y2 y3 y4 y1

[𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑥2 𝑦3 − 𝑥3 𝑦2 + 𝑥3 𝑦4 − 𝑥4 𝑦3 + 𝑥4 𝑦1 − 𝑥1 𝑦4 ]
1
 Area of quadrilateral = [𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑥2 𝑦3 − 𝑥3 𝑦2 + 𝑥3 𝑦4 − 𝑥4 𝑦3 +
2
𝑥4 𝑦1 − 𝑥1 𝑦4 ]

157
Example 2
Find area of quadrilateral formed from the given four coordinates A(3, –2),
B(3, 4), C(0, 5) and D(2, –1).
Solution
We have, 𝑥1 = 3, 𝑥2 = 3, 𝑥3 = 0, 𝑥4 = 2
𝑦1 = −2, 𝑦2 = 4, 𝑦3 = 5, 𝑦4 = −1
So by arranging the coordinates as
3 3 0 2 - 3
- - -

+ + +
+
-2 4 5 -1 -2

 Area of ABCD
1
= [𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑥2 𝑦3 − 𝑥3 𝑦2 + 𝑥3 𝑦4 − 𝑥4 𝑦3 + 𝑥4 𝑦1 − 𝑥1 𝑦4 ] sq. units
2
1
= 2 [3 × 4 − 3 × (−2) + 3 × 5 − 4 × 0 + 0 × (−1) − 5 × 2 + 2 × (−2) − (−1) × 3]
1 1
= (12 + 6 + 15 − 10 − 4 + 3) = (22) = 11 sq. units.
2 2

 Area of quadrilateral ABCD = 11 sq. units.

Example 3
Show that (2, 3), (4, 5) and (7, 8) are collinear.
Solution:
We have the area of triangle formed by three points is calculated as
Now, the area of triangle
2 4 7 2
Area of triangle = 0
means the points are
collinear.
3 5 8 3

1
= 2[2 × 5 − 3 × 4 + 4 × 8 − 5 × 7 + 7 × 3 − 8 × 2] sq. units

158
 1
= 2 (10 − 12 + 32 − 35 + 21 − 16) sq. units

1
= 2(63 − 63) = 0 sq.units

Since the triangle formed by three points have area zero so these point are
collinear.
Example 4
x y
If (a, 0), (x, y) and (0, b) are collinear points then prove that + =1
a b
Solution
We have, 𝑥1 = 𝑎 𝑥2 = 𝑥, 𝑥3 = 0
𝑦1 = 0, 𝑦2 = 𝑦, 𝑦3 = 𝑏
Since three points are collinear. So area of triangle made by three points is zero
1
So, [𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑥2 𝑦3 − 𝑥3 𝑦2 + 𝑥3 𝑦1 − 𝑥1 𝑦3 ] = 0
2
1
or, (𝑎 × 𝑦 − 𝑥 × 0 + 𝑥 × 𝑏 − 0 × 0 − 𝑎 × 𝑏) = 0
2
or, 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏𝑥 − 𝑎𝑏 = 0
or, 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑎𝑏
𝑏𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑏
or, + =
𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑏
x y
or, a + b = 1

Example 5
If A(3, 1), B (11, 1) and C (8, 6) respectively be three coordinates of ABC. If D
is a point (x, y) then prove that ADB:ABC = (y – 1) : 5.
Solution:
We have, 𝑥1 = 3, 𝑥2 = 11, 𝑥3 = 8 𝑥4 = 𝑥
𝑦1 = 1, 𝑦2 = 1, 𝑦3 = 6 𝑦4 = 𝑦
With A (3, 1), B (11, 1), C (8, 6), D (x, y)
1
Area of ABC = [𝑥1 𝑦2 + 𝑥2 𝑦3 + 𝑥3 𝑦1 − 𝑦1 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 𝑥3 − 𝑦3 𝑥1 ] sq.units
2
1
= (3 × 1 + 11 × 6 + 8 × 1 − 1 × 11 − 1 × 8 − 6 × 3)
2

159
 1
= (3 + 66 + 8 − 11 − 8 − 18) sq.units
2
1
= × 40 = 20 sq.units
2
1
Area of ABD = [𝑥1 𝑦2 + 𝑥2 𝑦4 + 𝑥4 𝑦1 − 𝑦1 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 𝑥4 − 𝑦4 𝑥1 ]
2
1
= (3 × 1 + 11 × 𝑦 + 𝑥 × 1 − 1 × 11 − 1 × 𝑥 − 𝑦 × 3)
2
1
= (3 + 11𝑦 + 𝑥 − 11 − 𝑥 − 3𝑦)
2
1
= (8𝑦 − 8) = 4(𝑦 − 1)sq.units
2

Ar(ABD) 4(y-1) y - 1
Now, = 20 = 5
Ar(ABC)
ABD : ABC = (y – 1) : 5 Proved.

Exercise 4.8
1. Find the area of triangle formed by following coordinates.
(a) P(3, 2), Q(–2, 5), R(2, –3) (b) A(1, 0), B(0, 2), C(–1, 2)
(c) A(–2, 5), B(3, 1), C(2, 5) (d) X(2, 2), Y(6, 2), Z(4, 4)
(e) P(0, 2), Q(2, 0), R(5, 2) (f) A(4, 0), B (0, 0), C(0, 5)
(g) K(2, 6), A(3, 8), R (–1, 0) (h) A (6, 3), T(–3, 5), R (4, –2)
(i) (3, –5), (–2, –7), (18, 1) (j) C (4, 6), B(0, 4), Z(6, 2)
2. Show that the following points are collinear.
(a) P (3, 1), Q(5, 4) and R(2, 2) (b) K (2, 3), I(4, 5) and C(7, 8)
(c) K (3, –2), L (1, 3) and M(4, 0) (d) A(–5, 1), B(5, 5) and C(10, 7)
3 1 −1
(e) (0, ) (2, ) ( , 2) (f) (3h, 0), (2h, k) and (h, 2k)
2 2 2

3. Find the area of the quadrilateral whose vertices are given below.
(a) (0, 0), (4, 0), (4, 6), (0, 6)
(b) (b) (6, 2), (5, 3), (3, 0) and (1, 2)
(c) P(3, 4), Q(4, –7), R(1, 1) and S(5, –2)
(d) (d) A(–5, 1), B(5, 5) and C(10, 7)

160
 (e) P (6, 8), Q(0, 10), R(4, –2) and S(6, –4)
4. (a) If P (3, 4), Q (1, 2), R (7, 2) are three points and S (x, y) is another
𝑃𝑄𝑅 2
point then prove that =
𝑃𝑄𝑅 𝑦−2

(c) If the point (m, 1), (1, 2) and (0, n+1) are collinear than prove that
1 1
+ = 1.
𝑚 𝑛
1 1 1
(d) If (a, 0), (0, b) and (3, 3) are collinear points than prove that + = .
𝑎 𝑏 3
−𝑎
(e) If ( , 0), (x, y) and (0, a) are collinear then prove that y = bx+a.
𝑏

(f) If A, B, C are the middle points of QR, RP and PQ of a triangle PQR

with P(1, –4), Q (5, 6) and R(–3, 2) respectively then prove that
(i) Ar (AQR) = 4 Ar(ABC) (ii) Ar (ABC) = Ar(PAC)
5. (a) The coordinates of a quadrilateral are A (6, 3), B (–3, 5), C(4, –2) and
D(k, 3K). If Ar (ABC) = 2Ar (DBC), find value of k.
(b) The coordinates of vertices of a quadrilateral are P (6, k), Q (–3, 5), R
∆QRS 1
(4, –2) and S (k, 2k). If = find value of k.
∆PQR 2

(c) A (a, a+1), B (0, 7), C (2, –1) and D (3, –2) are three vertices of a
quadrilateral PQRS. If Ar (ABCD) = 8. Ar (ACD), find value of a.
(d) if A (6, 3), B (–3, 5), C(4, –2), D(x, y) be coordinates of four vertices
∆DBC 𝑥+𝑦−2
of a quadrilateral then prove that = .
∆ABC 7
6. (a) If A(1, 2), B(4, 2), C(5, 4) and D(x, y) be the four vertices of a
parallelogram ABCD. Find value of (x, y) and area of parallelogram.
(b) Let A (5, –1), B(1, –3) and D(1, –5) are coordinates of vertices of a
triangle If L, M, N be middle point of BC, CA and AB.
(i) Find area of ABC and PQR. (ii) Show that area of PQR = Ar
(AQR.)

161
 Unit 5
Trigonometry

5.0 Review A

Divide all the students in groups of three and distribute

one right angled triangle ABC to each group. Ask them
to measure angles and sides of that triangle. Identify p,
b, h and d find the ratio of the two different sides
according to the reference angle A.
Identify p, b, h according to the angle C, and find the B C
ratios. Prepare a group report and present in classroom.
5.1 Measurement of Angles
In the figure, O is a fixed point and OP is an initial line. Q
OP revolves in anti-clockwise direction and the angle is
formed in the position of Q Then the angle of rotation of
+
OP about O at a point Q is denoted by POQ and POQ O P
–
= , where θ is the Greek alphabet that denotes the
arbitrary measures.
R
The amount of rotation of a revolving line about a fixed
point with respect to the initial line is called an angle.
If the revolving line rotates about a fixed point from its initial line in anti-clockwise
direction, the angle made by the lines is called a positive angle (+ ), otherwise it
is called negative angle (– ).
Measuring Systems of Angles
How many systems are there for
measuring an angle nowadays?
An angle is generally measured in degrees.
In trigonometry, the systems of
measurement of an angle are as follow;
(i) Sexagesimal system (Degree measure)
(ii) Centesimal system (Grade measure)
(iii) Circular system (Radian measure)

162
(i) Sexagesimal system (Degree measure)
The sexagesimal system is more familiar unit of measurement of
an angle. It measures in degree () unit. This system was initially
used in the British. So, it is also called the British System. In this
system, a right angle is divided into 90 equal parts, each part is
called a degree. A Right Angle
Therefore, 1 right angle = 90.
Furthermore, a degree is again divided into 60 equal parts, each part is called a minute
(').
Therefore, 1 = 60'.
Similarly, a minute is again divided into 60 equal parts, each part is called a second
('' ).
Therefore, 1' = 60''.
Hence, 1 right angle = 90 = (90  60)' = 5400' = (5400  60)'' = 324000'' .
Example 1
How many sexagesimal minutes are there in 23?
Solution:
Here, 23° = (23 x 60)' [1° = 60°]
= 1380'
 There are 1380 sexagesimal minutes in 23°.
Example 2
Convert into sexagesimal seconds: 2519' 30"
Solution
Here, 2519' 30"
= (25 × 60  60 + 19 × 60 + 30)" [∵ 1 = 60' = 60  60'' ; 1' = 60'' ]
= (90000 + 1140 + 30)" = 91170"
Example 3
Convert into degree: 2519' 30"
Solution: Here, 2519' 30"

163
 19 30 1 1
= (25 + + )° [1′ = ( ) ° 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1′′ = ( ) °]
60 60×60 60 60×60

= (25 + 60 + 120)
19 1

) = ( 120 ) = 25.325
3000+38+ 1 3039
=( 120

(ii) Centesimal system (Grade measure)

The centesimal system measures the angle in grade (g). It is specially used in
France. So, it is also called French system. In this system, a right angle is
divided into 100 equal parts, each part is called grade (g).
Therefore, 1 right angle = 100g.
A grade is again divided into 100 equal parts, each part is called a minute (' ).
Therefore, 1g = 100 '.
Similarly, a minute is divided into 100 equal parts, each part is called
second ('').
Therefore, 1' = 100''.
Hence, 1 right angle = 100g = (100  100)' = 10000' = (10000  100) '' =
1000000''.
Example 4
How many centesimal minutes are there in 35g?
Solution
Here, 35g = (35 x 100)'
= 3500'
 There are 3500' centesimal minutes in 35g.
Example 5
Convert into centesimal seconds: 65g36' 97''
Solution:
Here, 65g36' 97''
= (65 × 100  100 + 36 × 100 + 97)''
[∵1' = 100''; 1 = 100' = (100  100)'' = 10000'']
= (650000 + 3600 + 97)'' = 653697''

164
 Example 6
Convert into grade: 25g19' 30''
Solution:
Here, 25g 19' 30''
19 30
(25 + 100 + 100×100)g
1 1
[∵1' = (100)g and 1'' = (100×100)g]
19 30 g 250000+1900+ 30 g 251930 g g
= (25 + 100 + 10000) = ( ) = ( 10000 ) = 25.193
10000

(iii) Circular System (Radian measure)

In this System, an angle is measured in radian (c). A radian is B
considered as the unit for the measurement of central angle r r
inscribed by an arc of a circle equal in length to its radius. In 1c
the figure, O is the centre of a circle and OA = OB = AB ̂ =r A
O r
units. Then, AOB = 1 radian (1c). When the radius OA
rounds in one complete rotation, it makes 2c, where π is the
2𝜋 𝑐 𝜋𝑐
constant quantity, so a right angle is = .
4 2

An angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc whose length is equal to its
radius is called a radian.
Theorem 1: A radian is a constant angle.
Proof: In the figure, O is the centre of the circle and B
AOB is the angle subtended at O by the arc equal to the r r
180 1c
radius (r). C A
O r
i.e., OA = OB = AB
̂ = r units.
Now, according to the definition of the radian,
AOB = 1ᶜ.
If AO is produced to a point C on the circumference, then AOC = 180 and the
semi-circle ABC = πr units.
We know that,
AOB ̂
AB
= ABC
AOC ̂

165
[∵The central angles and their corresponding arcs in proportion.]
1c r
or, = r
180
180
or, 1c = 
Here, 180° and π are both constants. Hence, a radian is a constant angle.
Theorem 2
If θ is the central angle, l is the length of corresponding arc of the central angle θ
𝑙 c
and r is the radius of a circle then,  = (r) .
C B
Proof: Let O be the centre of a circle in which OA = r units r
 1c
be its radius and take a point B on its circumference such that A
OA = AB (r). Then by the definition of the 1 radian, we have O r
∠AOB = 1c.
Also, take another point C, then the arc ABC substances the
angle of θ at its center i.e. ∠AOC = θc and 𝐴𝐵𝐶
̂ = l units.
Since the angles at the centre of a circle are proportional to their corresponding arcs
on which they stand so,
AOC ̂
ABC
= [∵The central angles and their corresponding arcs are proportion.]
AOB ̂
AB
 𝑙
or, =r
1c
𝑙 c
  = (r)
Relation between Degree, Grade and Radian
πc
We have, a right angle has 90 or 100g or . Then, the relation among degree,
2
grade and radian is as follows:

c c c c
90 = 100g 90 = 2 100g = 90 100g = 2 = 90 = 100g
2 2

1g =
1 = 90 o
100 g 1 = (100) c 1c = 1c =
( 90 ) 
1g = (200) g
)
 c 180
g 200
(180) 1 = (  ( )
10 g 
1 = ( 9 ) 9 o
(10)

166
Example 7
Change the angle 60g 50' 10" into radian.
Solution: Here,
g
50 10
60g 50' 10" = (60 + 100 + 10000)
g
= (60 + 0.5 + 0.001)
= 60.501g
 𝑐
= 60.501  (200)
60501 𝑐
= 200000
60501 𝑐
= 200000
Example 8
5c
Convert 32 into sexagesimal system:
Solution
5𝑐 5 180°
Here, = 
16 32 

= 28.125
= 28 (0.125  60)'
= 28 7.5'
= 28 7' (0.5  60)''
= 28 7' 30''
Example 9
Change the angle 5030' into radian.
Solution
30 o
Here, 5030' = (50 + )
60
1 o
= (50 + 2)

167
 100+1 o
=( )
2
101 o
=( )
2
101  c 101 c
=(  ) =( )
2 180 360

Example 10
One angle of a right-angled triangle is 27°. Find its third angle in grade measure.
Solution B
In a right-angled triangle ABC, B = 100g,
100g
g
10
C = 27° = 27 × ( 9 ) = 30g, A = ?
? 30g
Now, we know that A C
A + B + C = 200g [ Sum of interior angles of triangle in grade]
or, A + 100g + 30g = 200g
or, A = 200g – 130g = 70g
∴ The required third angle of the triangle is 70g.
Example 11
Find the angle made by two hands of a clock at 5 O’clock in grades.
Solution
Here, at 5 O’clock, the difference between the two hands of the
clock is 25 minutes.
Now, we have 60 minutes = 360° [∵ One complete rotation]
360°
or, 1 minute = = 6°
60

∴ 25 minutes = 25 × 6° = 150°
g g g
10 1500
Hence, the measure of required angle in grade is 150 × ( 9 ) = ( ) = (166 23) .
9

168
Example 12
If the arc of 8.8 cm subtends an angle of 60 at the centre of a circle. Find its radius.
22
( = 7 )
Solution:
8.8 cm
Here, Length of arc (l) = 8.8 cm,
60
Measure of central angle (θ) = 60 r
𝑐 𝑐
= 60 × 180 = 3
Radius of circle (r) = ?
Now, we know that
𝑙
 =
r
 8.8
or, =
3 r
3 3 7
or, r = 8.8  = 8.8  22 = 8.8  3  22 = 8.4 cm
 7

Hence, the length of its radius is 8.4 cm.

Example 13
If D is the number of degrees and G is the number of grades of the same angle,
D G
prove that: 9 = 10
Solution: We have,
1 right angle = 90° = 100g
Let the angle be x right angle. Then, D = 90x and G = 100x.
Now, D = 90x
D
or, x = 90 ………… (i) and
G = 100x
G
or, x = …… (ii)
100
From (i) and (ii), we get
D G
=
90 100

169
 D G
or, = .
9 10

Exercise 5.1
1. Answer the following questions in single sentence:
(a) List the measuring systems of an angle.
(b) How many sexagesimal seconds are there in 3030' ?
(c) How many grades are there in 400' ?
(d) Express the number of grades in 81.
(e) Write the measure of a right angle in radian.
3
(f) How many radians are there in 4 of a right angle?
(g) What is the value of 40% of a right angle in radian?
2. Express the following angles into sexagesimal seconds:
(a) 5530" (b) 10 15' 25'' (c) 55 56' 28''
3. Convert into degree:
(a) 3630' (b) 25 15' 30'' (c) 48 50' 45''
4. Change into centesimal seconds:
(a) 25g 29" (b) 25g 34' 29" (c) 25g 74' 99"
5. Express into grade:
(a) 36g 30' (b) 27g 28' 30" (c) 79g 47' 23"
6. Convert the following angles into degree:
(a) 42g 50' (b) 35g 65' 45" (c) 85g 44' 50"
7. Change the following angles into degree:
(a) 75 30' (b) 42 45' 15'' (c) 85 24' 40''
8. Change the following angles into radian:
(a) 60 45' (b) 57g 49' 87" (c) 66 36' 35''
9. Express the following angles into sexagesimal system:
c 2c 3c
(a) 8 (b) (c) 32
7

170
10. Change the following angles into centesimal system:
c 4c 5c
(a) 16 (b) 25 (c) 21
11. (a) Find the measure of the third angle in degree of a triangle having two
angles 30g and 81g.
(b) Find the measure of the third angle in degree of a triangle having two
angles 40 and 63g.
(c) Find the measure of the third angle in grade of a triangle having two angles
54° and 36g .
(d) Find the measure of the forth angle in grade of a quadrilateral having three
c
angles 5 , 36g and 45g .
(e) Find the measure of the third angle in radian of a right triangle with an
angle 45° .
12. (a) One angle of a triangle is 30g. If the ratio of the remaining two angles is
3:7, find all angles of the triangle in degree.
(b) The angles of triangle are in the ratio 4:5:9. Find the angles in radian.
(c) If the angles of a quadrilateral are in the ratio 1:2:3:4, find all the angles
in grades.
(d) Divide 63° into two parts such that the ratio of their grades measure is
2:5.
(e) Find the ratio of 60° and 72g.
13. Find the angle in degree, grade and radian formed by the minute hand and
hour hand of a clock at:
(a) Half past 3 (b) Quarter past 6 (c) Quarter to 2
14. (a) Find the central angle in centesimal measure subtended at the center of a
circle of radius 6 cm by an arc of 24 cm long.
(b) The radius of a circle is 21 cm. Find the length of arc of the circle which
subtends an angle of 45 at its center.
(c) The arc of the length 28 cm subtends an angle of 72g at the center of a
circle. Find the length of the diameter of the circle.
(d) A man running along a circular track at the rate of 20 km per hour
travels on the track in 15 seconds which subtends 60at the center. Find
the diameter of the circle.

171
 (e) A pendulum 50 cm long vibrates 2 30' each side of its standard
position. Find the length of the arc through which it swings.
(f) The minute hand of a clock is 7 cm. How far does the tip of the hand
move in 20 minutes?
15. (a) If D is the number of degrees and G is the number of grades, prove that
D 9
= 10.
G
(b) If G, D and R denote the number of grades, degrees and radian
D G 2R
respectively of an angle, prove that: 90 = 100 =  .
(c) If α and β denote the number of sexagesimal and centesimal second of
any angle respectively, prove that: α:β = 81:250.

5.2 Trigonometric Ratios

What is ratio? How many ratios can be formed from the
sides of the right-angled triangle? A

Perpendicular(p)
In the given right-angled triangle ABC, ABC = 90 Hypotenuse (h)
 Its opposite side (AC) = Hypotenuse (h).
Reference angle ACB =  90 
C
 Its opposite side (AB) = Perpendicular (p) B Base (b)
Remaining side (BC) = Base (b)
AB BC AB p b p
Now, the sides of right angled ABC are , and i.e., h, h and b, are called
AC AC BC
fundamental trigonometric ratios.
AC AC BC h h b
The ratios , and AB i.e., p, b and p, are called reciprocal trigonometric ratios
AB BC
of fundamental ratios. They are defined as follow:
(i) The ratio of the perpendicular to the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle is
𝒑
called sine of the reference angle θ. It is symbolized as sin θ = 𝒉 .
(ii) The ratio of the base to the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle is called
𝐛
cosine of the reference angle θ. It is denoted by cos θ = 𝐡.
(iii) The ratio of the perpendicular to the base of a right-angled triangle is called
𝐩
tangent of the reference angle θ. It is denoted by tan θ = 𝐛.

172
(iv) The ratio of the base to the perpendicular of a right-angled triangle is called
𝐛
cotangent of the reference angle θ. It is denoted by cot θ = 𝐩.

(v) The ratio of the base to the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle is called
𝐡
secant of the reference angle θ. It is symbolized as sec θ = 𝐛 .
(vi) The ratio of the hypotenuse to the perpendicular of a right-angled triangle is
𝐡
called cosecant of the reference angle θ. It is denoted by cosec θ = .
𝐩

Alternatively Y
In the adjoining figure, OQP is a right angled
triangle in which hypotenuse is the radius of
P(x, y) = (cos, sin)
unit circle with centre O(0, 0). P(x, y) be a
1
point on a circumference of circle. Then OP =
1, POQ = , OQ = x and PQ = y. Then, X′
. 
X
O Q
b OQ
cos  = h = OP
Y′
OQ
= 1

 OQ = cos , i.e., x = cos 

p PQ
sin  = h = OP
PQ
= 1

 PQ = sin , i.e., y = sin 

Hence, the coordinates of P will be (x, y) = (cos, sin)
Example1 R
If 5cosθ = 4, find the trigonometric ratios sin θ and Q
tanθ.
A+B

B
A
P
A-B

Solution: Here, O -B

5cosθ = 4 S
4 𝑏
or, cos = 5 = ℎ
Now, h2 = p2 + b2
or, p2 = h2 – b2
or, p = √ℎ2 – 𝑏 2 = √52 – 42 = √25– 16 = √9 = 3

173
Now, we know that
𝑝 3 𝑝 3
sin  = ℎ = 5 and tan  = 𝑏 = 4.
Example 2
sin  + cos 
If √3tan = 1 , find the value of .
sin  − cos 

Solution:
Here, √3tan = 1
1 𝑝
tan  = =𝑏
√3

Now, we know that

h2 = p2 + b2
2
 h = √𝑝2 + 𝑏 2 = √12 + √3 = √1 + 3 = √4 = 2
𝑝 1 𝑏 √3
 sin = ℎ = 2 and cos = ℎ = 2
Now, we have
1 √3 1−√3
sin  −cos  − 2 1−√3 1−√3
sin  +cos 
= 2
1 √3
= 2
1+√3
= 
+ 1+√3 1−√3
2 2 2
2
(1−√3) 1−2 √3+ 3 4−2 √3 2(2− √3)
= 2 = = = = √3 – 2
(1)2 −(√3) 1−3 −2 −2

Example 3
4 12
If sinA = 5 and sinB = 13, find the values of sinA x cosB – cosA x sinB.
Solution
4 p
Here, sin A = 5 = h
Now, we know that
h2 = p2 + b2
or, b2 = h2 – p2

or, b = √ℎ2 – 𝑝2 = √52 – 42 = √25– 16 = √9 = 3

174
 𝑏 3
 cosA = =
ℎ 5
12 p
And sinB = 13 = h

 b = √ℎ2 – 𝑝2 = √132 – 122 = √169– 144 = √25 = 5

𝑏 5
 cosB = ℎ = 13
Now, we have
4 5 3 12
sinA x cosB – cosA x sinB = 5  13 – 5  13
20 36
= 65 – 65
20−36 16
= = – 65
65

Exercise 5.2
1. Answer the following in single sentence:
(a) What is the ratio of cos  ?
(b) Write the fundamental trigonometric ratios.
(c) Write the product of sin  and cosec .
(d) Write cos  in terms of sec .
(e) Write tan  in terms of sin  and cos .
3
2. (a) If sin A = 5, find the values of the remaining trigonometric ratios.
12
(b) If cos A = 13, find the values of sin A, tan A and cosec A.
(c) If 17 cos θ = 8, find the ratios of sin θ, cot θ and cosec θ.
2 √a
(d) If tan α = a−1, find sin α and cos α.

(e) If cosec x = √2, find the value of cos x and tan x.

13
3. (a) If cosec y = , find the value of 3 cot y – 2 tan y.
12
2 sin  −cos 
(b) If tan  = 3 , find the value of .
sin  +cos 
4 3sin  −2cos 
(c) If cot  = 3 , find the value of .
2sin  +3cos 

175
 3 5
4. If sin A = and sin B = , find the values of the following trigonometric
5 13
expressions.
(a) sinA x cosB + cosA x sinB (b) cosA x cosB – sinA x sinB
(c) sinA x cosB – cosA x sinB (d) cosA x cosB + sinA x sinB
tan A + tan B tan A− tan B
(e) (f) 1+ tan A .tan B
1− tan A .tan B
m2 + n 2
5. (a) If sec A = , find he values of sin A and cot A.
m2 – n 2
p pcos x – qsin x p2 − q2
(b) If cot x = q, prove that pcos x + qsin x = p2 + q2.
x
(c) If cos  = , prove that x sin A + y cos  = √x 2 – y 2 .
√x2 – y2
1 1
(d) If sin x = m and tan x = n, prove that, prove that m2 – = 1.
n2

176
5.3 Trigonometric Ratios of Standard Angles
(i) Values of Trigonometric Ratios of 0 and 90 Q
In the adjoining figure, the revolving line OP of the
length 1 unit makes an angle  at the position of 1
OQ. Draw QMOP. Then QOM is a right-angled 
triangle in which QMO = 90 and ∠QOM = θ. O M P
When the angle θ becomes smaller and smaller and
the line segment QM also becomes smaller in
length. In figure, when θ becomes 0, the point Q
coincides with M, then QM = 0 and OQ = OM.
Now, we have
QM 0 p
(i) sin 0 = = = 0 [∵ sin θ = h]
OQ OQ
OM OQ b
(ii) cos 0 = = = 1 [∵ cos θ = h]
OQ OQ
QM 0 p
(iii) tan 0 = = = 0 [∵ tan θ = b]
OM OM
OM OM b
(iv) cot 0 = = =  (Undefined) [∵ cot θ = p]
QM 0
OQ OM h
i(v) sec 0 = = = 1 [ sec θ = b] Q
OM OM
OQ OQ h
(vi) cosec 0 = QM = =  (Undefined) [∵ cosec θ = p]
0

Again, if the value of  is continuously increasing

approaching to 90, the point O coincides with the
point M. i.e. OM = 0 and OR = QM. 
O P
Now, we have, M
QM OQ OM 0
(i) sin90 = = = 1 (ii) cos90 = = = 0
OQ OQ OQ OQ
QM OQ OM 0
(iii) tan90 = = =  (iv) cot90 = = = 0
OM 0 QM OQ
OQ OM OQ OQ
(v) sec90 = = =  (vi) cosec90 = QM = = 1
OM 0 OQ

177
(ii) Values of Trigonometric Ratios of 45
Let, ABC is an isosceles right-angled triangle in A
which AB = BC = a (suppose), ABC = 90o and 
ACB = BAC = 45o.
a 2 a
2 2
AC = AB + BC [∵ Pythagoras theorem,
h2 = p2 + b2] 45o
C B
= a2 + a2 = 2a2 = a 2 . a
Now, we have
AB a 1 BC a 1
(i) sin45o = = = (ii) cos45o = = =
AC a 2 2 AC a 2 2
AB a BC a
(iii) tan45o = BC = a = 1 (iv) cot45 o = AB = a = 1

AC a 2 AC a 2
(v) sec45o = BC = a = 2 (vi) cosec 45o = AB = a = 2

(iii) Values of Trigonometric Ratios of 30 and 60

A
Let, ABC is an equilateral triangle in which, AB = BC
= CA = 2a and CAB = ABC = BCA = 60. Draw 30o
ADBC, then BAD = 30 and BD = DC = a. From 2a 2a
the right-angled triangle ABD, we have

3
a
60o 60o
AD = AB2 – BD2 [∵ Pythagoras theorem, B a D a C
h2 = p2 + b2]
= 4a2 – a2 = 3a2 = a 3 .
Now, we have
For ratios of 30o:
BD a 1 AD a 3 3
(i) sin30o = AB = 2a = 2 (ii) cos30o = AB = 2a = 2

BD a 1 AD a 3
(iii) tan30o = AD = = (iv) cot30o = BD = a = 3
a 3 3
AB 2a 2 AB 2a
(v) sec30o = AD = = (vi) cosec30o = BD = a = 2
a 3 3

178
For ratios of 60o:
AD 3a 3 AB 2a 2
(i) sin 60o = AB = 2a = 2 (iv) cosec 60o = AD = =
3a 3
BD a 1 AB 2a
(ii) cos 60o = AB = 2a = 2 (v) sec 60o = BD = a = 2

AD a 3 BD a 1
(iii) tan 60o = BD = a = 3 (vi) cot 60o = = =
AD a 3 3
Value of trigonometric ratios of some standard angles (0o, 30o, 45o, 60o, 90o)
Angle
0o 30o 45o 60o 90o
Ratio
1 1 3
sin 0 2 2 2 1
3 1 1
cos 1 2 2 2 0
1
tan 0 3 1 3 
1
cot  3 1 3 0
2
sec 1 3 2 2 
2
cosec  2 2 3 1

Example 1
Find the value of (sin 60° + cos 30°) tan 30°.
Solution: Here,
 3 3 1 3 1
(sin 60° + cos 30°) tan 30° =  2 + 2  =2 2  =1
  3 3

179
Example 2
Find the value of sin2 30° – cos2 60° + tan3 45°.
Solution
1 2 1 2 1 1
Here, sin2 30° – cos2 60° + tan3 45° = 2 – 2 + (1)3 = 4 – 4 + 1 = 1
   
Example 3
1
Prove that: tan2 30° + 2 sin 60° + tan2 45° – tan 60° + cos2 30° = 2 12

Solution
Here, LHS = tan2 30° + 2 sin 60° + tan2 45° – tan 60° + cos2 30°
 1 2 3  3 2
=   + 2  2 + (1)2 – 3 +  2 
 3  
1 3
= 3 + 3 +1– 3 +4

1 3
= 3 +1+4

4 + 12 + 9 25
= = 12
12
1
= 2 12 = RHS.

Example 4
c c c
tan 2 cos ec  tan
Find the value of 3 6 4
c c c
   c
Sec 2  sec  sin  sin 2
4 3 6 4
Solution:
c c c
tan 2  cos ec  tan
Here, 3 6 4
c c c c
2    2 
Sec  sec  sin  sin
4 3 6 4

180
 180° 180° 180°
tan2 3 . cosec 6 . tan 4
= 180° 180° 180° 180°
sec2 4 . sec 3 . sin 6 sin2 4

tan2 60°. cosec 30°. tan 45°

=
sec2 45°. sec 60° . sin 30°. sin2 45°
2
( 3) 21 32
= =
2 1  1 2 1 =6
( 2) 22  22
 2
Example 5
 1 – tan2 30°
Find the value of 1 – 2 sin2 30° =  .
1 + tan2 30°
Solution: Here,
1 2 1 1 1
LHS = 1 – 2 sin2 30° = 1 – 22 = 1 – 2  4 = 1 – 2 = 2
 
1 2
1 –     1
3  2 3 1
 1 – tan 30°  1 –
2  3 
=
1 3 4 2
RHS =   = =  =
1 + tan2 30° 1 +  1 2
  
3  1 + 3
Hence, LHS = RHS.

Exercise 5.3
1. Write the answer in one sentence:
(a) What is the value of sin 45?
1
(b) Which trigonometric ratios of standard angles have the value 2 ?
(c) Write the value of tan 30?
(d) What is the value of sin 90 + cos 0 ?
(e) What is the value of tan 45 – cos 0 ?

181
2. Evaluate:
(a) sin 45.cos 45 – cos2 60
(b) cos 30.cos 45 – sin 30.sin 45
(c) 2sin 60.sin 90 + cos 60°.cos 0°
sin 60 + cos 30
(d) sin 90 +sin 30 +cos 60

(e) 2sin2 30 – 3cos2 45 + tan2 60

(f) 3tan2 45 – sin2 60 - cot2 30 + sec2 45
(g) 4sin2 60 + 3tan2 30 – 8sin 45.cos 45
(h) cot2 45 + cosec2 45
cos2 60 − sin2 60
(i) cos 30 + cos 45
2 2 o 2 o 4
(j) sin 60 + 3tan 30 + 3sin245
3
3. If  = 30, prove that:
(a) cos 2 = sin  (b) cos 2 = 1 – 2sin2
2 tan 
(c) sin 2 = (d) sin 2 = 2sin.cos
1 + tan2 

4. Prove that:
(a) sin(45 – 30) = sin 45.cos 30 – cos 45.sin 30
c c
tan 4 - tan 6
cot 30o.cot 45o – 1
(c) =2- 3 (b) cot (45 + 30) = cot 30o + cot 45o
c c
1 + tan 4 . tan 6

c
1 - tan2 6
c
(d) = cos
c 3
1 + tan2
6
5. If  = 30o,  = 45o,  = 60o then verify that:
2tan
(a) sin( + ) = sin .cos  + cos .sin  (b) tan2 =
1 - tan2
(c) 4 sin2 + 3 tan2 – 8 sin.cos = 0 (d) sin3 = 3sin  – 4sin3 

182
 3 3tan  – tan3 
(e) cos3θ = 4cos θ – 3cos θ (f) tan3 =
1 – 3tan2 
6. Find the value of x:
(a) tan2 45 (–cosec 60) = x cos 45.sin 45.cot 60
(b) 3sin 60 + x.cos 30 tan 45 = x cot 30
(c) 12x tan2 45 – 12 sin2 60 – 6cot2 30 + 4sec2 45 = 17
(d) sin 30 + 2cot2 30 + x cos2 30 = 8 + tan2 45 + cos 60
(e) x + 3tan2 30° + 4cos2 30° = 2sec2 45° + 4 sin2 60

5.4 Identities of Trigonometric Ratios

Relation of Trigonometric Ratios
A. Reciprocal Relations
(i) cosec  is the reciprocal ratio of sin .
p h
sin   cosec  = h  p = 1.
1 1
 sin   cosec  = 1  sin  = cosec  and cosec  = sin 
(ii) sec  is the reciprocal ratio of cos .
b h
cos   sec  = h  b = 1.
1 1
 cos   sec  = 1  cos  = sec  and sec  = cos 
(iii) cot is the reciprocal ratio of tan .
p b
tan   cot  = b  p = 1.
1 1
 tan   cot  = 1  tan  = cot  and tan  = cot 
B. Quotient Relations
(i) We have,
p
p
tan  = = h
b [∵ Dividing numerator and denominator by h]
b
h
sin 
= [∵ By the definition of trigonometric ratios]
cos 

183
 sin  sin 
 tan  =  sin  = tan   cos  and cos  =
cos  tan 
(ii) We have,
b
b
cot  = = h
p [∵Dividing numerator and denominator by h]
p
h
cos 
= [∵ By the definition of trigonometric ratios]
sin 
cos  cos 
 cot  =  sin  = and cos  = sin   cot 
sin  cot 

C. Pythagorean Relation
We know that the Pythagoras theorem as h2 = p2 + b2. A
Now, h
2
(i) p + b = h 2 2 p
 C
Dividing on both sides by h2, we get B
b
p2 b2 h2
h2 + h2 = h2
p2 b2
or, (h) + (h) = 1

p b
But we know that sin  = h and cos  = h .

 sin2 + cos2 = 1
We derive, sin2 = 1 – cos2
sin = 1 - cos2 and
cos2 = 1 – sin2
cos = 1 - sin2 .
(ii) h2 = p2 + b2
h2 – p2 = b2
Dividing on both sides by b2, we get
h2 p2 b2
b2 – b2 = b2
h2 p2
or, ( ) - ( ) = 1
b b

184
 h p
We have, sec = b and tan = b.

 sec2 – tan2 = 1
We derive, sec2 = 1 + tan2
sec = 1 - tan2 and
tan2 = sec2 – 1
tan = sec2 - 1 .
(iii) h2 = p2 + b2
h2 – b2 = p2
Dividing on both sides by p2, we get
h2 b2 p2
p2 – p2 = p2
h2 b2
or, (p) – (p) = 1

h b
We have, cosec = p and cot = p

 cosec2 – cot2 = 1
We derive, cosec2 = 1 + cot2
cosec = 1 - cot2 and
cot2 = cosec2 – 1
cot = cosec2 - 1 .
Example 1
Prove that: cot A  sin A = cos A
Solution: Here,
LHS = cot A  sin A
cos A
= sin A  sin A

= cos A = RHS.

185
Example 2
Prove that: cos2 x  cosec x  tan2 x = sin x
Solution: Here,
1 sin2 x
LHS = cos2 x  sin x  = sin x = RHS.
cos2 x
Example 3
1
Prove that: cot A + tan A = sin A cos A

Solution: Here,
cos A sin A
LHS = sin A + cos A

cos2 A + sin2 A
= sin A cos A
1
= sin A cos A [... sin2 A + cos2 A = 1]

Example 4
Prove that: cot2 x = (1 – sin2 x) cosec2 x
Solution: Here,
RHS = (1 – sin2 x) cosec2 x
1
= cos2 x 
sin2 x
cos2 x
=
sin2 x
= cot2 x = RHS.
Example 5
Prove that: (sin B – cos B)2 = 1 – 2 sin B.cos B
Solution: Here,
LHS = (sin B – cos B)2
= sin2 B – 2sin B.cos B + cos2 B

186
 = sin2 B + cos2 B – 2 sin B.cos B
= 1 – 2sin B.cos B = RHS.
Example 6
1
Prove that: = sec  + tan 
sec  – tan 
Solution: Here,
1
LHS =
sec  – tan 
sec2  – tan2 
= [... sec2  – tan2  = 1]
sec  – tan 
(sec  + tan ) (sec  – tan )
=
(sec  – tan )
= sec  + tan  = RHS.
Example 7
Prove that: tan2  + cot2  + 2 = sec2  cosec2 
Solution: Here,
LHS = tan2  + cot2  + 2
= (tan2  + 1) + (cot2  + 1)
= sec2  + cosec2 
1 1
= +
cos2  sin2 
sin2  + cos2 
=
cos2  sin2 
1
=
cos2  sin2 
= sec2  cosec2  = RHS.
Example 8
1 1
Prove that: + = 2 cosec2 
1 – cos  1 + cos 

187
Solution: Here,
1 1
LHS = +
1 – cos  1 + cos 
1 + cos  + 1 – cos 
=
(1 – cos ) (1 + cos )
2
=
1 – cos2 
2
=
sin2 
= 2 cosec2  = RHS.
Example 9
1 – sin A
Prove that: 1 + sin A = sec A – tan A
Solution: Here,
1 – sin A 1 – sin A
LHS = 1 + sin A  1 – sin A

(1 – sin A)2
=
1 – sin2 A

(1 – sin A)2
=
cos2 A
1 – sin A
= cos A

1 sin A
= cos A – cos A

= sec A – tan A = RHS.

Example 10
Prove that: sin2 x.cos2 y – cos2 x.sin2 y = sin2 x – sin2 y
Solution: Here,
LHS = sin2 x.cos2 y – cos2 x.sin2 y

188
 = sin2 x(1 – sin2 y) – (1 – sin2x) sin2 y
= sin2 x – sin2 x.sin2 y – sin2 y + sin2 x.sin2 y
= sin2 x – sin2 y = RHS.
Example 11
sin A 1 + cos A
Prove that: 1 + cos A + sin A = 2 cosec A

Solution: Here,
sin A 1 + cos A
LHS = 1 + cos A + sin A

sin2 A + (1 + cos A)2

= sin A (1 + cos A)
sin2 A + 1 + 2 cos A + cos2 A
= sin A (1 + cos A)
1 + 1 + 2 cos A
= sin A (1 + cos A)

2 + 2 cos A
= sin A (1 + cos A)

2 (1 + cos A)
= sin A (1 + cos A)

2
= sin A

= 2 cosec A = RHS.
Example 12
tan2 A cot A
Prove that: tan A – 1 + 1 – tan A = 1 + sec A.cosec A

Solution: Here,
tan2 A cot A
LHS = tan A – 1 + 1 – tan A

tan2 A 1
= tan A – 1 – tan A (tan A – 1)

189
 tan3 A – 1
= tan A (tan A – 1)

(tan A – 1) (tan2 A + tan A + 1)

= [... a3 – b3 = (a – b) (a2 + ab + b2]
tan A (tan A – 1)
tan2 A + tan A + 1
= tan A
tan2 A tan A 1
= tan A + tan A + tan A

1
= tan A + 1 +
tan A
 1 
= 1 + tan A + tan A
 
tan2 A + 1
=1+ tan A
cos A
= 1 + sec2 A  sin A

1 cos A
=1+  sin A
2
cos A
1 1
= 1 + cos A  sin A

= 1 + sec A.cosec A = RHS

Example 13
tanA + sec A – 1 1 + sin A
Prove that: tan A – sec A + 1 = cos A

Solution: Here,
tanA + sec A – 1
LHS =
tan A – sec A + 1
(tan A + sec A) – (sec2 A – tan2 A)
= [... sec2 A – tan2 A = 1]
tan A – sec A + 1
(tan A + sec A) + (tan2 A – sec2 A)
= tan A – sec A + 1

190
 (tan A + sec A) (1 + tan A – sec A)
= [... a2 – b2 = (a – b) (a + b)]
tan A – sec A + 1
= tan A + sec A
sin A 1
= cos A + cos A

1 + sin A
= cos A = RHS

Exercise 5.4
1. Answer the following:
(a) Define trigonometric identity.
(b) Write the relation between sin  and cos .
(c) Write sec  in terms of tan .
(d) What is the product of (cosec  + cot ) and (cosec  – cot ) ?
2. Multiply:
(a) (sin A + sin B) (sin A – sin B) (b) (1 – cos ) – (1 + cos )
(c) (1 + cos x) (1 – cos x) (d) (1 + tan2 A) (1 – tan2 A)
(e) (1 + sin ) (1 – sin ) (1 + sin2 ) (f) (1 + tan ) (1 – tan )(1 + tan2 )
3. Factorize:
(a) tan2 A – sin2A (b) cos2 A – sec2 A
(c) sin2 x + cos2x. sin2 x (d) sin3  – cos3 
(e) sec4  – cos4  (f) sin2 x + 5sin x + 6
4. Prove that:
(a) tan A × cos A = sin A (b) cos  × cosec  = cot 
(c) sec  × sin  × cot  = 1 (d) cot  × sin = cos
sinA  cosecA cotA  tan A
(e) = cot A (f) = cosec × sec 
tan A sin A  cosA
5. Prove that:
(a) cos2 A – cos2 A × sin2 A = cos4 A (b) (1 – cos2 ) (1 + tan2 ) = tan2 
(c) sin2A × cos2A + sin4A = sin2A (d) (cot2 α + 1) × tan2 α = sec2 α

191
 (e) (1 + sin A)2 – (1 – sinA)2 = 4sin A (f) (1 + tan α)2 +(1 – tan α)2 = 2sec2 α
cos ec 2   1
(g) = cos2  (h) tan2  – sin2  = tan2  × sin2 
cos ec 2 
(i) cos  √1 + cot 2  = √cosec 2  − 1 (j) 1 + tan2 × 1 - cos2 = tan α
6. Prove that:
1 – sin4A 1 – tan4A
(a) cos4A = 1 + 2tan2A (b) sec4A = 1 – 2sin2A

sin3 + cos3
(c) cos4 – sin4 = cos2 – sin2 (d) = 1 – sinα.cosα
sin + cos
sin 3 A  cos3 A tan A  1 2sin 2 A  1
(e) = sinα – cosα (f) =
1  sin A  cos A tan A  1 1  2sin A  cos A
1 1  sin  1 1  cos 
(g) = (h) =
sec + tan cos  cosec  + cot  sin 
1 1 1 + sin 
(h) = sin × cos (i) = = sec + tan
tan  + cot  sec  – tan  cos 
1 1 1 1
(j) – = –
sec A – tan A cos A cos A sec A + tan A
1 – sec A + tan A sec A + tan A – 1
(k) 1 + sec A – tan A = sec A + tan A + 1
cot A + cosec A – 1 1 – cosec A + cot A
(l) cot A + cosec A + 1 = 1 + cosec A – cot A
(m) (1 + sin A + cos A)2 = 2 (1 + sin A) (1 + cos A)
(n) (1 – sin  – cos )2 = 2 (1 – sin ) (1 – cos )
(o) sin2 x × sec2 x + tan2 x × cos2 x = sin2x + tan2x
tan x sin x
(p) – = 2 cot x
sec x – 1 1 + cos x
cos A – sin A + 1 1 + cos A
(q) cos A + sin A – 1 = sin A
1 1
(r) cot A (1 – cot A) + tan A (1 – tan A) = 1 + sec A cosec A

192
 sec A – tan A 2
(s) sec A + tan A = 1 – 2 sec A tan A + 2 tan A
cos A – sinA + 1 1 – sin A
(t) cos A + sin A + 1 = cos A
sin  + cos  + 1 1 + sin  – cos 
(u) – = 2(1 + cosec )
sin  + cos  – 1 1 – sin  + cos 
(v) cosec4 A (1 – cos4 A) = 1 + 2 cot2 A
(w) (3 – 4 sin2 x) (sec2 x – 4 tan2 x) = (3 – tan2 x) (1 – 4 sin2 x)
(x) (sec A + cosec A)2 = (1 + cot A)2 + (1 + tan A)2
7. Prove that:
sec  + 1 1 + cos  1 + sin 
(a) = (b) = sec A + tan A
sec  - 1 sin  1 – sin 

1 – cosA
(c) 1 + cosA = cosec A – cot A
1 + sin A 1 – sin A
(d) 1 – sin A – 1 + sin A = 2 tan A

5.5 Trigonometric Ratios of Any Angle

Angles in Quadrant of cartesian plane
Y
In the adjoining figure, two lines XX' and YY' are Q P
perpendicularly intersected at O, called origin and
the line XOX' is called x-axis and YOY', y-axis. 
The revolving line OX revolves in anti-clockwise 
X' X
direction and it makes , ,  and  in the first,  O

second, third and forth quadrant at the position of
OP, OQ, OR and OS respectively. The angle  lies
R S
between 0 to 90, i.e., 0 <  < 90. The angle 
lies between 90 to 180, i.e., 90 <  < 180. The Y'
angle  lies between 180 to 270, i.e., 180 <  <
270. The angle  lies between 270 to 360, i.e., 270 <  < 360.

193
In which quadrant lies the angle 480? Y
When 480 is divided by 90, the quotient is 5 and P
the remainder will be 30, i.e., 480 = 5  90 + 30.
So, the position of the revolving line OP lies 5 times 480
90 and more by 30 . Hence it lies in second X O X
quadrant.
By the next method, when 480 is divided by 360,
i.e., 480 = 1  360 + 120, the remainder is 120
Y
that lies in the second quadrant.
Trigonometric ratios of negative angle (– ) Y
In the given figure, the revolving line OX P
revolves in anti-clockwise direction and makes
an angle  with x-axis. Take a point P on the

revolving line and draw PMOX and produce it
X' O – M X
such that PM = P'M. Join O and P'. Then OMP
and OMP' are congruent by ASA condition of
congruecy. Then, P'
OP = OP' and MP = – MP' or, MP' = – MP Y'
Now, in right-angled triangle OMP, we already know that
p MP b OM
sin = h = OP , cos = h = OP

p MP b OM
tan = b = OM , cot = p = PM

h OP h OP
sec = b = OM , cosec = p = PM

Again, in right angle OMP',

p MP ' –MP b OM OM b
sin(–) = h = = OP = – sin, cos(–) = h = = = = cos
OP ' OP ' OP h
p MP' –MP b OM OM
tan(–) = b = OM = OM = – tan, cot(–) = p = MP' = –MP = – cot

h OP' OP h OP' OP
sec(–) = b = OM = OM = sec, cosec(–) = p = MP' = –MP = – cosec

194
Trigonometric ratios of (90 – ) Y
In the given figure, the revolving line OX
revolves in anti-clockwise direction and P
makes an angle  with x-axis. Take a point P

90–
on the revolving line and draw PMOX.

Therefore, OPM = 90 – . X'
O M
X
Now, in right-angled triangle OMP
MP MP
sin = OP , cos = OP

MP OM
tan = OM, cot = MP Y'

OP OP
sec = OM, cosec = MP

Now, in right-angled triangle OMP,

p OM b MP
sin(90–) = h = OP , cos(90 – ) = h = OP

p OM b MP
tan(90 – ) = b = MP , cot(90 – ) = p = OM

h OP h OP
sec(90 – ) = b = MP , cosec(90 – ) = p = OM

Therefore, sin(90–) = cos, cos(90 – ) = sin, tan(90 – ) = cot,

cot(90 – ) = tan, sec(90 – ) = cosec, cosec(90 – ) = sec
Trigonometric ratios of (90 + )
Let the revolving line OP makes an angle θ with Y
X-axis in anti-clockwise direction in which OP
= radius (r) and coordinates of P is (x, y). P'(-y, x) P(x, y)

 OM = x, PM = y and OP = r 
90- 

The revolving line OP further revolves in the 90– 

same direction and makes 90 with the position X' N O M X
of P'. Now, draw PMOX and P'NOX'. Then,
POM = θ and POP' = 90.
 MOP' = 90 + θ.
Y'

195
Again, in right-angled triangles PMO and P'NO,
MPO = NOP' = 90 – , POM = NP'O =  and OP = OP'.
By ASA condition of congruency of two triangles, PMO  P'NO.
Then, ON = – PM = –y, P'N = OM = x [Since directions is along X']
Now,
y coordinates of P y c coordinates of P 𝑥
sin = = cos = =
radius r radius r
y coordinates of P y x coordinates of P x
tan = x coordinates of P = x cot = y coordinates of P = y
radius r radius r
sec = = cosec = =
x coordinates of P x y coordinates of P y

Similarly,
y coordinates of P′ 𝑥
sin(90° + ) = = = cos
radius r
c coordinates of P′ −𝑦
cos(90° + ) = = = –sin
radius r
y coordinates of P′ −x
tan(90° + ) = x coordinates of P′ = = –cot
y
x coordinates of P′ −y
cot(90° + ) = y coordinates of P′ = = –tan
x
radius −r
sec(90° + ) = x coordinates of P′ = = –cosec
y
radius r
cosec(90° + ) = y coordinates of P′ = x = sec

Therefore,
sin(90° + ) = cos
cos(90° + ) = –sin
tan(90° + ) = –cot
cosec(90° + ) = sec
sec(90° + ) = –cosec
cot(90° + ) = –tan

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Trigonometric ratios of (180 – )
Here, sin(180 – ) = sin[90 + (90 – )] = cos (90 – ) = sin 
cos(180 – ) = cos [90 + (90 – )] = – sin (90 – ) = – cos 
tan(180 – ) = tan [90 + (90 – )] = – cot (90 – ) = – tan 
cot(180 – ) = cot [90 + (90 – )] = – tan (90 – ) = – cot 
sec(180 – ) = sec [90 + (90 – )] = – cosec (90 – ) = – sec 
cosec(180 – ) = cosec [90 + (90 – )] = sec (90 – ) = cosec 
Trigonometric ratios of (180 + )
Here, sin(180 + ) = sin[90 + (90 + )] = cos (90 + ) = – sin 
cos(180 + ) = cos [90 + (90 + )] = – sin (90 + ) = – cos 
tan(180 + ) = tan [90 + (90 + )] = – cot (90 + ) = – (–tan ) = tan 
cot(180 + ) = cot [90 + (90 + )] = – tan (90 + ) = – (–cot ) = cot 
sec(180 + ) = sec [90 + (90 + )] = – cosec (90 + ) = – sec 
cosec(180 + ) = cosec [90 + (90 + )] = sec (90 + ) = – cosec 
Trigonometric ratios of (270 – )
Here, sin(270 – ) = sin[180 + (90 – )] = – sin (90 – ) = – cos 
cos(270 – ) = cos [180 + (90 – )] = – cos (90 – ) = – sin 
tan(270 – ) = tan [180 + (90 – )] = tan (90 – ) = cot 
cot(270 – ) = cot [180 + (90 – )] = cot (90 – ) = tan 
sec(270 – ) = sec [180 + (90 – )] = – sec (90 – ) = – cosec 
cosec(270 – ) = cosec [180 + (90 – )] = – cosec (90 – ) = – sec 
Trigonometric ratios of (270 + )
Here, sin(270 + ) = sin[180 + (90 + )] = – sin (90 + ) = – cos 
cos(270 + ) = cos [180 + (90 + )] = – cos (90 + ) = – (– sin ) = sin 
tan(270 + ) = tan [180 + (90 + )] = tan (90 + ) = – cot 
cot(270 + ) = cot [180 + (90 + )] = cot (90 + ) = – tan 
sec(270+) = sec [180 + (90 + )] = –sec(90 + ) = –(– cosec ) = cosec 
cosec(270 + ) = cosec [180 + (90 + )] = – cosec (90 + ) = – sec 

197
Trigonometric ratios of (360 – )
Here, sin(360 – ) = sin[180 + (180 – )] = – sin(180 – ) = – sin 
cos(360 – ) = cos [180 + (180 – )] = – cos(180 – ) = – (–cos ) = cos 
tan(360 – ) = tan [180 + (180 – )] = tan(180 – ) = – tan 
cot(360 – ) = cot [180 + (180 – )] = cot(180 – ) = – cot 
sec(360 – ) = sec [180 + (180 – )] = – sec(180 – ) = – (– sec ) = sec 
cosec(360 – ) = cosec [180 + (180 – )] = – cosec(180 – ) = – cosec 
Trigonometric ratios of (360 + )
Since the angle (360 + ) lies in the first quadrant, so the trigonometric ratios of
(360 + ) are the same as the trigonometric ratios of .
i.e., sin(360 + ) = sin , cos(360 + ) = cos 
tan(360 + ) = tan , cot(360 + ) = cot 
sec(360 + ) = sec , cosec(360 + ) = cosec 
CAST Rule
Summarise of the trigonometric ratios of Sin & cosec
90 All ratios
any angles as follow: are positive. are positive.
Note: 90 + θ, θ, 90 – θ,
1) If n is an odd number in (n × 90 ± θ), 180 – θ S A 360 + θ
0
180
then the trigonometric ratio will be – θ, 360
180 + θ,
changed. 270 – θ T O C 360 – θ,
2) If n is an even number or zero in (n × 270 + θ
Tan & cot
90 ± θ), then the trigonometric ratio will are positive. Cos & sec
not be changed. are positive.
270
Example 1
Find the value of sin 150.cos 120 + sin2150 + cos2120.
Solution: Here,
sin 150.cos 120 + sin2150 + cos2120
= sin(90 + 60).cos(90 + 30) + sin2(90 + 60) + cos2(90 + 30)
= cos 60.(– sin 30) + cos2 60 + sin2 30

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 1  1 12 12
= 2  – 2 + 2 + 2
1 1 1 1
= –4+4+4=4

Example 2
Prove that: sin2  + sin2 (90° – ) = cos2  + cos2 (90° – )
Solution: Here,
LHS = sin2  + sin2 (90° – )
= sin2  + cos2  [... sin (90° – ) = cos ]
=1
RHS = cos2  + cos2 (90° – )
= cos2  + sin2  [... cos (90° – ) = sin]
=1
 LHS = RHS
Example 3
Prove that: tan x + tan (180° – x) + cot (90° + x) + cot (90° – x) = 0
Solution: Here,
LHS = tan x + tan (180° – x) + cot (90° + x) + cot (90° – x)
= tan x + (– tan x) + (– tan x) + tan x
= 2 tan x – tan x – tan x = 2 tan x – 2tan x = 0 = RHS.
Example 4
tan (90° + ) . sec (270° – ) . sin(–)
Prove that: = cosec .sec 
cos (180° + ) . cos (–)
Solution: Here,
tan (90° + ) . sec (270° – ) . sin(–)
LHS =
cos (180° + ) . cos (–)
– cot  (– cosec ) (– sin )
=
– cos.cos

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 – cot .cosec .sin 
=
– cos2 
cos 
=
Sin  .cos2
1
= = cosec .sec  = RHS.
sin .cos 
Example 5
Prove that: sin 120° – cos 150° + tan 135° = 3 – 1
Solution: Here,
LHS = sin (180° – 60°) – cos (180° – 30°) + tan (180° – 45)
= sin 60° – (– cos 30°) + (– tan 45°)
3 3 3
= 2 + 2 – 1 = 2  2 – 1 = 3 – 1 = RHS.

Example 6
Prove that: sin 112° + cos 74° – sin 68° + cos 106° = 0
Solution: Here,
LHS = sin 112° + cos 74° – sin 68° + cos 106°
= sin (180° – 68°) + cos 74° – sin 68° + cos (180° – 74°)
= sin 68° + cos 74° – sin 68° – cos 74°
= 0 = RHS.
Example 7
Find the value of x from cosec (90° + ) + x cos .cot (90° + ) = sin (90° + )
Solution: Here,
cosec (90° + ) + x cos .cot (90° + ) = sin (90° + )
or, sec  + x cos  (– tan ) = cos 
1 sin 
or, – x cos  . = cos 
cos  cos 
1
or, – x sin  = cos 
cos 

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 1
or, – x sin  = cos  –
cos 
cos2  – 1
or, – x sin  =
cos 
or, x sin .cos  = 1 – cos2 
or, x sin .cos  = sin2 
sin2  sin 
or, x = = = tan 
sin .cos  cos 
Hence, x = tan 

Exercise 5.5
1. Answer the following in single sentence:
(a) Which trigonometric ratio is equal to sin (– )?
(b) Write the trigonometric ratio is equal to tan (180° + A).
(c) Which trigonometric ratio is equal to cos (270° – A)?
(d) Which trigonometric ratio is equal to secant of (180° – )?
2. Determine the values of the following trigonometric ratios:
(a) sin 150 (b) cos 135 (c) cot 315 (d) cos 855
(e) tan 1035 (f) cot 1755 (g) cosec (– 1410)
3. Simplify:
(a) sin (90 – A) × tan (180 + A) – tan (– A) × sec (270 – A)
(b) cos (90° – A) × sin (360° + A) × tan (180° – A) × sec (270° + A) ×
cosec (90° + A)
4. Prove that:
(a) sec . cosec (90° – ) – tan .cot (90° – ) = 1
(b) sin2 .cosec2 (90° – )– tan2 .sec2 (90° – ) = – 1
π  π 
(c) tan2 2 – P.sin P – sin2 2 – P.cosec P = 0
   
π  π 
(d) cosec A.cos 2 – A – sin A.sec 2 – A = 0
   

201
 π  π 
(e) cot  + cot 2 –  = cosec .cosec 2 – 
   
tan2  sin2 
(f) – =1
cos2 (90° – ) sin2 (90° – )
5. Prove that:
(a) sin 420° cos 390° + cos (–300°) sin (–330°) = 1
(b) cos 120°. sin 150° + cos 330°. sin 300° = –1
1+ 3
(c) cos 240°. sin 300° – sin 330°. cos 300° = 4
(d) cos 240°. cos 120° – sin 120°. cos 150° = 1
6. Show that:
(a) cos 25.cos 40 = sin 65.sin 50
(b) sin155.cos 165 = – sin 25.cos 15
(c) cos 12 + cosec 36 + cot 72 = sin 78 + sec 54 + tan 18
(d) tan 32° + cot 53° – cosec 80° = tan 37° + cot 58° – sec 10°
(e) sin 81° + sec 54° + tan 18° = cos 9° + cosec 36° + cot 72°
(f) sin 9°. sin 27°. sin 63°. sin 81° = cos 9°. cos 27° cos 63° cos 81°
(g) tan 9°. tan 27°. tan 45°. tan 63° tan 81° = 1

7. Find the values of x:

(a) cos 150° + sin 120° + sin2 150° + cos2 120°
(b) cos2 135° + sin2 150° – sin2 120° – cot2 120°
(c) cos2 90° + cos2 120° + cos2 135° + cos2 150° + cos2 180°
(d) sin2 120° – cos2 120° – sin2 135° – tan2 150°
1
(e) 2 cos2 45° + sin 30° + 2 cos 180° – tan 45°

(f) tan2 45° – 4 sin2 60° + 2 cos2 45° + sec2 180° + coec 135°
(g) sin2 180° + sin2 150° + sin2 135° + sin2 120° + sin290°

202
 1
(h) 2 cos2 135° + sin 150° + 2 cos 180° + tan2 135°

π 3π 5π 7π
(i) cos 8 + cos 8 + cos 8 + cos 8

7π 5π 3π π

(j) sin2  8  + sin2  8  + sin2  8  + sin2 8
       
8. Find the values of:
sin (90° + A)  cosec (90° + A)
(a)
cos A  cot (90° + A)
sin (90° + ). cos (–). cot (180° – )
(b)
cos (360° – ). cos (180° + ). tan (90° – )
tan (180° – A). cot (90° – A) cos (360° – A)
(c) tan (180° – A) tan (90° + A) sin (– A)
cos (90° – ). cot (90° – ). cos (180° – )
(d)
tan (180° – ). tan (90° – ) cos (90° + )
sin (180° – ) tan (90° + ) sec (90° + )
(e)  
sin (90° + ) cos (180° – ) cot (180° – )
cos (270° – ). sec (180° – ). sin (270° + )
(f)
cos (90° + ). cos (180° – ). sin (180° + )
9. Find the value of:
(a) 2cot120° – x.sin 120°.cos 180° = tan150°
(b) 2cot120° – tan 150° = x.sin 120°.cos180°
(c) tan225° – x.sin315°.cos 135°.tan260° = cosec230°
(d) tan2135° – sec260° = x.sin 135°.cos 45°.tan60°
(e) tan(180° – A). cot (90° + A) + xcos(90° + A). cos(90° – A) =
sinA.sin(180° – A)
(f) x.cot .tan (90° + ) = tan (90° + ). cot (180° – ) + x sec
(90° + ).cosec

203
5.6 Trigonometric Ratios of Compound Angles
The sum or difference of two or more than two angles is called a compound angle.
Let A and B be two angles then A + B or A – B is called the compound angle and
the trigonometric ratios of A + B and A – B are denoted by sin(A + B), cos(A +
B) etc.
Trigonometric Ratio for cosine of angles (A + B) and (A – B)
Let OP be a revolving line with a unit length,
Y
starting from OX, describing POQ = A, R(cos(A + B), sin(A + B))
QOR = B and POS = – B. Then POR =
Q(cosA, sinA)
A + B. So, the coordinates of P, Q, R and S are 1
1
(1, 0), (cos A, sin A), (cos(A + B), sin(A + B))

A+B
B
and (cos B, –sin B) respectively. Since PR and X′
O
A
–B P(1, 0)
QS are the opposite side of the same magnitude 1
of angles (A + B) and [A + (–B)] respectively, S(cosB, sinB)
PR = QS.
Y′
Now, we have
d = √(x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
or, PR = √(cos(A + B) − 1)2 + (sin(A + B) − 0)2

= √cos2 (A + B) − 2cos(A + B) + 1 + sin2 (A + B)

= √1 − 2cos(A + B) + 1 =√2 − 2cos(A + B).
QS = √(cos B − cos A)2 + (−sin B − sin A)2
= √cos2 B − 2cos A. cos B + cos2 A + sin2 B + 2sin A. sin B + sin2 A
= √1 + 1 − 2cos A. cos B + 2sin A. sin B
= √2 − 2(cos A. cos B − sin A. sin B.
Since PR = QS, so
√2 − 2 cos(A + B) =√2 − 2(cos A. cos B − sin A. sin B
or, 2 – 2cos(A + B) = 2 – 2(cos A.cos B – sin A.sin B).
 cos(A + B) = cos A.cos B – sin A.sin B.
Taking B = – B, we get

204
 cos[A + (–B)] = cos A.cos(–B) – sin A.sin(–B)
 cos(A – B) = cos A.cos B + sin A.sin B.
Trigonometric Ratios for Sine Angles of (A + B) and (A – B)
We have,
sin(A+B) = cos[90o – (A + B)] = cos[(90o – A) – B]
= cos(90o – A).cosB + sin(90o – A).sinB
= sin A.cos B + cos A.sin B.
 sin(A+B) = sin A.cos B + cos A.sin B.
Again, taking B = –B, we get
sin[A + (–B)] = sin A.cos(–B) + cos A.sin(–B)
 sin(A – B) = sin A.cos B – cos A.sin B.
Trigonometric Ratios for Tangent Angles of (A + B) and (A – B):
We have,
sin(A+B) sin A.cos B + cos Asin B
tan(A + B) = =
cos(A+B) cos A.cos B−sin Asin B
sin Acos B cos Asin B
+ tan A+tan B
= cos Acos B
cos Acos B
cos Acos B
sin Asin B =
– 1 − tan A.tan B
cos Acos B cosAcos B

[∵ Diving by cosAcosB on numerator and denominator.]

tan A + tan B
 tan(A + B) = 1 − tan A.tan B
Again taking B = –B, we get
tan A − tan B
 tan(A – B) = 1 + tan Atan B
Trigonometric Ratios for Cotangent Angles of (A + B) and (A – B)
We have,
cot(A + B) = tan[90o - (A + B)] = tan[(90o – A) – B]
1 cotA.cotB − 1
tan(90o − A) − tan B cot A − cotA.cotB − 1
= 1 + tan(90o −A)tan B = cotB
1 = cot B
cotB + cotA =
1 + cot A cotB + cotA
cot B cot B
cot A.cot B − 1
 cot (A + B) = cot B + cot A
Again, taking B = –B, we get

205
 cotA.cot(−B) − 1
cot [A + (–B)] =
cot(−B) +cot A
−cotA.cotB − 1
or, cot (A - B) = −cot B + cot A
cot A.cot B + 1
 cot (A – B) = cot B − cot A
Example 1
Find values of cos 15 without using scientific calculator and trigonometric table.
Solution: We have,
cos15° = cos (45° – 30°)
= cos 45°cos 30° + sin45°sin30°
1 3 1 1 3 1
= × 2 + ×2 = +
2 2 2 2 2 2
3+1 3+1 2 6+ 2
= =  =
2 2 2 2 2 4

3+1 6+ 2
 cos15° = or
2 2 4
Example 2
1
Prove that: sin105° + cos105° =
2
Solution: Here,
LHS = sin105° + cos105°
= sin(60° + 45°) + cos(60° + 45°)
= sin60°cos45° + cos60°sin45° + cos60°cos45° – sin60°sin45°
3 1 1 1 1 1 3 1
= 2 × +2× +2× – 2 ×
2 2 2 2
3 1 1 3
= + + –
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1+1 2
= + = =
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

206
 1
= = RHS.
2
Example 3
3 12
If sin A = 5 and sin B = 13, find the values of sin (A + B) and tan (A + B).

Solution: Here,
3 12
sin A = 5 sin B = 13

cos A = 1 – sin2A cos B = 1 – sin2B

32 122
= 1– 5 = 1 – 13
   
9 144
= 1 – 25 = 1 – 169

25 – 9 169 – 144
= =
25 169
16 4 25 5
= 25 = 5 = =
169 13
4 5
cos A = 5 cos B = 13

Now, we know that

sin (A + B) = sinAcosB + cosAsinB
3 5 4 12 15 48 15 + 48 63
= 5 × 13 + 5 × 13 = + 65 = 65 = 65
65
63
sin (A + B) = 65

Again,
3 12
sinA 3 sinB 12
tan A = cosA = 5
4 =4 tan B = cosB = 13
5 = 5
5 13

Now, we have

207
 3 12 15 + 48
+
tan A + tan B 4 5 20 63
tan (A + B) = 1 – tan A.tan B = = = –
3 12 20 – 36 16
1–4× 5 20
63
tan (A + B) = – 16

Example 4
5 1 c
If tan = 6 and tan = 11, prove that:  4

Solution: Here,
5 1
tan = 6 and tan  = 11

Now, we know that

tan + tan
tan  =
1 - tan.tan
5 1 55 + 6
6 + 11 66 61 c
= = = 61 = 1 = tan 45° = tan 4
5 1 66 - 5
1 - 6 × 11 66
c
 = 4 .

Example 5
Prove that: sin(x + y) + sin(x – y) = 2sin x.cos y
Solution: Here,
LHS = sin(x + y) + sin(x – y)
= sinxcosy + cosxsiny + sinxcosy – cosxsiny
= 2sinxcosy = RHS.

Example 6
cotB. cotA + 1
Prove that: cot (A – B) = cotB - cotA

208
Solution: Here,
LHS = cot (A – B)
cos (A - B)
= sin (A - B)

cosA.cosB + sinA.sinB
= sinA.cosB - cosA.sinB

cosA.cosB sinA.sinB
sinA.sinB + sinA.sinB
= sinA.cosB cosA.sinB
sinA.sinB – sinA.sinB
[ Dividing sinAsinB on numerator and denominator]
cotA.cotB + 1
= cotB – cotA = RHS.

Example 7
cos10° - sin10°
Prove that: cos10° + sin10° = tan35°

Solution
cos10° - sin10°
LHS =
cos10° + sin10°
cos (45° - 35°) - sin(45° - 35°)
= cos (45° - 35°) + sin(45° - 35°)

cos45°.cos35° + sin45°. sin35°– {sin45°.cos35° – cos45°.sin35°}

= cos45°.cos35° + sin45°. sin35° +{sin45°.cos35° – cos45°.sin35°}

1 1 1 1
.cos35° + sin35° – .cos35° + sin35°
2 2 2 2
= 1 1 1 1
.cos35° + sin35° + .cos35° – sin35°
2 2 2 2
2. 2.sin35°
=
2. 2.cos35°
= tan35° = RHS.
"Alternatively"
RHS = tan35°

209
 = tan (45° – 10°)
tan45° – tan10°
= 1 + tan45°.tan10°

sin10°
1 – cos10°
= sin10°
1 + 1 × cos10°

cos10° – sin10°
cos10°
= cos10° + sin10°
cos10°
cos10° – sin10°
= cos10° + sin10° = RHS.

Example 8
Prove that: 1 – tan30° – tan15° = tan30° . tan15°
Solution: Here,
LHS = 1 – tan30° – tan15°
= 1 – (tan30° + tan15°)
tan30° + tan15°
= 1 – 1 – tan30°.tan15° ×(1 – tan30°.tan15°)

= 1 – tan (30° + 15°) (1 – tan30°.tan15°)

= 1 – tan45° (1 – tan30°.tan15°)
= 1 – 1 (1 - tan30°.tan15°)
= 1 – 1 + tan30°.tan15°
= tan30°.tan15° = RHS.
"Alternatively"
Here, we have
45° = 30° + 15°
or, tan 45° = tan(30° + 15°) [∵ Taking tangent ratio on both sides]
tan30° + tan15°
or, 1 = 1 – tan30° tan15°

210
 or, 1 – tan30°. tan15° = tan30° + tan15°
or, 1 – tan30° – tan15° = tan30°.tan15°
Example 9
C
If (A + B) = 4 , prove that: (1 + tan A) (1 + tan B) = 2

Solution: Here,
C
A+B= 4

C
tan(A + B) = tan [∵ Taking tangent ratio on both sides]
4
tanA + tanB
or, 1 – tanA. tanB = tan45°
tanA + tanB
or, 1 – tanA.tanB = 1
or, tan A + tan B = 1 – tan A.tan B
or, tan A + tan B + tan A.tan B = 1
or, 1 + tan A + tan B + tan A.tan B = 1 + 1 [∵ Adding 1 on both sides]
or, 1(1 + tan A) + tan B(1 + tan A) = 2
 (1 + tan A) (1 + tan B) = 2
Example 10
If tan = k.tanβ, verify that: (k + 1).sin( – ) = (k – 1).sin( + )
Solution:
Given, tan = k. tan.
To Prove: (k + 1).sin( – ) = (k – 1).sin( + )
sin(α−β) k−1
or, = .
sin(α+β) k+1

sin(α−β) sinα.cosβ−cosα.sinβ
Now, LHS = =
sin(α+β) sinα.cosβ+cosα.sinβ
sinα.cosβ cosα.sinβ
−
cosα.cosβ cosα.cosβ
= sinα.cosβ cosα.sinβ [∵ Dividing cosA.cosB on numerator and denominator]
+
cosα.cosβ cosα.cosβ

211
 tan α − tan β
=
tan α + tan β
k.tan β − tan β
= k.tan β + tan β
tan β(k − 1)
= tan β(k + 1)
k−1
= k + 1 = RHS.
“Alternatively”
Given, tan  = k. tan β
tan α k
or, =
tan β 1

Using componendo and dividendo rules, we have

tan α−tan β k−1
or, =
tan α+tan β k + 1
sinα sinβ
− k−1
or, =
cosα cosβ
sinα sinβ k+1
−
cosα cosβ

sinα.cosβ − cosα.sinβ
cosα.cosβ k−1
or, sinα.cosβ + cosα.sinβ = k+1
cosα.cosβ
sin(α − β) k−1
or, =
sin(α + β) k+1

or, (k + 1) sin( – ) = (k – 1) sin( – ).

Exercise 5.6
1. Write the answer in one sentence:
(a) Write the formula of sin(A + B).
(b) Write the formula of cos(A + B).
(c) Write the formula of tan(A – B).
(d) Write the formula of cot(A + B).
2. Find the value of trigonometric ratios without using trigonometric table
and scientific devices.
(a) cos 15o (b) sin 75o (c) sin 105o (d) tan 15o (e) tan 75o

212
 πc 7πc
(f) tan 105o (g) cos 195o (h) sin 255o (i) cot (j) sin
6 12

3. Without using trigonometric table and scientific devices, calculate the

following trigonometric ratios.
(a) sin 15o + cos 75o (b) sin75o + sin105o (c) cos15o – sin75o
4. Prove that:
1 1
(a) sin105° + cos105° = (b) sin75° – sin15° =
2 2
(c) sin 65o – sin 25o = √2sin 20o (d) √3cos 20o + sin 20o = 2sin 80o
5. Verify that:
(a) sin(60o – ).cos(30o + ) + cos(60o – ).sin(30o + ) = 1
(b) cos(60o – ).cos(30o – ) – sin(60o – ).sin(30o – ) = sin( + )
(c) sin(2m + 1)A.cos(2m – 1)A – cos(2m + 1)A.sin(2m + 1)A = sin2m
(d) cos(120o + x) + cos x + cos(120o – x) = 0
6. Prove that:
tan4A − tan3A tan nx + tanx
(a) = tanA (b) = tan(n + 1)x
1 + tan4A.tan3A 1 – tan nx.tanx
cotBcotA+1 tan2 A − tan2 B
(c) = cot(A–B) (d) tan(A + B).tan(A – B) =
cotB−cotA 1 − tan2 A.tan2 B
tan(A + B) − tanA tan(A + B + C) −tan(A – B + C)
(e) = tanB (f) = tan2B
1 + tan(A + B).tanA 1 + tan(A + B + c).tan(A – B + C)
πc sinA − cosA 3πc tanA + 1
(g) tan(A + )= (h) tan( − A) = tanA − 1
4 sinA + cosA 4
sin(A − B) cos(A − B)
(i) = cotB – cotA (j) = cotA.cotB + 1
sinA.sinB sinA.sinB

7. Show that the followings:

(a) tan 28o + tan 17o + tan 28o.tan 17o = 1
(b) 1 + tan61o.tan16o = tan61o – tan16o
(c) 1 + cot20o + cot25o = cot20o.cot25o
3 5
8. If sin A = and sin B = , find the values of the following compound
5 13
angles:
(a) sin(A + B) (b) cos(A – B) (c) tan(A + B)

213
 𝟏 𝟐
9. If sin  = and cos  = , find the values of the following:
√𝟏𝟎 √𝟓

(a) sin( – ) (b) cos( + ) (c) cot( – )

𝟑 𝟓
10. If tan𝛂 = 𝟒 and tan𝛃 = 𝟏𝟐, prove that:
23 16 15
(a) tan(α + β) = 133 (b) sin(α – β) = 65 (c) cot(α – β) = 316
2 1 πc
11. (a) If tanα = 3 and tanβ = 5, show that: α + β = 4 .
1
(c) If tan  = m and tan  = m, show that:  + = 90o.
1 13 πc
(c) If cos x = and cosy = then prove that: x – y = .
7 14 3
12. (a) If tan(x + y) = 23 and tan y = 7, what is the value of tan x.
84 17
(b) If cos (A – B) = 85 and sec A = , find the value of sin B.
8
πc
(c) Evaluate the value of tan A if cot B = 2m + 1 and A + B = 4 .
13. If A + B = 45, prove that:
(a) (1 + tanA) (1 – tanB) = 2 (b) (cot A – 1) (cot B – 1) = 2
𝛑𝐜
14. If  –  = 𝟒 , prove that:
(a) (1 – tanα) (1 + tanβ) = 2 (b) (1 – cot α) (1 + cot β) = 2
15. Prove that:
sin(B − C) sin(C − A) si n(A − B)
(a) cosB.cosC + cosC.cosA + =0
cosA.cosB
(c) sinA.sin(B – C) + sinB.sin(C – A) + sinC.sin(A – B) = 0
16. Prove that the followings:
sin75o − cos75o sin(45o + A)
(a) cos15o + cos75o = 1 (c) cos(45o − A) = 1
tan75o + cot75o cot(45o − A)
(b) tan15o + cot15o = 1 (d) tan(45o + A) = 1

17. Show that the followings:

(a) tan 40o + tan 60o + tan 80o = tan 40o.tan 60o.tan 80o
(b) tan 15o.tan 25o + tan 25o.tan 50o + tan 50o.tan 15o = 1
(c) tan 9A – tan 5A – tan 4A = tan 9A.tan 5A.tan 4A

214
 (d) cot 8A.cot 4A – cot 12A.cot 4A – cot 12A.cot 8A = 1
18. Prove that:
sin(A + B).sin(A − B)
(a) = tan2A – tan2B
cos2 A.cos2 B
sin(A + B) tanA + tanB
(b) sin(A − B) = tanA − tanB
sec α.sec β
(c) sec(α + β) =
1 − tan α.tan β
sin(A + B) + sin(A − B)
(d) cos(A + B) + cos(A − B) = tanA
sin2 A − sin2 B
(e) tan(A + B) =
sinA.cosA − sinB.cosB
19. Prove that:
(b) cos(A + B).cos(A – B) = cos2B – sin2A = cos2A – sin2B
1 + tanA cosA + sinA
(a) tan(45o + A) = 1 − tanA = cosA − sinA
cotA + 1 cosA + sinA
(b) cot(45o – A) = cotA − 1 = cosA − sinA
sin2A
(e) tan(A + B) + tan(A – B) = cos2A − cos2 B
sin2 A − sin2 B
(f) tan(A + B).tan(A – B) = cos2 A − sin2 B
20. Prove that:
(a) sin(A + B + C) = cosA.cosB.cosC(tanA + tanB + tanC – tanA.tanB.tanC)
(b) cos(A + B + C) = cosA.cosB.cosC(1 – tanB.tanC – tanC.tanA –
tanA.tanB)
tanA+tanB+tanC− tanA .tanB .tanC)
(c) tan(A + B + C) = 1 – tanB.tanC – tanC.tanA – tanA.tanB
cotB.cotC + cotC.cotA + cotA.cotB − 1
(d) cot(A + B + C) = .
cotA.cotB.cotC – cotA – cotB − cotC
21. (a) If tanA:tanB = k:1, prove that: sin(A + B):sin(A – B) = (k + 1):(k – 1).
(b) If an angle θ is divided into two parts α and β such that tan:tan :: x:y,
verify that: sin θ:sin(α – β) = (x + y):(x – y).

215
 Unit 6 Vectors

6.0 Review
Observe the following statements:
1. The sum of area of two fields is 40 square meter.
2. An aeroplane is flying 20 miles per second towards west.
3. A truck is travelling with 50 km/hr.
4. A car is moving with 35 km/hr starting from Kathmandu bus park.
Where will it reach after 1 hour? Estimate.
5. A car is travelling with 35 km/hr starting from Kathmandu Bus park
towards Pokhara. Where will it reach after 1 hour? Estimate
Discuss in small groups of students on above conditions based on following
questions.
 What is the distance in each case?
 What is the direction of each in each case?
 Which condition contains the distance only?
 Which condition contains the distance and direction both?
Prepare a short report within bench group and present to classroom.
In above statements (2) and (5) both the distance (magnitude) and direction
are given. Hence in our daily life every quantity can be measured with the
help of number. For some quantities the number is not sufficient for
measurement.
6.1 Introduction
The above statements (1) , (3) and (4) have only distance but have not
directions. So they are scalar quantities. In statement (2) the magnitude and
the directions of aeroplane is given and in statement (5) the magnitude and the
direction of care is given. So we called these as vector quantity.
Vector Quantity
A physical quantity which has both magnitude and direction is called Vector
quantity or simply a vector. For example, velocity, acceleration weight, etc.
Scalar Quantity
A physical quantity which has only magnitude is called scalar quantity or
simply scalar. For example, volume, length, mass, etc.

216
Notation of vector
Vectors as displacement are denoted by directed Q
line segment. So, if P and Q be two end points
of a vector then the vector from point P to Q is

denoted by PQ (two letters with arrow over it) 
 a
or simply a (a single letter a with arrow over
it) or a (bold faced letters). For example, the
 P
vector from point P to Q is denoted by PQ or
   
a . The magnitude of vector PQ that its length is denoted by  PQ  =  a .
Vector in cartesian plane
Let P(x,y) be any point on the cartesian plane. Join origin O and point P. Draw
perpendicular PM on OX (PMOX), so that OM = x, PM = y. The
displacement of O to P is same as the
displacement from O to M and Y

displacement from M to P.
i.e. Horizontal displacement OM with OM P(x,y)
= x and vertical displacement with MP = y,
together gives the displacement of OP.
 
We can write OP as an order pair (x,y) or a
𝑥   𝑥
(𝑦), i.e, OP = (x, y) or OP = (𝑦) is called X
O M
vector in terms of components. This is also
called position vector of point P with
respect to fixed point O.
Vector having initial point not at origin
Let P (x1 ,y1) and Q (x2, y2) be the coordinates of two end point of vector PQ.
Draw PM  OX, QN OX and PR  QN.
The x-component of PQ is PR = x2 –x1.
The y-component of PQ is QR = y2 –y1.
So, the vector joining P (x1,y1) and Q (x2, y2) is given by
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑄 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 = (𝑦 − 𝑦 )
2 1

217
 Y

or, 𝑃𝑄
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 , 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )
Example 1 Q(x2,y2)

What will be the meaning of following 

vector.
a
R
P(x1,y1)

3 3
a) ( ) (b)( )
7 −7 M N
−3 −3 O
(c) ( ) (d) ( )
7 −7
Solution:
3
(a) ( ) means horizontal displacement 3 unit to the right and vertical
7
displacement 7 units upward.
3
(b) ( ) means 3 units horizontal displacement to the right and 7 units vertical
−7
displacement downward.
−3
(c) ( ) means 3 units horizontal displacement to the left and 7 units vertical
7
displacement upward.
−3
(d) ( ) means 3 units horizontal displacement to the left and 7 units vertical
−7
displacement downward.
Magnitude and direction of vector

Let OP be a position vector of point P with respect to origin O. then we can
 𝑥 Y
represent it as OP = (𝑦)

 
The magnitude of OP is denoted by  OP  and
P(x,y)


defined by OP = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 .


a

or, OP = √(𝑥 − component)2 + (𝑦 − component)2

X
O

M

Let OP is a vector such that XOP = θ then θ is


called the direction of OP .
If PM  OX, so, in right angle triangle OPM.
PM 𝑦−Component of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃
tan θ = = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OM 𝑥−Component 𝑂𝑃

218
 𝑦−𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡
 θ = tan-1( )
𝑥−𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡
If P (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and Q (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) be two end points of PQ then its direction is given by
𝑦2 −𝑦1
θ = tan-1( ) and 𝑃𝑄
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗  =√(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 is magnitude of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄.
𝑥2 −𝑥1

Example 2
If A(2, 5) and B(7,10) be two end points of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐀𝐁. Then
i) Write AB
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ in component form.

ii) Find the magnitude of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

AB.
iii) Find the direction of AB
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
Solution
Let, A(2,5) B(7,10) be two end points. Then x1 = 2, x2 =7, y1= 5, y2 =10
Now,
(i) The x- component = x2 – x1 = 7 − 2 = 5
y-component = y2 – y1=10 − 5 = 5
5
 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB = ( )
5
(ii) The magnitude of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2
AB = |AB
=√(7 − 2)2 + (10 − 5)2
= √25 + 25
= √50 = √2 × 25 = 5√2
𝑦2 −𝑦1
(iii) Direction of AB
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is given by tan 𝜃 =
𝑥2 −𝑥1
5
or tan 𝜃 = = 1
5
𝜋𝑐
tan 𝜃 = tan
4
𝜋𝑐
𝜃 =
4

219
Types of Vectors
(i) Column Vector: Let P(x, y) be a point then the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 with O (0,0) and P
𝑥
(x,y) can be expressed as ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 = (𝑦) is called column vector.

(ii) Row vector: The vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑂𝑃 = (x, y) is called row vector.
(iii) Unit vector: Any vector having magnitude one is called a unit vector. i.e. If
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗  =1 then ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 𝑂𝑃 is called a unit vector. For example, (1, 0), (0, 1) etc. are unit
vectors. If 𝑎 = (x, y) be a vector then the unit vector along 𝑎 is denoted by 𝑎̂ (a
𝑎⃗
cap) and given by 𝑎̂ = |𝑎⃗|

Example
If 𝑎 = (3, –4), find unit vector along ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎.
Solution: We have, 𝑎 = (3, –4)
 |𝑎| = √32 + (−4)2 = √9 + 16 = √25 = 5
𝑎⃗ (3, −4) 3 −4
𝑎̂ = |𝑎⃗| = =( , )
5 5 5
3 −4
𝑎̂ = ( , )
5 5

(iv) Null or zero vectors:

A vector whose magnitude is zero is called null vector. e.g. (0, 0) is a zero or
null vector. If the starting and ending point is same then it is called zero
vector.
2−2 0
For example, let A = (2, 3) then ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐴 = ( ) = ( ) is called the zero (null)
3−3 0
vector. It is denoted by O.
Q

(v) Like vectors: If two vectors have the same direction, B

then these two vectors are called like vectors. For

example ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 are like vectors.
(iv) Unlike vectors: If two vectors have the opposite P B
direction, then these two vectors are called unlike A

Q
vectors.
In given figure 𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 are unlike vectors.
A
Note: If we can express two vectors as ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑃𝑄, k  0
𝐴𝐵 = k ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
P
then two vectors are like if k is positive and two vectors

220
 are unlike if k is negative.
If two vectors are like or unlike vector, then they are called parallel vectors.
The collinear vectors are also parallel.
(vii) Equal vector: Two like vector having both magnitude and direction equal
(same) are called equal vectors.
or, if ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = k ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄: and k = 1 then they are equal vectors.
i.e. if ⃗⃗⃗𝑎 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ) and 𝑏⃗ = (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 ) then 𝑎 = 𝑏⃗ if 𝑎1 = 𝑏1 and 𝑎2 = 𝑏2
(viii) Negative of a vector: If 𝑎= (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ) be a vector. B
Then the negative of 𝑎 is denoted by −𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and given
by −𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−𝑎1 , − 𝑎2 ). B

note: The magnitude of ⃗⃗⃗𝑎 is always equal to the A

magnitude of -𝑎, but their direction is taken
opposite. A

The negative of 𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = –𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐵𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
Example 4
Draw directed line segment to represent the following vectors.
(a) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OP = (−5,4) (b) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OQ = (3,4)
(b) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OR = (−2, −3) (d) ⃗⃗⃗⃗
OS = (5, −3)
Solution:
We have the directed line segment are as Y
follows:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−5,4) = (−5)
:OP P
4 Q

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 3
OQ = (3,4) = ( )
4
X’ X
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−2, −3) = (−2)
O
OR
−3
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 5 R S
OS = (5, −3) = ( )
−3

221
 Y

Example 5
From given directed line segment find P
x-component and y-component and Q

then position vector of each point.

(a) P X’
O
X

(b) Q
(c) R R S

(d) S
Solution: Y’
For point P,
x-component = horizontal displacement = –4
y-component = vertical displacement = 5
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (–4, 5) = (−4)
Therefore OP
5
For point Q
x-component = horizontal component = 6
y-component = vertical component = 3
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (6, 3) = (6)
OQ
3
For point R
x-component = horizontal component = –5
y-component = vertical component = –3
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (– 5, – 3) = (−5)
OR
−3
For point S
x-component = 5, y-component = –3
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (5, – 3) = ( 5 )
OS
−3
Example 6
Find magnitude, direction, units vector and negative vector of the following
vectors.
(a) (4, 4) (b) (−𝟐√𝟑, 𝟐)

222
Solution: Here,
(a) We have the given vector is (4, 4)
i.e. a⃗ = (4, 4)
Then magnitude of a⃗ = |a⃗| = √42 + 42 = √16 + 16 = √2 × 16 = 4√2
⃗
a 4 4 1 1
Unit vector along a⃗ = 𝑎̂ = |a⃗| = ( , )=( , )
4√2 4√2 √2 √2
𝑦 4 𝜋𝑐
The direction of a⃗ is 𝜃 = tan -1( ) = tan1( ) = tan -1(1) = 45 =
𝑥 4 4

The negative of a⃗ is −(𝑎) = (−4, −4)

(b) Let ⃗b = (−2√3, 2) then

⃗ | = √(−2√3)2 + 22 = √4 × 3 + 4 = √16 = 4
(c) |b
⃗
b −2√3 2 −√3 1
Unit vector along ⃗b = b̂ = ⃗|
= ( , ) =( , )
|b 4 4 2 2
𝑦
Direction of 𝑏⃗ = 𝜃 = tan-1( )
𝑥
2
= tan -1( )
−2√3
1 5𝜋𝑐
= tan -1(− )= .
√3 6

and negative of ⃗b = −(b

⃗ ) = −(−2√3, 2) = (2√3, −2)
Example 7
Let A(3, 3), B(6, 0), C(3, –3) and D(x, y) be four points in a plane. If ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝐁 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐂𝐃
find the coordinates of point D.
Solution: Here,
AB displaces A(3, 3) to B(6, 0) and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ CD displace (3, –3) to (x, y)
3
Then, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 , 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) = (6 – 3, 0 – 3) = (3, – 3) = ( )
−3
𝑥−3
and CD
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 , 𝑦2 + 𝑦1 ) = (𝑥 − 3, 𝑦 + 3) = ( )
𝑦+3
Since ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
CD

223
 3 𝑥−3
so, ( )= ( )
−3 𝑦+3
or, 𝑥 − 3 = 3 and 𝑦 + 3 = −3
𝑥 = 6 and 𝑦 = −6
D(𝑥, 𝑦) = (6, −6)

Exercise 6.1
1. Draw directed line segment taking origin as a initial point and the
following points as a terminal point in grid paper.
(a) A(4, 7) (b) B(8, –3) (c) C(6, -5)
(d) D(8, 3) (e) L(–5, 8) (d) M(-4, -7)
2. Find the vector represented by the directed line segments joining the
following points.
(a) A(5, 3) and B(7, 4) (b) P(8, –7) and A(5, 4)
( c) M(–6, –8) and O(0, 0) (d) B(7, –1) and C(9, 2)
(e) K(6, 2) and L(5, –2) (f) E(2, 1) and F(1, 2)
Y

P B A
Q
3. Find x-component and y-
component of each directed D
line segments given in
adjoining figure. X’
O
X

R S
C
E

4. Find magnitude, direction and negative vector of each of the vector in

Q.2.

224
5. The position vectors of A and B are given below. Find column vector
of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐀𝐁 in each case and find unit vector along ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐀𝐁 .
(a) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OA = (−3, 4), ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OB = (6, 3) (b)OA
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (3, 5), ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OB = (2, −5)
(b) OA ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (9, 3) (d) OA
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−6, −2) and OB ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (2, 2), OB
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−5, 6)

6. (a) If ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
PQ displaces P (3, 5) to Q (2, 5) and MN displaces M (1, 3) to
N (3, 0) prove that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ MN.
PQ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(b) If AB
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ displaces A(3, 4) to B(4, 7) and XY
⃗⃗⃗⃗ displaces X(6, 3) to Y(5, 0)
prove that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB = −XY
(c) If P(2, 4), Q(6, 3), R(–3, 5) and S(1, 4) are four points, prove that
RS.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
PQ
7. (a) If A(6, 4), B(3, –5), C(2, –2) and D(x, y) be four points such that
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ find coordinates of D.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = CD
AB
(b) If AP displaces A(9, 8) to P(5, 4) and BQ displaces B (8, –1) to the
point Q such that AP ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . Find coordinates of Q.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = BQ
3𝑥 + 2 ⃗ 8
(c) Find value of x and y such that a⃗ = ( ),b = ( )and a⃗ = ⃗b.
6 2𝑦 +2
(d) If point A (3, 1) is displaces to B (1, 4) by ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
PQ displaces P(2,2) to Q
(x, y) and AB = PQ find the value of (x, y).
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

6.2 Operation of vectors

Like as number and algebraic expressions we can operate two vectors. We can
add, subtract and multiply two vectors. Such types of operations are called
vector operation. In this topic we will discuss about the following:
(i) Multiplication of vector by a scalar
(ii) Addition of two vectors.
(iii) Subtraction of two vectors.
(h) Multiplication of a vector by a scalar
𝑥
Let ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
PQ = a⃗ = (𝑦) and k be a scalar quantity than the multiplication of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
PQ =
a⃗ by k is denoted by 𝑘 a⃗ and defined by

225
 𝑥 𝑘𝑥
𝑘 a⃗ = 𝑘 (𝑦) = ( )
𝑘𝑦
𝑦 𝑘𝑦
Since the direction of a is tan -1( )and direction is of ka⃗ is tan -1( )= tan -
𝑥 𝑘𝑥
1 𝑦 .
( )
𝑥

So they have same direction. Hence ka⃗ is parallel to a⃗ i.e 𝑘a⃗ a⃗ and
|𝑎| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
|𝑘𝑎| − √(𝑘𝑥)2 + (𝑘𝑦)2 = √𝑘 2 𝑥 2 + 𝑘 2 𝑦 2
= 𝑘√𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑘 |𝑎|
The magnitude of ka⃗ is k time the magnitude of a⃗.
Example 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ( −𝟒 ), find 3 𝐏𝐐
If 𝐏𝐐 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and show that 𝟑𝐏𝐐
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 3 𝐏𝐐
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
𝟕
Solution: We have,
−4 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 3 (−4) = (−12)
Since, PQ
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ( ) then 3PQ
7 7 21
Now |PQ
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √(−4)2 + 72 = √16 + 49 = √65
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √(−12)2 + (21)2
|3 PQ
= √144 + 441
= √585
= √9 × 65
= 3√65
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
= 3|PQ
|3 PQ
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 3|PQ
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
(ii) Addition of two vectors
𝑎1 𝑏
If 𝑎 = (𝑎 ) and 𝑏⃗ = ( 1 ) be two column vectors then their sum is denoted
2 𝑏2
𝑎1 𝑏 𝑎1 +𝑏1
by 𝑎 +𝑏⃗ and defined by 𝑎 +𝑏⃗ = (𝑎 ) + ( 1 ) = (𝑎 )
2 𝑏2 2 +𝑏2

Hence, two vectors are added by adding their corresponding components.

226
Example 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−𝟑) and 𝐀𝐁
If 𝐏𝐐 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝟕) find 𝐏𝐐
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝐀𝐁
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝟖 𝟑
Solution:
−3 7
We have ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
PQ = ( ) and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB = ( )
8 3
PQ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−3) + (7) = (−3 + 7) = ( 4 )
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + AB
8 3 8+3 11
Triangle law of vector addition B

Let ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OA = 𝑎 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB = ⃗b such that the end point of a⃗ is ⃗b
starting point of ⃗b. Then the vector represented by the ⃗a+b⃗
directed line segment joining the starting point of a⃗ and a⃗
A

terminal point ⃗b is called the sum of a⃗ and ⃗b. This law is a⃗

called the triangle law of vector addition.
O a⃗
OA = 𝑎, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ AB = ⃗b
Then, OA
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + AB
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = OB
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

OB = 𝑎 + 𝑏⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Parallelogram law of vector addition C

If two vectors represent the adjacent sides of a B

parallelogram, then their sum is represented by the 𝑎 + 𝑏⃗

diagonal of the parallelogram leading from the starting 𝑏⃗
A
point of vectors. It is self-evident by triangle law of
𝑎
vector addition. O

Geometric interpretation of Parallelogram law of vector addition

𝑥1 𝑥2
Let ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OA = (𝑦 ) and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OB = (𝑦 ) be two vectors Y C
1 2 B(x2,y2)
represented as the adjacent sides of parallelogram
OACB.
Draw BM  OX, AN OX, CP  OX and AQ 
A(x1,y1)
CP. Then from figure, Q
OM = 𝑥2 , BM = 𝑦2 ON = 𝑥1 , AN = QP = 𝑦1
O M N P

227
In right angled triangles OMB and CAQ
OB = AC, BMO = CQA, BOM = CAQ
OMB ≅CAQ
BM = CQ = 𝑦2 , NP = AQ = OM = 𝑥2
Now, OP = ON + NP = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2
CP = PQ + CQ = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
The coordinates of C is (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 ) and
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 )
OC 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
Example 3
If a⃗ = (2, 3) and ⃗b = (1, −2), then find a⃗ + ⃗b.
Column vectors or
Solution: row vectors are
We have a⃗ = (2, 3), ⃗b = (1, –2) added by adding
their corresponding
Then a⃗ + ⃗b = (2, 3) + (1, –2) components.
2 1 2 +1 3
=( )+( )=( )=( )
3 −2 3 −2 1
(iii) Difference of two vectors
Let OA⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = a⃗ and OB ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗b be two vectors. Then their difference is denoted by
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − OB
OA ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = a⃗ − ⃗b and defined by a⃗ − ⃗b = a⃗ + (−b
⃗)

If OA
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = a⃗ = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ) and

OB = ⃗b = (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 ) then
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ = (−𝑏1 , −𝑏2 )
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −b
− OB
a⃗ − ⃗b = a⃗ + (−b
⃗ ) = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ) + (−𝑏1 , −𝑏2 ) = (𝑎1 − 𝑏1 , 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 )
𝑎1 −𝑏
a⃗ − ⃗b = (𝑎 − 1 )
2 𝑏2

Example 4
7 4
If a⃗ = ( ) and ⃗b = ( ) find a⃗ − ⃗b.
5 2

228
Solution: Here,
7 4 −4
We have a⃗ = ( ) , ⃗b = ( )  − ⃗b = ( )
5 2 −2
Now a⃗ − ⃗b = a⃗ + (−b⃗ ) = (7) + (−4) = (7 − 4) = (3)
5 −2 5−2 3
7 4 7−4 3
Alternatively a⃗ − ⃗b = ( ) − ( ) = ( )=( )
5 2 5−2 3
Unit Vector 𝐢 and 𝐣.
B(0,1)
Let O be the origin OX is positive X-axis and OY is
positive Y-axis then the unit vectors along OX and OY j
respectively are denoted by i and j.
i A(1,0)
For i⃗ , x-component = 1 and y-component = 0 so i = (1,0)
For j, x-component = 0 and y component = 1 so j = (0,1)
for any vector, r = (a, b), we can express (a, b) = 𝑎 𝑖 + b 𝑗 and conversely.
For, r = (a, b) we have i = (1, 0), j = (0, 1) then
𝑎 𝑖 +b 𝑗 = a (1, 0) + b (0, 1)
= (a, 0) + (0, b) = (a + 0, 0 + b) = (a, b)
Conversely, (a, b) = (a + 0, 0 + b) = (a, 0) + (0, b)
= a(1, 0) + b(0, 1)
= 𝑎𝑖 + b𝑗
Example 5
Express 𝑎 = (–3, 7) in terms of i and j.
Solution: Here,
𝑎 = (−3, 7) i.e. a = –3, b = 7
We have,
(a, b) = 𝑎 𝑖 +b 𝑗
(–3, 7) = –3⃗i + 7⃗j
R
Example 6 T

In adjoining figure ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ QR = 𝑏⃗ if O is the mid-

PQ = 𝑎, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
point of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
PR, find ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
PR, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
PO, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
RO and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
QO. O

P Q

229
Solution
Since PQR is a triangle so by triangle law of vector addition
PQ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
PR = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ QR = (𝑎 + 𝑏⃗)
1 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ PR = (𝑎 + 𝑏⃗) ( O is midpoint of PR)
PO = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
2 2
1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗  RO
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = OR
PO ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = − (𝑎 + 𝑏⃗)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −PO
2
Now, QO
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = QP
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + PO
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −PQ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −𝑎 + 1 (𝑎 + 𝑏⃗)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + PO
2
⃗
−2𝑎⃗ + 𝑎⃗+𝑏 ⃗ −𝑎⃗
𝑏 1
= = = (𝑏⃗ − 𝑎)
2 2 2
Example 7
Prove that (4, 3), (6, 4), (5, 6) represent the vertices of isosceles triangle.
Solution: Here, we have,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (4, 3), OB
OA ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (6, 4), OC
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (5, 6)
Now,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OB − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OA = (6, 4) − (4, 3) = (6 − 4, 4 − 3) = (2, 1)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = OC
BC ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − OB
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (5, 6) − (6, 4) = (5, −6, 6 − 4) = (−1, 2)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
CA ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (4, 5) − (5, 6) = (4 − 5, 3 − 6) = (−1, −3)
OA − OC
Now, |AB
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √22 + 12 = √4 + 1 = √5
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √(−1)2 + 22 = √1 + 4 = √5
|BC
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √(−1)2 + (−3)2 = √1 + 9 = √10
|CA
Since |AB ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √5 units, so ∆ABC is an isosceles triangle.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = |BC
Hence A, B, C are vertices of an isosceles triangle.

Exercise 6 .2
𝟑 −𝟓
1. If 𝒂
⃗ = ( ) and 𝐛 = ( ) find:
𝟒 𝟔
(a) ⃗⃗⃗⃗
3a (b) −2a⃗ (c) 4b
⃗ (d) −5b
⃗

(e) ⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
|5a (f) |2b
⃗| (g) 2|a⃗| + |b
⃗|

230
2. Find sum of the following vectors:
(a) a⃗ = (3, 5) and ⃗b = (3, 4) (b) a⃗ = (−3, −4) and ⃗b = (−3, 2)
(c) a⃗ = (5, −7) and ⃗b = (3, 2) (d) a⃗ = (4, 5), ⃗b = (−4, −5)
(e) ⃗p = (−5, 5) and ⃗q = (3 − 2) (f) c = (3, 8) and ⃗b = (3, −2)
𝟐 𝟑
3. If 𝐚⃗ = ( ) and 𝐛 = ( ) then find:
−𝟓 𝟒
(a) 2a⃗ + 3b
⃗ (b) 3a⃗ − 2b
⃗ (c) |2a⃗ + 2b
⃗| (d) a⃗ + ⃗b
(e) a⃗ − ⃗b (f) |a⃗ − ⃗b| (g)|a⃗ + ⃗b|
4. If 𝐚⃗ = (𝐚𝟏 , 𝐚𝟐 ), 𝐛 = (𝐛𝟏 , 𝐛𝟐 ), 𝐜 = (𝐜𝟏 , 𝐜𝟐 ), then verify the following:
(a) a⃗ + ⃗b = ⃗b + a⃗ (b) (a⃗ + ⃗b) + c = a⃗ + (b
⃗ + c)
(c) c + (−c) = 0 (d) 2 (a⃗ + c) = 2a⃗ + 2c
5. (a) Express (–4, 5) in terms of i and j and conversely.
(b) Express 3i + 4j in terms of (x,y) and conversely.
(c) If the position vector of P and Q are 4𝑖 + 6j and 5i + 3j respectively
find ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
PQ. its magnitude and unit vector along PQ.
(d) If the coordinates of P and Q are (4, 3) and (–2,4) then find ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
PQ,
|PQ|, PQ.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂
6. Show that the following sets of points are vertices of a right angled triangle.
(a) (2, 1), (3, 0) and (1, 0) (b) (6, 4), (6, 7) and (2, 4)
(c) (–2, 5), (3, -4) and 7, 10)
7. Show the following sets of points are vertices of an isosceles triangle.
(a) (2, 3) (2, 0) and (–1, 0) (b) (0, 4), (3, –3) and (–3, 3)
(c) (5, 5), (5, 0) and (0, 0) (d) (2, 0), (–1, 0) and (–3, 3)
8. (a) If PQRST be a regular pentagon then show that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
PQ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
QR + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
RS + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
ST
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= PT
(b) If ABCDEF be a hexagon. Prove that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
BC + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
CD + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
DE + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
EF +
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0
FA

231
 T R

(c) In adjoining figure, prove that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

PQ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
QR + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
RS +
S
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = PT
ST ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

P Q

R
(d) In adjoining figure ABCD is a quadrilateral T
with diagonal AC and BD intersecting at O. If
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = a⃗, OB
OA ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗b, OC
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = c and OD ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗d. Find O
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB BC, CD⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and DA ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ in terms of a, b, c and d
and prove that AB ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + BC ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + CD
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = AD ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . P Q

232
 Unit 7
Transformation

7.0 Review
What is transformation? How many types of transformation are there? What
are they?
What is reflection? Tell some examples of reflection that are used in our daily
life activities.
Which transformations have similar or congruent images with their objects?
What are the coordinates of the images of P(x, y) under reflection on the lines
x = 0, y = 0, x = y and y = – x?
What are the coordinates of the images of P(x, y) when rotated about the
origin through the angles 90, 180 and 270 separately?
7.1 Transformation and its types
(i) When you look mirror, where does the image form?
(ii) If you go to school, it takes 15 minutes from your home. In this time
period, at what angle does the minute hand move?
(iii) When you drag a book on the bench from one edge to another edge, what
do you see?
(iv) When any object is place in the front of a round mirror, where does its
image form?
A change in position or size of an object is called its transformation. The
position or size of the object after transformation is called its image.
There are mainly two types of transformation. They are:
(i) Isometric Transformation (ii) Non-isometric Transformation
Isometric Transformation: A transformation, in which the object and its
image are congruent, is called isometric transformation. Furthermore, the
isometric transformations are classify into three types: reflection, rotation and
translation.
Non-isometric Transformation: A transformation, in which the object and
its image are similar, is called non-isometric transformation.

233
7.1 Reflection
A reflection is a transformation in which
a geometric figure is reflected across a line,
called the reflecting axis and the perpendicular
distance from the axis to the object and its image
are the same. For example, in the adjoining
figure, Q is the image of a point P in the
reflecting axis AB and PO = QO when drawing
PQAB by using compass.

Properties of reflection Y Q
The properties of reflection are: A
B
(i) Points on mirror line are invariant. In the R
figure C is invariant point. A'
C
(ii) A reflection preserves lengths of segments. C'
S
In the adjoining reflection of ABC on the X' O X
line PQ, AR = A'R and BS = B'S. B'
(iii) Object and image are reverse to each P Y'
other. In the figure, ABC and A'B'C' are
reverse to each other.
(iv) Object and image under the reflection are congruent. In the figure,
ABC ≅A'B'C'.
(v) Lines perpendicular to the mirror lines are invariant but points on them are not
invariant. In the figure, AA'PQ, BB'PQ and BB'PQ.
Example 1
Reflect ABC in the given reflecting line l:
Solution: Here, B

Steps of reflection: A C l
R
i) From A, draw AP  l and taking AP = A'P , produce to A' P
Q
C'
ii) From B, draw BQ  l and produce to B', taking BQ = B'Q A'
iii) From C, draw CR  l and produce to C' , taking CR = C'R B'

iv) Join A' B' C'

Hence  A' B' C' is the image of ABC after reflecting line l.

234
Reflection in cartesian plane
(i) Reflection in the X-axis or the line y = 0
. Y
B' (-2,3) A.(3,3)
Discuss the reflection in the X-axis or the line
y = 0 in the given adjoining graph.
X' D
In the graph, the coordinates of A' is (3, –3). O C X

.
𝑅𝑒; 𝑥−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
i.e., A(3, 3) → A'(3, –3).
B(-2,-3) Y'
.
A' (3,-3)
Similarly, the image of B(–2, –3) under the
reflection on x-axis is B'(–2, 3). i.e.,
𝑅𝑒; 𝑥−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
B(-2, -3) → B'(–2, 3).

.
Hence, the image of any point under the reflection Y
(x, y)
in X-axis is obtained by changing the sign of the y-
coordinate of the given point.
.
X' X
O
 The image of the point (x, y) under the reflection
in X-axis is the point (x, –y). (x, -y)
Y'
𝑹𝒆; 𝒙−𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔
i.e., (x, y) → (x, – y)
(ii) Reflection in the Y-axis or the line x = 0 A' .(-2,3) Y A.(2,3)
C
Discuss the reflection in the y-axis or the line x = 0
in the given adjoining graph. X' X
O
In the graph, the coordinate of A' is (2, 3). .
B(-3,-2) D
.
B' (3,-2)
𝑹𝒆; 𝒚−𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔
i.e., A(2, 3) → A'(–2, 3). Y'
Similarly, the image of B(-3, -2) under the
𝑹𝒆; 𝒚−𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔
reflection in y-axis is B'(3, –2). i.e., B(–3, –2) → B'(3, –2)
Hence, the image of any point under the reflection
in Y-axis is obtained by changing the sign of the x-
coordinate of the given point. .
(x, -y)
Y
.
(x, y)

The image of the point (x, y) under the reflection X' O X

in Y-axis is the point (–x, y).
𝑹𝒆; 𝒚−𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 Y'
i.e., (x, y) → (–x, y)

235
(iii) Reflection in the line y = x or the line y – x = 0
Discuss the reflection in the line y = x or the line .
YA'(1,3) M
y – x = 0 in the given adjoining graph. C
.
A(3,1)
In the graph, the coordinates of A' is (1, 5). X' X
. O
B(-2,-1)
D
.
𝑹𝒆; 𝒚 = 𝒙
i.e., A(5, 1) → A'(1,5)
B(-1,-2) B'
Similarly, the image of B(–3, –1) under N y=x
Y'
reflection in the line y = x is B'(–1, –3).
𝑹𝒆; 𝒚 = 𝒙
i.e., B(–3, –1) → (–1, –3).
Hence, the image of any point under the reflection
.
Y (x,y)
in the line y = x is obtained by interchanging the
x-coordinate and y-coordinate of the given point.
X' O
. (y,x)
X

 The image of the point (x, y) under the reflection in

Y'
the line y = x or x – y = 0 is the point (y, x).
𝑹𝒆; 𝒚 = 𝒙
i.e., (x, y) → (y, x)
(iv) Reflection in the line y = – x or the line y + x = 0 M . Y
B'(-1,3)

Discuss the reflection in the line y = – x or the line y D

+ x = 0 in the given adjoining graph.
. .
A(3,1)
B(-3,1)
O X
X'
In the graph, the coordinates of A' is (–1, –3).
C
i.e., A(3, 1) →
𝑹𝒆; 𝒚 = – 𝒙
A'(–1, –3). . y=-x
A'(-1,-3) Y' N
Similarly, the coordinates of the point B(–3, 1) under
the reflection in the line y = – x is B'(–1, 3).
Y
.
𝑹𝒆; 𝒚 = – 𝒙
i.e., B(–3, 1) → B'(–1, 3).
(x,y)
Hence, the image of any point under the reflection in
the line y = –x is obtained by interchanging the
x-coordinate and y-coordinate with opposite signs
X' .
(-y,-x) O
X

of the given point.

Y'
 The image of the point (x, y) under the reflection
in the line y = – x or x + y = 0 is the point (–y, –x).
𝑹𝒆; 𝒚 = – 𝒙
i.e., (x, y) → (–y, –x)

236
(v) Reflection in the line x = a or x – a = 0
(Parallel to y-axis)
Y
Discuss the reflection in the line x = a or the line
x – a = 0 in the given adjoining graph.
A(1, 2)
. . 2)
A(3,

x=2
In the graph, the coordinates of the point A(1, 2) X'
O X
under the reflection in the line x = 2 is A'(3, 2).
𝑹𝒆; 𝒙 = 𝟐 B(–1, –2)
. .
i.e., A(1, 3) → A'(3, 2) = A'(2 × 2 –1, 2). B'(5,–2)

Similarly, the coordinates of the point B(–1, –2) Y'

under the reflection in the line x = 2 is B'(5, –2).
𝑹𝒆; 𝒙 = 𝟐
i.e., B(–1, –2) → B'(5, –2) = B'(2 × 2 – (–1), –2). Y
Hence, the image of any point under the reflection in
the line x = a is obtained by changing the x-coordinate
. .
(2a–x, y)
(x, y)
of the given point by (2a – x). X' X
O

x=a
 The image of the point (x, y) under the reflection in
the line x = a or x – a = 0 is the point (2a – x, y). Y'
𝑅𝑒; 𝑥 = 𝑎
i.e., (x, y) → (2a – x, y)
(vi) Reflection in the line y = b or y – b = 0 (Parallel
to x-axis)
B'(–1, 4). Y
Discuss the reflection in the line y = b or the line
y – b = 0 in the given adjoining graph. .
A(1, 2)

In the graph, the coordinates of the point A(1, 2)

under the reflection in the line y = 1 is A'(1, 0). X'
y=1 . X
O A'(1, 0)
𝑹𝒆; 𝒚 = 𝟏
i.e., A(1, 2) → A'(1, 0) = A'(1, (2 × 1 –2)). B(–1, –2)
.
Similarly, the coordinates of the point B(–1, –2) Y'
under the reflection in the line y = 1 is B'(–1, 4).
𝑹𝒆; 𝒚 = 𝟏
i.e., B(–1, –2) → B'(–1, 4) = B'(–1, (2 × 1 –(–2)).

.(x, 2b–y)
Y
Hence, the image of any point under the reflection in
the line y = b is obtained by changing the y-coordinate
of the given point by (2b – y).
X'
y=b .(x, y) X
O

Y'

237
  The image of the point (x, y) under the reflection in the line y = b or y – b =
0 is the point (x, 2b – y).
𝑅𝑒; 𝑦 = 𝑏
i.e., (x, y) → (x, 2b – y)
Rules of Reflection in the given reflection axis summarized below:

SN Object Axis of Reflection Image

1. P(x, y) x-axis or y = 0 P'(x, -y)



2. P(x, y) y-axis or x = 0 P'(-x, y)



3. P(x, y) y = x or x – y = 0 P'(y, x)


4. P(x, y) y = - x or x + y = 0 P'(-y, -x)



5. P(x, y) x = a or x – a = 0 P'(2a – x, y)


6. P(x, y) y = b or y – b = 0 P'(x, 2b – y)


Example 2
Find the coordinates of image of a point (4, –2) under the reflection in x-axis.
Solution: Here,
The given point is (4, –2)
Now, we have
𝑅𝑒, 𝑥−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
(x, y) → (x, –y)
x−axis
 (4, –2) → (4, 2)
Hence, the required coordinates of the image of the given point (4, –2) under the
reflection in x-axis is (4, 2).
Example 3
The image of A(3p + 1, 3 – q) under the reflection in the line y = x is
A'(q + 1, p + 5). Find the values of p and q.
Solution: Here,

238
We have, reflecting A(3p + 1, 3 – q) in the line y = x,
𝑅𝑒; 𝑥=𝑦
A(3p + 1, 3 – q) → A'(3 – q, 3p + 1)
𝑅𝑒; 𝑥=𝑦
Since A(3p + 1, 3 – q) → A'(q + 1, p + 5),
so (3 – q, 3p + 1) = (q + 1, p + 5)
 3 – q = q + 1 and 3p + 1 = p + 5
or, 3 – 1 = q + q and 3p – p = 5 – 1
or, 2 = 2q and 2p = 4
or, q = 1 and p = 2.
Example 4
Find the reflecting axis in which the point A(–4, –4) reflects into A'(4, – 4).
Solution
Since the axis reflects the point A(– 4, – 4) to A'(4, – 4). So, the midpoint of AA'
– 4 + 4 – 4− 4
is ( , ) = (0, – 4).
2 2

Hence, these points have the same y-component –4 and x-component 0. So, the
equation of the axis of reflection is x = 0 or y-axis.
Example 5
Reflect ∆PQR having the vertices P(–2, 3), Q(0, 1) and R(3, 2) in the line x – y =
0 and then write the coordinates of the vertices of the image ∆P'Q'R'. Represent
the above reflection on the same graph.
Solution: Here,
Given, the vertices of ∆PQR are P(–2, 3), Q(0, 1) and R(3, 2).
Now, we have
𝑅𝑒; 𝑥−𝑦=0
(x, y) → (y, x) Y

so, the coordinates of the vertices of the image

.
P(-2,3) .
R'(2,3)

∆P'Q'R' are
. R(3,2)
Q(0,1) .
P(–2, 3) →
𝑅𝑒; 𝑥−𝑦=0
P'(3, –2) . X
O Q'
(1,0)
Q(0, 1) →
𝑅𝑒; 𝑥−𝑦=0
Q'(1, 0) x-y = 0 .
P'(3,-2)
𝑅𝑒; 𝑥−𝑦=0
R(3, 2) → R'(2, 3)

239
Hence, the coordinates of the vertices of the image ∆P'Q'R'
are P'(–3, 2), Q'(1, 0) and R'(2, 3).
The reflection of triangle PQR and its image are given in adjoining graph.

Exercise 7.1
1. Answer of the following questions in single sentence:
(a) What is transformation?
(b) Name the types of transformation.
(c) What are the types of isometric transformation? Write them.
(d) Define reflection.
(e) Write any one property of reflection.
(f) What will be the coordinates of the image of a point A(a, b) when it is
reflected on the line x = 0?
3. Reflect the following figures in the given reflecting line l:
K
(a) B
(b) Q
(c)
l l L M l
A P
P
A B B
Q S C A
D R D F
C R G
(d) (e) (f) l
l l E

4. Find the coordinates of the image of a point (4, –2) under the following
reflecting axes:
(a) x-axis (b) line x = 0 (c) line y = x
(d) line x + y = 0 (e) line x = 3 (f) line y – 2 = 0
5. Find the coordinates of the image of the following points after reflection
in y-axis:
(a) (2, 3) (b) (–1, 4) (c) (5, –6)
6. Find the coordinates of the image of the following points after reflection
in x = y:
(a) (–3, –5) (b) (0, –1) (c) (–6, 0)

240
7. Find the coordinates of the image of the line segment joining the
following points when reflect in the line x + 2 = 0:
(a) (3, –5) and (1, 2) (b) (2, –1) and (0, 2) (c) (2, 0) and (–2, – 4)
8. (a) If A'(1, 3) is the image of the point A under reflection in x-axis, find the
coordinates of the point A.
(b) Find the coordinates of the point P which reflects into P'(–5, 7) in the
line x = 0.
9. (a) If P'(3a, – 3) is the image of the point P(7, b – 5) under the reflection in
the line x = 0, find the values of a and b.
(b) If the image of P(2p – q, 5) is P'(2, p + q) under the reflection on the
line y – x = 0, find the values of p and q.
10. (a) Find the reflecting axis when the point A(–2, –1) reflects into A'(–2, 1).
(b) Find the reflecting axis when the point A(3, –2) reflects into A'(–2, 3).
11. (a) Reflect the vertices of ∆ABC having the vertices A(1, 2), B(0, –2) and
C(2, 3) in the line y = 0 and then write the coordinates of the image
∆A'B'C'. Represent the above reflection on the same graph.
(b) Reflect the vertices of ∆KMN having the vertices K(1, 2), M(0, –2) and
N(2, 3) in the line y = – x in the same graph and then write the
coordinates of the image ∆K'M'N'.
12. (a) Find the coordinates of the vertices of the image of a quadrilateral
PQRS with the vertices P(–1, 3), Q(–2, 5), R(–4, 1) and S(–5, 4) under
the reflection in the line x = – 1. Draw this reflection on the graph.
(b) The points P(–2, 3), A(0, 2), R(2, 3) and L(0, 4) are the vertices of the
parallelogram PARL. Reflect the vertices of the parallelogram PARL in
the line y + 3 = 0 by using graph and write down the coordinates of the
vertices of the image parallelogram P'A'R'L'.

241
7.2 Rotation
A transformation in which each point of an object moves about a fixed point
through an angle at constant distance and in the given direction is called a
rotation.
In the figure, PQR moves itself through an
angle  about a fixed point O at the same
distance OP = OP', OQ = OQ' and OR = OR'
and its final image P'Q'R' is also same as the
initial object PQR. The fixed point is called
centre and the angle is called the angle of
rotation. The distance of the object from the
centre is always equal. This constant distance is
called the radius of rotation.
Properties of Rotation
The properties of rotation are:
(i) Centre of rotation is an invariant point. In
the adjoining rotation of AOB, O is an
invariant point.
(ii) Each point of object and image lie
equidistant from the centre of rotation. In
the adjoining rotation of ABC with centre
O, OA = OA' and OB = OB'.
(iii) Object and image under rotation are congruent i.e. AOB  A'OB'.
(iv) The perpendicular bisector of the segment joining any point and its image
passes through the centre of rotation.
Example 1 A

.
Rotate the adjoining triangle ABC through 90 about the given
point O in anticlockwise direction. O B C
Solution: Here,
To rotate the given triangle ABC through 90
about the point O in anticlockwise direction:
(i) Join OA by dotted line.
(ii) Draw an arc or circle taking O as centre and
OA as radius as shown in figure.

242
(iii) At O make an angle of 90° with compass or protractor in anticlockwise
direction.
(iv) Join OA' by dotted line to meet the arc and circle at A'.
(v) Similarly, find the images B' and C' of points B and C.
(vi) Join A', B' and C'.
Hence, triangle A'B'C' be the image of triangle ABC under the rotation through an
angle of 90° about centre O in anticlockwise direction.

Rotation in Cartesian Plane

.
A' (-2,4)
(i) Rotation through 90 about origin Y

Discuss the rotation about origin in anticlockwise .A

+90o (4, 2)
direction in the given adjoining graph.
X' X
O
In the graph, the points A(4, 2) and B(–3, –2) are B. +90o
rotated about the centre O(0, 0) through 90 in (-3,-2) .B'(2,-3)
anticlockwise direction (i.e. O; +90). We obtain the Y'
images A'(–2, 4) and B'(2, –3) respectively.
𝑹[𝑶; +𝟗𝟎° ] 𝑹[𝑶; +𝟗𝟎° ]
i.e. A(4, 2) → A'(–2, 4) and B(–3, –2) → B'(2, –3)
Hence, while rotating any point (x, y) through +90 about the origin, the
position of x and y coordinates are interchanged and also sign changed in the
x-coordinate of image only.
𝑹[𝑶; +𝟗𝟎° ]
Y
.
.
i.e., (x, y) → (–y, x) (x, y)
(-y, x)
This type of rotation is called positive quarter turn. +90o
X' X
Again, rotation of the point (x, y) through 270 in O -270o
clockwise direction about origin is same as the
rotation through +90 about the origin. Y'

i.e. their images are same.

R[O; −270 ]
Y
 (x, y) → (–y, x).
.A(3,2)
(ii) Rotation through 180 about origin
180o
In the adjoining graph, the point A(3, 2) is rotated X' X

.
O
about the origin through 180 in anticlockwise
A'(-3,-2)

Y'
243
 direction (i.e., +180). We obtain the image A'(–3, –2).
R[O; +180° ]
i.e., A(3, 2) → A'(–3, –2)
This shows that, while rotating any point (x, y)
through an angle of +180 about the origin the
coordinates remain the same with sign changed in
Y
. (x, y)
the coordinates of image.
X'
+180o . X
R[O; +180° ] O
i.e., (x, y) → (–x, –y) -180o

This type of rotation is called half turn about the

origin.
(-x, -y) . Y'

Again, rotation of the point (x, y) through an angle of 180° about the origin in
clockwise direction same as the rotation through 180 about the origin. That is
their images are same.
R[O; −180° ]
So, (x, y) → (-x, -y).
(iii) Rotation through 270 about origin Y
A.(3,2)
In the adjoining graph, the point A(3, 2) is rotated
about the origin through 270 in anticlockwise
direction (i.e. O; +270). We obtain the image X' -90o
X
A'(2, –3). +270o O

i.e., A(3, 2) →
𝑹[𝑶; +𝟐𝟕𝟎° ]
A'(2, –3) .
A' (2,-3)
This shows that, while rotating any point through Y'
an angle of +270 about the origin, the coordinates
Y
change the position with sign changed in y-coordinate (x, y)
of image.
R[O; +270° ] -90o
i.e., (x, y) → (y, -x)
Again, rotation of the point (x, y) through 90° in
X' O
+270o . X
(y,-x)
clockwise direction about origin (negative quarter Y'
turn) is same as the rotation through +270° about
R[O; −90° ]
origin. i.e there images are same. So, (x, y) → (y, -x)
Note: When a point is rotated through 360 about the any point, it remains
unchanged. This is called full turn.

244
(iv) Rotation through + 90 about a point (a, b)

.
Y Y'
Let P(x, y) be a point and C(a, b) is the centre of
P'(– y + b + a, x – a + b)
rotation. Draw new axes as X1CX1' and Y1CY1' with

.
the origin as C(a, b). Then the coordinates of P will be
(x – a, y – b) with respect to the origin C(a, b). Now, P(x – a, y – b)
rotate P(x – a, y – b) through 90° about the origin as X1 ' X'
C(a, b), we get C(a, b)
X' O X
R[O; +90° ]
P(x – a, y – b) → P'(– y + b, x – a) Y' Y1'

Again, the coordinates of P' with respect to the actual

origin O(0, 0) will be (– y + b + a, x – a + b). Hence,
the coordinates of the image of the point P(x, y) under
the rotation through +90° about the centre C(a, b) are
P'(– y + a + b, x – a + b).
(v) Rotation through – 90 about a point (a, b) Y Y1
Let P(x, y) be a point and C(a, b) is the centre of
rotation. Draw new axes as X1CX1' and Y1CY1' with X1'
C(a, b) .
P(x – a, y – b)
X1
the origin as C(a, b). Then the coordinates of P will be
(x – a, y – b) with respect to the origin C(a, b). Now, X' X
O
rotate P(x – a, y – b) through – 90° about the origin as
C(a, b), we get
R[O; – 90° ]
P'(y + a – b, – x + a + b)
P(x – a, y – b) → P'(y – b, – x + a) Y' Y1'

Again, the coordinates of P' with respect to the

actual origin O(0, 0) will be (y + a – b, – x + a +
b). Hence, the coordinates of the image of the
point P(x, y) under the rotation through – 90°
about the centre C(a, b) are P'(y + a – b, – x + a +

.
b). Y Y1'
P(x – a, y – b)
(vi) Rotation through 180 about a point (a, b)
Let P(x, y) be a point and C(a, b) is the centre of
rotation. Draw new axes as X1CX1' and Y1CY1'
with the origin as C(a, b). Then the coordinates of X1 ' X
C(a, b)
P will be (x – a, y – b) with respect to the origin X' O X
C(a, b). Now, rotate P(x – a, y – b) through 180°
about the origin as C(a, b), we get
R[O; 180° ]
.P'(– x + 2a, – y + 2b)
Y' Y1'
P(x – a, y – b) → P'(– x + a, – y + b)

245
 Again, the coordinates of P' with respect to the actual origin O(0, 0) will be
(– x + a + a, – y + b + b) = (– x + 2a, – y + 2b).
Hence, the coordinates of the image of the point P(x, y) under the rotation
through 180° about the centre C(a, b) are P'(– x + 2a, – y + 2b).
Rules of Rotation in Cartesian Plane

SN Object Centre of Angle of Image

rotation rotation

1. P(x, y) (0, 0) + 90° or – 270° P'(– y, x)



2. P(x, y) (0, 0) – 90° or + 270° P'(y, – x)



3. P(x, y) (0, 0) ± 180° P'(– x, – y)



4. P(x, y) (a, b) + 90° or – 270° P'(– y + a + b, x – a +


b)

5. P(x, y) (a, b) – 90° or + 270° P'(y + a – b, – x + a +


b)

6. P(x, y) (a, b) ± 180° P'(2a – x, 2b – y)



Example 2
Find the image of the point (– 2, 4) under the rotation of negative quarter turn
about the origin.
Solution: Here,
Rotating a point (– 2, 4) under negative quarter turn
about the origin, we have
𝑹[𝑶; −𝟗𝟎° ]
(x, y) → (y,–x) O
. +90o

𝑹[𝑶; −𝟗𝟎° ]
 (– 2, 4) → (4, 2)
Hence, the image of a point (– 2, 4) under R[O; -90o] is (4, 2).

246
Example 3
If the image of a point (3a, b + 1) is (– 3, – 1) under the rotation through 180o
about the origin, find the values of a and b.
Solution: Here,
We have, the image of a point (3a, b + 1) is (– 3a, – b – 1) under the rotation 180o
about the origin.
R[O; 180]
But, by given, (3a, b + 1) → (– 3, – 1)
 (– 3a, – b – 1) = (– 3, – 1)
i.e., – 3a = – 3 and – b – 1 = – 1
or, a = 1 and b = 0.
Example 4
If the image of the point (1, –3) is (–3, –1) under the rotation about the origin, find
the angle and direction of the rotation.
Solution: Here,
The image of a point (1, –3) is (–3, –1) under the rotation about the origin, in
which the coordinates are interchanged and sign changed in y-coordinate only.
This rotation is performed in the case of rotation through 270 in anti-clockwise
direction (or 90 in clockwise direction) about the origin.
Example 5
A rectangle RECT has the vertices R(3, 0), E(6, 3), C(4, 5) and T(1, 2). Rotate the
vertices of the rectangle RECT and write down the coordinates of the vertices of
the image RECT when rotating through +90o about the origin. Represent the
above transformation on the same graph.
Solution: Here,
The vertices of a rectangle RECT are R(3, 0), E(6, 3), C(4, 5) and T(1, 2).
Now, rotating the vertices of RECT about the origin through +90o, we have
R[O; +90° ]
(x, y) → (–y, x)
R[O; +90° ]
 R(3, 0) → R'(0, 3)
R[O; +90° ]
E(6, 3) → E'(–3, 6)

247
 R[O; +90° ]
C(4, 5) → C'(–5, 4)
R[O; +90° ]
T(1, 2) → T'(–2, 1)
Hence, the coordinates of the vertices of the image
R'E'C'T' are R'(0, 3), E'(–3, 6), C'(–5, 4) and T'(–2, 1).
Representing the above transformation on the same graph;
E' Y

.
C
C'
R' E
T
+90o
X' T' X
O R

Y'

Example 6
Find the image of the point (– 2, 4) under the rotation of negative quarter turn about
the center (1, 2).
Solution: Here,
Rotating a point (– 2, 4) under negative quarter turn about the center (1, 2), we have
𝑅[(𝑎,𝑏); −90° ]
(x, y) → (y + a – b, – x + a + b)
𝑅[𝑂; −90° ]
 (– 2, 4) → (4 + 1 – 2, – (– 2) + 1 + 2) = (3, 5)
Hence, the image of a point (– 2, 4) under R[(1, 2); – 90o] is (3, 5).

Exercise 7.2
1. Define the following terms:
(a) Rotation (b) Half-turn (c) Full Turn
(d) Positive Quarter Turn (e) Negative Quarter Turn
2. (a) Write the co-ordinates of the image of a point K(a, b) when it is rotated
around the origin through 90° in anti-clockwise direction.
(b) Write down the images of the points P(a, b) and Q(c, d) when they are
rotated through 270° in anti-clockwise direction about the centre (0, 0).

248
 (c) What is the image of a point P(p, q) when it is rotated through 180°
about the point (a, b) in clockwise direction?
3. Rotate the following figures about the given point though the following
instructions: P

(a) B (b) (c)

Q R K
A ●
O
● ●
O
O L M

R[O; +90] R[O; – 90] R[O; 180]

(d) ●
O (e) I
(f)
● K P
O
A B
Q S
D T E ●
C O R R
R[O; +270] R[O; – 270] R[O; – 180]
4. Find the coordinates of the image of a point (3, –1) under the following
rotations:
(a) R[O; + 90] (b) R[O; 180] (c) R[O; + 270]
(d) R[O; – 270] (e) R[O; – 180] (f) R[O; – 90]
5. Find the coordinates of the image of the following points under the
positive quarter turn about the origin:
(a) (4, 6) (b) (2, 4) (c) (–5, –6)
6. Find the coordinates of the image of the following points under the
negative quarter turn about the origin:
(a) (3, –5) (b) (– 5, 0) (c) (0, –4)
7. Find the coordinates of the image of the line segment joining the
following points under the half turn about the origin:
(a) (3, –5) and (1, 2) (b) (2, –1) and (0, 2) (c) (2, 0) and (–2, – 4)
8. (a) If P'(–5, 4) is the image of the point P under the rotation about the origin
through – 90, find the coordinates of the point A.
(b) Find the coordinates of the point A which rotates into A'(–5, 7) under
the rotation about the origin through + 90.

249
9. (a) If P'(3a, b – 3) is the image of the point P(a + 2, 6) under the half turn
about the origin, find the values of a and b.
(b) If the image of P(p – q, 5) is P'(2, p + q) under the negative quarter turn
about the origin, find the values of p and q.
10. (a) Find the reflecting axis when the point A(2, –1) reflects into A'(–1, –2).
(b) Find the reflecting axis when the point P(3, –2) reflects into P'(–3, 2).
11. (a) Rotate ∆PQR having the vertices P(1, 3), Q(0, –4) and R(2, 2) under the
rotation about the origin through 90 in clockwise direction and then
write the coordinates of the vertices of the image ∆P'Q'R'. Represent the
above reflection on the same graph.
(b) Rotate ∆ABC having the vertices A(3, 2), B(1, –2) and C(0, 3) under
the rotation about the origin through 270 in clockwise direction on the
same graph and then write the coordinates of the image ∆A'B'C'.
12. (a) Find the coordinates of the vertices of the image of a quadrilateral
PQRS with the vertices P(–1, 3), Q(–2, 5), R(–4, 1) and S(–5, 4) under
the negative half turn about the origin. Draw this rotation on the
graph.
(b) The points C(–2, 0), D(–3, 2), E(1, 3) and F(3, 4) are the vertices of the
parallelogram CDEF. Rotate the vertices of the parallelogram CDEF
under the positive three-quarter turn about the origin by using graph and
write down the coordinates of the vertices of the image parallelogram
C'D'E'F'.

250
7.3 Translation
A transformation which maps an object to its images under the given vector is
called a translation.
In the figure, the point P is translated to its image
P' along AB
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . The vector AB
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ on which the object
moves into its image in the translation, is called the
translation vector and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
PP′, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB//PP′
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .

Properties of Translation Y
The properties of translation are:
B.
(i) The object and image are under translation are .B'
congruent. In the figure AOB  A'B'C'T . X
(ii) Translation displaces each point in same distance and
O . .A
𝟐
( )
−𝟏
O' .
direction. A'

(iii) Translation is a direct isometric transformation

Translation in Cartesian Plane
Discuss the translation by given vector in the
given adjoining graph.
Y 4
P. .Q
( )
In the graph, the point A(2, 3) moves to A'(6, 3) 0
.
S
A.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ with column vector (4), which
by the vector PQ .A'
0 0
( ) .
B'(-2,2) (2,3) (6,3)
.
3
is moved 4 units right only. Similarly, the point
R
B(–2, –1) moves to B'(–2, 2) by the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗ RS X'
. O −4
( ) .U X
0 B(-2,-1) −2
with column vector ( ), which is moved 3 units . .C(3,-3)
3 V
upward only. Again, the point .
C(3, –3) moves to C'(–1, –5) by the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗UV C'(-1,-5)
−4 Y'
with the column vector ( ) which is moved 4
−2
units left and 2 units down.
Hence,
4
( )
0
A(2, 3) → A'(6, 3) = A'(2 + 4, 3 + 0).

251
 0
( )
3
B(–2, –1) → B'(–2, 2) = B'(–2 + 0, –1 + 3).
−4
( )
−2
C(3, –3) → C'(–1, –5) = C'(3 – 4, –3 – 2).
Hence, the coordinates of the image of any point (x, y) under the translation by
𝑎
vector ( ) is (x + a, y + b).
𝑏
𝑎
( )
𝑏
i.e., (x, y) → (x + a, y + b).
𝑎
Note: If (x', y') is the image of (x, y) by the translation vector T = ( ) then
𝑏
𝑎 𝑥′ − 𝑥
T=( )=( ′ ).
𝑏 𝑦 −𝑦
Example 1
−4
Translate the point P(3, – 4) by the translation vector ( ). Write the coordinate
3
of its image.
Solution:
−4
Here, translating the point A(3, – 4) by ( ), we get
3
−4 a
𝐓( ) 𝐓( )
3 b
A(3, – 4) → A'(3 – 4, – 4 + 3) [ (x, y) → (x + a, y + b)]
= A'(– 1, – 1).
Hence, the coordinates of the image of the point A(3, – 4) is A'(– 1, – 1).
Example 2
If (4, 2b + 1) is the image of a point (a + 1, 2) by the translation vector (13), find the
values of a and b.
Solution: Here,
(4, 2b + 1) is the image of point (a + 1, 2).
Now, the image of point (a + 1, 2) by the translation vector (13) is
1
𝐓( )
3
(a + 1, 2) → (a + 1 + 1, 2 + 3) = (a + 2, 5)
By question, (4, 2b + 1) is the image of (a + 1, 2) by translation vector (13).
So, (4, 2b + 1) = (a + 2, 5)

252
or, 4 = a + 2 and 2b + 1 = 5
 a = 2 and b = 2
Example 3
If the image of the point P(3, 2) is P'(–5, 1) under the translation, find the image of
the point B(4, –2) under the same translation.
Solution: Here,
a
Let ( ) be a translation vector for the given translation then,
b
a
the image of the point P(3, 2) by ( ) is P' (3 + a, 2 + b).
b
But by question, the image of P(3, 2) is P'(– 5, 1).
 (3 + a, 2 + b) = (– 5, 1)
So, 3 + a = – 5 and 2 + b = 1
or, a = – 8 and b = – 1.
Hence, the translation vector is (−8
−1
).

Now, the image of the point B(4, –2) by the translation vector (−8
−1
) is

−8
𝐓( )
−1
B(4, –2) → B'(4 – 8, –2 – 1) = B'(–4, –3)
Example 4
Plot ∆KLM with the vertices K(1, 2), L(5, 1) and M(3, 4) on the graph paper and
find the coordinates of the vertices of the image ∆K'L'M' of ∆KLM by the
translation vector T = (−1
2
).

Solution
Plot the vertices K(1, 2), L(5, 1) and M(3, 4) of ∆ABC on the graph paper.
Now, translating these vertices under the translation vector T = ( 2 ).
−1
We obtain the following images: Y
(x, y) → (x + a, y + b)
C .
 K(1, 2) → K'(1 + 2, 2 - 1) = K'(3, 1) .C'
L(5, 1) → L'(5 + 2, 1 - 1) = L'(7, 0) .
A
. .B
M(3, 4) →M'(3 + 2, 4 - 1) = M'(5, 3) A' . X
O 𝟐
( )
. B'
−𝟏

253
 Again, the image ∆A'B'C' is drawn on the same graph paper given alongside.

Exercise 7.3
1. Answer the following questions in single sentence:
(a) What is translation?
(b) Write any one property of translation.
c
(c)What is the image of a point T(p, q) under translation by the vector ( )?
d
2. Draw the image of the following figures by the given translating vectors:
(a) (b) (c)
⃗
p
⃗
b
r

3. Translate the following points by the given translating vector:

2 −3 0
(a) A(4, –2) by ( ) (b) B(0, 4) by ( ) (c) C(–2, 4) by ( )
3 −1 −3
4. (a) If (a, 2) is the image of the point (1, b + 3) by the translation vector
2
( ), find the values of a and b.
3
(b) If (2p + 2, 4) is the image of the point (4, 3q + 1) by the translation
4
vector ( ), find the values of p and q.
6
4. (a) If the image of the point (–2, 1) is (3, 3) by certain translation vector,
find the translating vector.
(b) If the image of the point (4, –2) is (3, 5) by certain translation vector,
find the coordinate of the image of the point (–5, 0) by the same
translation vector.
11. (a) Plot the following vertices of the given geometric shape on the graph
and find the coordinates of the vertices of its respective image under the
translation vector ( 3 ). Also, draw the given geometric shape and its
−2
image on the same graph.
(i) A(2, –1), B(–2, 0) and C(3, 3) of ∆ABC.
(ii) P(1, –2), Q(4, –1), R(3, –4) and S(0, –4) of the quadrilateral PQRS.
(b) The vertices of the parallelogram KLMN are K(1, –2), L(5, –1),
M(7, –3) and N(3, –4). Find the coordinates of the vertices of the image

254
 parallelogram K'L'M'N' under the translation by the vector (−1). Show
−3
the above transformation on the graph.

7.4 Enlargement
A transformation which transform a geometric figure about a fixed point O with
certain value is called and enlargement. The fixed point is called centre of
enlargement. The fixed value is called scale factor and is denoted by k.
In the figure, ABC is enlarged two times about the point O and its image
becomes A'B'C'. The point O is centre of enlargement and the number 2 is scale
factor.
length of side in image = length of side in object  scale factor
Properties of Enlargement
The properties of enlargement are:
(i) Each side of the object is scaled by a scale factor.
(ii) The length of sides remain in the same proportion to
each other.
(iii) Each line in the image is parallel to the corresponding
line in the object.
(iv) All angles remain the same in the object and the image.
(v) The object and its image are similar.
(vi) If k > 1 then the image is larger than the object.
(vii) If 0 < k < 1 then the image is smaller than the object.
(viii) If k = 1 then the image and the object are identical. This is an invariant.
(ix) If k = –1 then the image and the object are congruent but in opposite
direction.
Enlargement in Cartesian Plane
Y
Enlargement about origin by scale factor k
.
P'(6,4)
In the graph, the line segment PQ joining the points
P(3, 2) and Q(2, -1) is enlarged at the centre O(0, 0) by .
P(3,2)
scale factor 2. Then its image P'Q' has the point
X
P'(6, 4) and Q'(4, -2). O .
Q(2,-1) .
Q'(4,-2)

255
i.e., P(3, 2) → P'(6, 4) = P'(2×3, 2×2) = P'(2(3, 2))
Q(2, –1)→ Q'(4, –2) = Q'(2×2, 2×(–1)) = Q'(2(2, –1))
Hence, the image of a point (x, y) under the enlargement
E[O; k] is k(x, y) = (kx, ky).
𝐸[(0, 0); 𝑘]
i.e., (x, y) → (kx, ky)
Enlargement about centre C(a, b) by scale factor k
In the adjoining figure, P'(x', y') is the image of P(x, y)

under E[(a, b); k], then ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ OC + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

OP′= ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ CP′
Y
′
𝑥
or, ( ′ ) = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OC + k ⃗⃗⃗⃗
CP = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OC + k (OP
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ – ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OC )
𝑦
𝑥

. . .
𝑎 𝑎
= ( ) + k{(𝑦) – ( )}
𝑏 𝑏
C(a, b) P(x, y) P(x', y')
𝑎 𝑘𝑥 𝑘𝑎
=( ) +( )–( )
𝑏 𝑘𝑦 𝑘𝑏
𝑎 + 𝑘𝑥 – 𝑘𝑎
=( )
𝑏 + 𝑘𝑦 – 𝑘𝑏 X
O
𝑘(𝑥 – 𝑎) + 𝑎
={ }
𝑘(𝑦 – 𝑏) + 𝑏
∴ x' = k(x – a) + a, y' = k(y – b) + b
Hence, the coordinates of P' are {k(x – a) + a, k(y – b) + b}.

Rules of Enlargement in Cartesian plane

SN Object Centre of Scale Image

enlargement factor

1. P(x, y) (0, 0) k P'(kx, ky)



2. P(x, y) (a, b) k P'{k(x – a) + a, k(y – b) + b)}



Note:
(i) If k > 1, E[O; k] or E[(a, b); k] is enlargement.
(ii) If 0 < k < 1, E[O, k] or E[(a, b); k] is reduction.

256
 (iii) If k = 1, E[O; k] or E[(a, b); k] is identity.
Example 1
Find the coordinates of the image of a point P(2, –4) under the enlargement with
centre (0, 0) and scale factor 2.
Solution: Here,
Enlarging the point P(2, – 4) about the centre (0, 0) and scale factor 2, We have
E[(0,0); k]
(x, y) → (kx, ky)
 P(2, – 4) → P'(3 × 2, 2 × (– 4)) = P'(6, – 8)
Hence, the coordinates of the image point P' is (6, – 8).
Example 2
Enlarge the line segment AB joining the points A(4, – 6) and B(– 8, – 4) by
E[(2, 1); 2].
Solution: Here,
Enlarging the line segment AB joining the points A(4, – 6) and B(– 8, – 4) by
E[(2, 1); 2], we have
E[(2,1); 2]
(x, y) → P'{k(x – a) + a, k(y – b) + b)}
E[(2,1); 2]
 A(4, – 6) → A'{2(4 – 2) + 2, 2(–6 – 1) + 1)} = A'(6, –13)
E[(2,1); 2]
B(–8, – 4) → B'{2(–8 – 2) + 2, 2(–4 – 1) + 1)} = B'(–18, –9)
Example 3
If the point A(6, b) is enlarged about origin and scale factor 3 to its image
A'(3a, 9), find the values of a and b.
Solution: Here,
E[O; 3]
A(6, b) → A'(3a, 9)
E[O; 3]
But, we have A(6, b) → A'(6 × 3, 3b) = (18, 3b)
 (3a, 9) = (18, 3b)
i.e., 3a = 18 and 9 = 3b
or, a = 6 and b = 3.

257
Example 4
Transform the square OABC having the vertices O(0, 0), A(1, 0), B(1, 1) and
C(0, 1) by the enlargement E[(0, 0); –3]. Write down the coordinates of the
vertices of the image square O'A'B'C' and represent the above transformation on
the same graph.
Solution: Here,
The vertices of the square OABC are O(0, 0), A(1, 0), B(1, 1) and C(0, 1).
Now, enlarging the unit square OABC by
E[(0, 0), –3], we get Y
E[(0,0); −3] C B
O(0, 0) → O'(–3×0, –3×0) = O'(0, 0)
A' O'
X' X
E[(0,0); −3]
A(1, 0) → A'(–3×1, –3×0) = A'(–3, 0) O A
E[(0,0); −3]
B(1, 1) → B'(–3×1, –3×1) = B'(–3, –
3)
B' C'
E[(0,0); −3]
C(0, 1) → C'(–3×0, –3×1) = C'(0, –3) Y'
Hence, the required coordinates of the image
square O'A'B'C' are O'(0, 0), A'(–3, 0), B'(–3, –3) and C'(0, –3).
Square OABC and its image O'A'B'C' under enlargement E[(0, 0), –3] is given on
the adjoining graph.

Exercise 7.4
1. Write the answer of the following questions in one sentence:
(a) What is enlargement?
(b) If k = 1 in an enlargement, what type of image forms?
(c) Define reduction.
(d) When 0 < k < 1 in an enlargement, what type of image forms?
(e) Write down the coordinates of the image of a point A(p, q) under
E[(a, b); k].

258
2. Transform the following figures about given point and scale factor:
(a) (b) (c)
.
O B
A
C
k=2

1 1
k=1 k=
2 2

3. Enlarge the following points by the enlargement given below:

1
(a) P(–3, 1) by E[O; 1] (b) R(3, –3) by E[(0, 0); ]
3
(c) S(3, 0) by E(0, 0); -2]
4. Enlarge the following points by the given enlargement below:
2
(a) P(–2, 1) by E[(2, 1); 2] (b) R(2, –4) by E[(2, –1); ]
3
(c) S(2, 1) by E(–3, 2); –3]
5. (a) If the image of (3x, 2y) under the enlargement with centre as origin and
scale factor 2 is (18, 8), find the values of x and y.
(b) If P'(3p – 2, q + 1) is the image of the point P(4, 1) under the enlargement
E[(1, – 2); 2], find the values of p and q.
6. (a) If the image of P(6, 8) is P'(3, 4) under the enlargement with the centre
(0, 0), find the coordinates of the image of the point (–2, –1) under the
same enlargement.
(b) The point A(–2, 6) maps with A'(3, –1) under the enlargement with
centre (2, 3). Find the scale factor of the enlargement.
7. (a) Enlarge a ∆ABC having vertices A(2, 1), B(–2, 1) and C(–3, 1) from the
origin with scale factor 2. Write down the coordinates of the vertices of
the image of ∆LMN and represent the above transformation in the
graph.
(b) The vertices of a unit square ASOK are A(0, 0), S(1, 0), O(1, 1) and
K(0, 1). Write the coordinates of the image of the square ASOK under
1
the enlargement with centre as origin and scale factor 1 . Show the
2
above enlargement on the same graph.

259
8. (a) P(2, 0), Q(2, 1), R(–1, 4) and S(–3, 2) are the vertices of a quadrilateral
PQRS. Find the coordinates of the vertices of the image P'Q'R'S' of the
quadrilateral PQRS under the enlargement E[(1, 2); 2]. Draw the square
PQRS and its image on the same graph.
(b) A kite KITE having the vertices K(–3, 1), I(1, 3), T(–1, 2) and E(0, 1) is
enlarged by E[(–2, 3); –3] on the graph. Write the coordinates of the
vertices of the image of KITE.

260
 Unit 8
Statistics

8.0 Review on Statistics

What is data? How many types of data are there?
What are frequency and cumulative frequency of the discrete data?
What is the arithmetic mean of the data?
What is the mean, median and mode of a data?
8.1 Partition Values of Ungrouped Data
What is the meaning of partition?
The values that divides the given data or series or observation into more than
two parts is called partition values. There are generally three types of partition
values. They are;
(i) Quartiles (ii) Deciles (iii) Percentiles
(i) Quartiles
Consider a data as
25, 28, 34, 56, 65, 78, 85.
By which terms do the data divide into four equal parts?
The terms 28, 56 and 78 divide the given data into four equal parts. These
terms are called quartiles. The second term 28 is called first quartile (Q1), the
fourth term 56 is called second quartile (Q2) and the sixth term 78 is called
third quartile (Q3). But, how can we find the items easily?
For this, we use the following formulae for individual and discrete data:
N+1 th
First Quartile (Q1) = ( ) item
4

2(N+1) th N+1 th
Second Quartile (Q2) = ( ) item = ( ) item = Median (Md)
4 2

3(N+1) th
Third Quartile (Q3) = ( ) item
4

261
(ii) Deciles
In a similar way as quartiles, deciles are those values that divide any set of a
given observation into a total of ten equal parts. Therefore, there are a total of
nine deciles. They are D1, D2, D3, D4, ……… D9.
1
D1 is the positional value for which one-tenth ( ) of any given observation is
10
9
either less or equal to D1. However, the remaining nine-tenths ( ) of the same
10
observation is either greater than or equal to the value of D1.
To calculate the deciles, we use the following formulae for individual and
discrete data:
n(N+1)𝑡ℎ
Value of Decile (Dn) = item,
10
where n = 1, 2, 3, ......., 9 and N = Total no. of terms or sum of frequency.
(iii) Percentiles
In a similar way as quartiles and deciles, percentiles are those values that
divide any set of a given observation into a total of hundred equal parts.
Therefore, there are a total of ninety-nine percentiles. They are P1, P2, P3, P4,
……, P99.
To calculate the deciles, we use the following formulae for individual and
discrete series:
n(N+1)𝑡ℎ
Value of Percentile (Pn) = item,
100
where n = 1, 2, 3, ......., 99 and N = Total no. of terms.
Example 1
Find the first and third quartiles from the given data:
22, 26, 14, 30, 18, 17, 35, 41, 12, 32, 34
Solution: Here,
Arranging the given data in ascending order, we get
12, 14, 17, 18, 22, 26, 30, 32, 34, 35, 41
The number of items (N) = 11
Now, we have
N+1 th
First quartile (Q1) = value of ( ) item
4

262
 11+1 th
= value of ( ) item
4

12 th
= value of ( ) item
4

= value of 3rd item

= 17
3(N+1) th
Third quartile (Q3) = value of ( ) item
4

3(11+1) th
= value of ( ) item
4

312 th
= value of ( ) item
4

= value of 9th item

= 34
Example 2
Find the first and third quartiles from the given data:

Marks (X) 50 60 75 82 91 90

No. of Students (f) 1 3 8 5 6 4

Solution:
Arranging the given data in ascending order,
Marks (X) No. of Students (f) Cumulative Frequency (c.f.)
50 1 1
60 3 4
75 8 12
82 5 17
90 6 23
91 4 27
N = 27

263
Now, we have
N+1 th 27+1 th 28 th
First quartile (Q1) = ( ) item = ( ) item = ( ) item = 7th item
4 4 4

In c.f. table the cumulative frequency just greater than 7 is 12. So, the
corresponding value i.e. 75 is the first quartile.
Therefore, Q1 = 75
3(27+1)𝑡ℎ 3(27+1)𝑡ℎ 84 th
Third quartile (Q3) = item = item = ( ) item = 21th item
4 4 4

In c.f. table the cumulative frequency just greater than 21 is 23. So, the
corresponding value i.e. 90 is the third quartile.
Therefore, Q3 = 90
Example 3
Calculate the 7th deciles and 45th percentile from the given data:
29, 31, 45, 27, 38, 59, 30, 28, 40, 25, 52
Solution: Here,
Arranging the given data in ascending order, we get
25, 27, 28, 29, 30 31, 38, 40, 45, 52, 59
Number of terms (N) = 11
Now, we have
7(N+1)𝑡ℎ
7th deciles (D7) = item
10
7(11+1)𝑡ℎ
= item
10
= 8.4th item
= 8th item + 0.4 (9th item – 8th item)
= 40 + 0.4 (45 – 40)
= 40 + 0.4 × 5 = 42
Again, we have
45(N+1)𝑡ℎ
45th percentile (P45) = item
100
45(11+1)𝑡ℎ
= item
100
= 5.4th item

264
 = 5th item + 0.4 (6th item – 5th item)
= 30 + 0.4 (31 – 30)
= 30 + 0.4 × 1 = 30.4
Example 4
Find the values of the fourth decile and sixty-sixth percentile from the given data:

Weight (in kg) (X) 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

No. of people (f) 7 5 2 4 3 3 6

Solution: Here,
Weight (in kg) No. of people Cumulative Freq. (cf)
10 7 7
15 5 12
20 2 14
25 4 18
30 3 21
35 3 24
40 6 30
N = 30
Here, Σf = N = 30
Now
4(N+1)𝑡ℎ
The value of fourth deciles (D4) = Value of item
10
4(30+1)𝑡ℎ
= Value of item
10
= Value of 12.4th item
= 20 [∵ 12 < 12.4 < 14]
Again
66(N+1)𝑡ℎ
The value of sixty-sixth percentile (P66) = Value of item
100
66(30+1)𝑡ℎ
= Value of item
100

265
 = Value of 20.46th item
= 30 [∵ 18 < 20.46 < 34]

Exercise 8.1
1. Answer of the following questions in single sentence.
(a) What is individual data?
(b) What is discrete data?
(c) What do you mean by quartiles?
(d) How many deciles are there in a data set?
(e) Write the formula to calculate the 7th decile.
(f) What is the value of percentile?
(g) Write the formula to calculate the 51st percentile.
2. (a) Calculate the first quartile from the given data: 25, 26, 31, 42, 46, 52, 60
(b) Calculate the upper quartile from the given data:
21, 56, 48, 97, 53, 21, 54, 89, 75, 62, 14, 59, 80, 25, 41
3. (a) Find the lower quartile from the data given below:
X 10 20 30 40 50
f 4 6 8 7 10

(b) Find the third quartile from the given data:

Marks 5 10 15 20 25
No. of Students 8 12 9 5 6

4. (a) Calculate the fourth deciles from the data given below:
22, 25, 30, 42, 45, 50, 55, 60, 67
(b) Find the sixth deciles from the given data:
62, 14, 59, 56, 48, 97, 80, 75, 25, 21, 53, 21, 54, 89
5. (a) Find the third deciles from the following data:
X 3 6 9 12 15
f 2 4 1 3 2

266
 (b) Calculate the eighth deciles from the following data:
Marks 12 14 16 18 20
No. of Students 12 25 24 42 30

6. (a) Calculate 40th percentile from the data given below:

23, 31, 35, 40, 51, 60, 68, 75, 80
(b) Find 60th percentile from the data given below:
20, 25, 36, 35, 48, 54, 52, 12, 13, 16, 41, 23, 41, 45, 60, 67, 46
7. (a) Find 15th percentile from the following data:
X 8 16 24 32 40
f 5 6 4 2 7

(b) Calculate 78th percentile from the given data:

Marks 10 20 30 40 50
No. of Students 5 6 7 2 4

8. Calculate the first, second and third quartiles from the data given below:
(a) 41, 23, 25, 28, 36, 56
(b) 12, 13, 16, 41, 23, 25, 28, 36, 39, 41, 45, 48, 54, 52, 50
9. (a) Calculate 3rd quartile, 6th deciles and 56 percentiles from the data given
below:
23, 31, 35, 40, 51, 60, 68, 75, 80
(b) Find 1st quartile, 4th deciles and 77 percentiles from the given data:
20, 25, 36, 35, 48, 54, 52, 12, 13, 16, 41, 23, 41, 45, 60, 67, 46
10. Find the second and seventh deciles from the data given below:
(a) X 5 15 25 35 45
f 5 6 7 4 8

(b) Marks 12 16 18 25 32
No. of Students 6 4 7 5 3

267
11. Find 3rd quartile, 8th deciles and 95th percentile from the data given
below:

(a) X 5 15 25 35 45

f 5 6 7 4 8

(b) Ages (in yrs.) 15 25 35 45 55

No. of people 12 25 55 43 57

(c) Collect the marks obtained by class 9 students in compulsory mathematics in

unit test. Then arrange the data and discus with in classroom with following
i) the first quartile ii) the seventh deciles
iii) the fourth percentiles

8.2 Measures of Dispersion

Find the value of 𝐗
̅, Md and mode of following data sets:
A: 20, 50, 80
B: 45, 50, 55
C: 5, 50, 95
Discuss in group that are all data sets same?
In above examples although the X ̅, Md and mode are same, the nature of data
sets are different. So measure of central tendency only given the average
value. To find the scatterness of data we need further calculation. it is
dispersion.

The measure of dispersion of statistical data measures the variability or spread

of the data from the central value. It is the extent to which a distribution is
stretched or squeezed. The measure of dispersion helps us to study the
variability of the items. It is calculated by the difference of given observation
and its central values either mean or median. Some measures of dispersions
are the range, inter-quartile range, semi-inter-quartile range, mean deviation,
variance and standard deviation, and their coefficients.

268
 Dispersion is contrasted with location or central tendency, and together they
are the most used properties of distributions.
Quartile Deviation
Quartile deviation is based on the lower quartile Q1 and the upper quartile Q3.
The difference Q3 − Q1 is called the inter quartile range. The half of the
difference Q3 − Q1 is called semi-inter-quartile range or the quartile
deviation. Thus,
Q3 − Q1
Quartile Deviation (QD) =
2
The quartile deviation is a slightly better measure of absolute dispersion than
the range.
Coefficient of Quartile Deviation
A relative measure of dispersion based on the quartile deviation is called the
coefficient of quartile deviation. It is a pure number free of any units of
measurement. It can be used for comparing the dispersion of two or more data
sets. It is defined as;
Q3 − Q1
Coefficient of Quartile Deviation (CQD) =
Q3 + Q1

Exercise 8.2 (A)

1. Answer the following in single sentence.
(a) What do you mean by dispersion of a data set?
(b) Write different types of dispersions.
(c) Define quartile deviation and its coefficient.
(d) What is mean deviation of data set?
(e) What is the coefficient of mean deviation?
2. (a) If the lower and upper quartiles of a individual data are 23 and 46
respectively, find the quartile deviation and its coefficient.
(b) If the first and third quartiles of a discrete data are 12.5 and 51.2
respectively, calculate the quartile deviation and its coefficient.
(c) The quartile deviation of a data is 23 and its first quartile is 15.
Compute its third quartile.
(d) The quartile deviation of a data is 45 and its third quartile is 50. Find its
first quartile.

269
 (e) If the coefficient of quartile deviation of a data is 0.45 and its first
quartile is 25, find its third quartile.
(f) The coefficient of quartile deviation of a data is 0.62 and its third
quartile is 26. calculate its first quartile.
3. (a) The quartile deviation and its coefficient of a data are 15.5 and 0.25
respectively, find its first and third quartiles.
(b) The quartile deviation and its coefficient of a data are 25.6 and 0.32
respectively, calculate its first and third quartiles.
4. Find the quartile deviation and its coefficient of the following data:
(a) Price of books (in Rs.): 45, 56, 67, 78, 70, 87, 90
(b) Ages of students (in yrs.): 12, 14, 13, 15, 16, 17
(c) Length of pencils (in cm): 15, 16, 19, 18, 20, 12, 15, 16, 21, 25, 24, 23
5. Calculate the quartile deviation and its coefficient of the data given
below:

(a) X 12 16 20 24 28

f 3 8 9 4 3

(b) Marks 10 20 30 40 50

No. of students 9 5 7 16 21

(c) Marks 25 35 45 55 65

No. of students 12 25 14 26 20

270
Mean Deviation
The mean deviation is the mean of the absolute deviations taken from the central
tendency (mean, median, mode) of data. It is also called the mean absolute
deviation. For a sample size N, the mean deviation is defined by;
̅|
∑|X− X
Mean Deviation (MD) = ,
N
Where ̅X is the central value of a data. The mean deviation is calculated either
from mean or median, but only median is preferred because when the signs are
ignored, the sum of deviation of the data taken from median is minimum.
To find he mean deviation, we use the following formulae.
For individual series:
̅|
∑|𝑿−𝑿
Mean Deviation from Mean (MD) = , where 𝑿
̅ is the mean of the data, and
𝑵
∑|𝑿−𝑴𝒅 |
Mean Deviation from Median (MD) = , where Md is the median of the
𝑵
data.
And, for discrete series:
̅|
∑ 𝐟|𝐗−𝐗
Mean Deviation from Mean (MD) = , where 𝐗
̅ is the mean of the data,
𝐍
and
∑ 𝐟|𝐗−𝐌𝐝|
Mean Deviation from Median (MD) = , where Md is the median of the
𝐍
data.
Coefficient of Mean Deviation
The coefficient of mean deviation is calculated to compare the data of two series.
The coefficient of mean deviation is calculated by dividing mean deviation by the
average. If deviations are taken from mean, we divide it by mean, if the deviations
are taken from median, then it is divided by median.
𝑀𝐷
Coefficient of Mean Deviation from Mean (CMD) =
𝑋
𝑀𝐷
Coefficient of Mean Deviation from Median (CMD) =
𝑀𝑑

Example 1
Find the quartile deviation and its coefficient from the data given below:
22, 26, 14, 30, 18, 17, 35, 41, 12, 32, 34

271
Solution, Here,
Arranging the given data in ascending order, we get
12, 14, 17, 18, 22, 26, 30, 32, 34, 35, 41
The number of items ( N) = 11
Now, we have
N+1 th 11+1 th
First quartile (Q1) = value of ( ) item = value of ( ) item
4 4

12 th
= value of ( ) item = value of 3rd item = 17.
4

3(N+1) th
Third quartile (Q3) = value of ( ) item
4

3(11+1) th
= value of ( ) item
4

312 th
= value of ( ) item
4

= value of 9rd item

= 34.
Q3 – Q1 34 – 17 17
 Quartile Deviation (QD) = 2 = 2 = 2 = 8.5

Q3 – Q1 34 – 17 17 1
 Coefficient of Quartile Deviation (CQD) = Q3 + Q1 = 34 + 17 = 51 = 3

Example 2
Find the quartile deviation and its coefficient from the data given below:
Marks (X) 40 65 75 82 90 91
No. of Students (f) 16 12 8 5 3 1
Solution: Here,
Arranging the given data in ascending order,
Marks (X) No. of Students (f) Cumulative Frequency (c.f.)
40 6 6
65 12 18
75 18 36

272
 82 5 41
90 3 44
91 1 45
N = 45
Now
N+1 th 45+1 th
First quartile (Q1) =( ) item = ( ) item
4 4

46 th
=( ) item = 11.5th item
4

In c.f. table the cumulative frequency just greater than 11.5 is 18. so, the
corresponding value i.e. 65 is the first quartile.
 Q1 = 65
3(N+1) th 3(45+1) th 138 th
Third quartile (Q3) = ( ) item = ( ) item = ( ) item = 34.5th item
4 4 4

In c.f. table the cumulative frequency just greater than 34.5 is 36. So, the
corresponding value i.e. 75 is the third quartile.
 Q3 = 75
Q3 – Q1 75 – 65 10
 Quartile Deviation (QD) = 2 = 2 = 2 = 5.

Q3 – Q1 75 – 65 10
Coeff. Of QD = Q + Q = 75 + 65 = 140 = 0.07
3 1

Example 3
Find the mean deviation from the median and its coefficient of the data given
below: 40, 44, 54, 60, 62
Solution: Here,
Arranging the given data in ascending order, we get
40, 44, 54, 60, 62
The number of items ( N) = 5
N + 1  6 + 1
Median (Md) =  2  th item =  2  th item = 3rd term = 54
   
Now, making table to calculate MD from median,

273
 X X – Md |X – Md|
40 – 14 14
44 – 10 10
54 0 0
60 6 6
62 8 8
N=5 |X – Md| = 38

Now, we have
|X – Md | 38
Mean Deviation from Median (MD) = N = 5 = 7.6

MD 7.6
Coefficient of Mean Deviation from Median (CMD) = Md = 54 = 0.14

Example 4
Find the mean deviation from the mean and its coefficient of the data given
below:

X 10 15 20 25 30

f 2 4 6 8 5

Solution:
Making table to calculate mean and MD from mean,

X f fX – –| –|
X–X |X – X f |X – X

10 2 20 -12 12 24

15 4 60 -7 7 28

20 6 120 -2 2 12

274
 25 8 200 3 3 24

30 5 150 8 8 40

N = 25 f X = 550 – | = 128
f |x – X

– fx 550
Mean (X ) = N = 25 = 22

Now
– | 128
f|X – X
Mean deviation from Mean (MD) = N = 25 = 5.12

MD 5.12
Coefficient of Mean Deviation from Median (CMD) = Mean = 22 = 0.233

Exercise 8.2 (B)

1. Find the mean deviation from mean and its coefficient of the data given
below:
(a) Price of books (in Rs.): 43, 57, 65, 78, 73, 87, 90
(b) Ages of students (in yrs.): 11, 15, 13, 18, 16, 17
(c) Length of pencils (in cm): 13, 14, 19, 18, 23, 12, 15, 16, 21, 26, 24, 23
2. Calculate the mean deviation from median and its coefficient from the
following data:
(a) Price of bags (in Rs.): 45, 56, 67, 78, 70, 87, 90
(b) Ages of students (in yrs.): 12, 14, 13, 15, 16, 17
(c) Length of pencils (in cm): 15, 16, 19, 18, 20, 12, 15, 16, 21, 25, 24, 23
3. Find the mean deviation from mean and its coefficient from the data
given below:

(a) X 12 16 20 24 28

f 3 8 9 4 3

275
 (b) Marks 10 20 30 40 50

No. of students 9 5 7 16 21

(c) Ages (in yrs) 25 35 45 55 65

No. of people 12 25 14 26 20

4. Calculate the mean deviation from median and its coefficient from the data
given below:
(a) X 5 15 25 35 45
f 5 9 12 7 8

(b) Obtained Marks 10 20 30 40 50

No. of students 8 4 9 12 10

(c) Marks 20 30 40 50 60
No. of students 10 2 8 9 4
5. Ask the age of 50 students of your school form grade 1 to 10 randomly.
Construct discrete prequel distribution table and alunite mean deviation from
mean and median of that data.
Standard Deviation
The standard deviation of a set of data is the square root of the average of
the squared differences of the given observation from the Mean. The standard
deviation (SD), also devoted by the lower case Greek letter sigma 'σ', is a measure
that is used to quantify the amount of variation or dispersion of a data. A low
standard deviation indicates that the data points tend to be close to the mean (also
called the expected value) of the data, while a high standard deviation indicates
that the data points are spread out over a wider range of values.
∑(𝑋−𝑋̅)2
By definition of standard deviation, SD or σ = √
𝑁

SD is also called the root-mean squared deviation.

Calculation of Standard Deviation
Standard deviation is calculated by using the following formulae:

276
(a) Standard Deviation of Individual series:
Let X1, X2, X3, ……., Xn are the variants then the SD is calculated by using
any one of the following method:
∑(𝑋−𝑋̅)2 ∑ 𝑑2
(i) Actual Mean Method: SD (σ) = √ =√ , where d = 𝑿 − 𝑿
̅
𝑁 𝑁

∑𝑋 2
∑𝑋 2
(ii) Direct Method: SD (σ) = √ − ( )
𝑁 𝑁

∑𝑑 ∑𝑑 2 2
(iii) Assumed Mean Method: SD (σ) =√ − ( ) , where d = X – A, A =
𝑁 𝑁
Assumed Mean.
(b) Standard Deviation of discrete series;
Consider the discrete data series as;
X1 X2 X3 ............. Xn
f1 f2 f3 ............. fn
Then the SD is calculated by using any one of the following metho;
∑ 𝑓(𝑋−𝑋̅)2 ∑ 𝑓𝑑 2
(i) Actual Mean Method: SD (σ) = √ =√ , where d = 𝑿 − 𝑿
̅
𝑁 𝑁

∑ 𝑓𝑋 2
∑ 𝑓𝑋 2
(ii) Direct Method: SD (σ) = √ − ( )
𝑁 𝑁

∑ 𝑓𝑑 ∑ 𝑓𝑑 2 2
(iii) Assumed Mean Method: SD (σ) = √ − ( ) ,
𝑁 𝑁

where d = X – A, A = Assumed Mean.

Coefficient of Standard Deviation
The standard deviation is the absolute measure of dispersion. Its relative measure
is called the standard coefficient of dispersion or coefficient of standard deviation.
It is defined as:
SD σ
Coefficient of Standard Deviation (CSD) = ̅
or ̅
X X
Variance
Variance is the square of the standard deviation of the data. That is the standard
deviation is the square root of the variance of the data. Variance is the average of
the squared deviations of given observations from the mean of a data.

277
 ∑(𝑋−𝑋̅)2
i.e., Var = σ2 =
𝑁

Coefficient of Variation
The coefficient of variation (CV) is a measure of relative variability. It is
the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean (average) expressed in percentage.
SD σ
Coefficient of Variation (CV) = = ̅
 100% or ̅  100%
X X
Example 1
Find the standard deviation and coefficient of variation from the data given below:
22, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 48
Solution: Here,
22, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 48
__ 22 + 25 + 30 + 35 + 40 + 45 + 48 245
Mean ( X ) = 7 = 7 = 35

Now, making table to calculate standard diviation:

__ __
X X– X (X – X )2
22 – 13 169
25 – 10 100
30 –5 25
35 0 0
40 5 25
45 10 100
48 13 169
__
Total (X – X )2 = 588
Now, we know that
__
(X – X )2 588
Standard Deviation (SD) = N = 7 = 84 = 9.17

278
 SD 9.17
Coefficient of Variation (CV) = –  100% = 35  100% = 26.2%
X
Example 2
Find the standard deviation and its coefficient from the given data:

Marks 10 20 30 40 50

No. of Students 8 12 15 9 6

Solution: Here,
Making table to calculate the standard deviation.

Marks No. of Stu. fX – fd fd2

(X) (f) d=X–X

10 8 80 – 18.6 – 148.8 2767.68

20 12 240 – 8.6 – 103.2 887.52

30 15 450 1.4 21.0 29.40

40 9 360 11.4 102.6 1169.64

50 6 300 21.4 128.4 2747.76

Total N = 50 f X = 1430 fd = 0 fd2 = 7602

__ f X 1430 143
Mean ( X ) = = 50 = 5 = 28.6
f
Now, we know that
f d2 f d2 7602  0 2
SD or  = N –  N  = 50 – 50
7602
= 50 = 152.04
= 12.33

279
 SD 12.33
Coefficient of SD (CSD) = – = 28.6 = 0.43
X

Exercise 8.2 (C)

1. Write the answer of the following questions in one sentence.
(a) Define standard deviation. Write the formula of standard deviation for
discrete data by assumed mean method.
(b) What is the coefficient of standard deviation? Write its calculating
formula.
(c) What is variance? Write the formula to calculate the variance by direct
method.
(d) Define the coefficient of variation. Write the formula to calculate the
coefficient of variation.
3. Find the standard deviation and its coefficient of the given data:
(a) Obtained marks of students: 12, 19, 24, 28, 32, 36, 38, 45, 49
(b) Length of foot of students (in cm): 15, 19, 21, 22, 25, 24, 26, 29, 25, 26,
24, 20, 18
(c) Height of plants (in cm): 21, 22, 25, 26, 28, 31, 32, 36, 38, 42, 44, 45,
49
4. Calculate the standard deviation and its coefficient of the data given
below:

(a) X 15 24 30 56 60

f 5 6 8 9 7

(b) Marks 50 60 70 80 90

No. of students 11 5 18 15 25

(c) Marks 55 65 75 85 95 105

No. of students 9 15 8 12 24 10

280
5. Calculate the variance and the coefficient of variation of the data given
below:
(a) Price of geometric boxes (in Rs.): 75, 85, 100, 125, 135, 160, 165, 175,
190
(b) Ages of children (in months.): 24, 36, 48, 49, 50, 55, 60, 68, 75
(c) Length of sticks (in cm): 15, 25, 28, 29, 31, 33, 35, 38, 42, 42, 44, 46,
52, 41, 45

6. Calculate the variance and the coefficient of variation of the data given
below:

(a) X 24 34 39 45 50

f 5 9 12 10 11

(b) Marks 38 48 58 68 78

No. of students 12 9 10 13 15

7. Calculate the standard deviation and the coefficient of variation of the

given data:
(a) 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, 120, 130, 10, 150
(b) 5, 15, 25, 35, 45, 55, 65, 75, 85, 95, 105, 115
8. Calculate the variance and the coefficient of variation of the following
data:
(a) X 12 16 20 24 28
f 3 8 9 4 3

(b) Ages (in yrs) 25 35 45 55 65

No. of people 12 25 14 26 20
(c) Roll a dice for 100 times and record the occurrences of the numbers
1,2,3,4,5,6 in discrete data table. Find standard deviation and mean
deviation and compare your findings with your classmates.

281
Answer
Exercise 1.1
1. Consult with your teacher.
2. (b) and (d)
3. (a) x = 5, y = 4 (b) x = 7 , y = 5
(c) x = 5, y = - 2 (d) x = 7, y = 0 (e) x = 2, y = 1
4. (a) x = 2, y = 1 (b) x = 1, y = 1 (c) x = 5, y = 1 (d) x = 1, y = 1
5. Consult with your teacher.
Exercise 1.2
1. Consult with your teacher.
2. (a) {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)}
(b) {(3, -2), (3, 3), (-2, 3), (-2, -2)}
(c) {(1, 3), (1, -2), (2, 3), (2, -2), (3, 3), (3, -2)}
(d) {(3, 1), (-2, 1), (3, 2), (-2, 2), (3, 3), (-2, 3)}
3. Consult with your teacher.
4. (a) {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b), (3, a), (3, b)}
(b) {(a, 1), (b, 1), (a, 2), (b, 2), (a, 3), (b, 3)}
(c) No.
5. (a) n(A) = 2, n(B) = 3; 6, 6.
(b) n(A) = 3, n(B) = 3, 9, 9
6. consult with teacher.
7. (a) A×B = {(1, -1), (1, 6), (2, -1), (2, 6), (3, -1), (3, 6), (4, -1), (4, 6)}
B×A = {(-1.1), (6, 1), (-1, 2), (6, 2), (-1, 3), (6, 3), (-1, 4), (6, 4)}
(b) P×Q = {(3, 0), (3, 3), (4, 0), (4, 3), (5, 0), (5, 3), (6, 0), (6, 3)}
Q×P = {(0, 3), (3, 3), (0, 4), (3, 4), (0, 5), (3, 5), (0, 6), (3, 6)}
8. (a)
(i) T×K = {(T, T), (T, O), (T, K), (T, Y), (O, T), (O, O), (O, K), (O, Y),
(K, T), (K, O), (K, K), (K, Y), (Y, T), (Y, O), (Y, K), (Y, Y)}

282
 K×T = {(T, T), (O, T), (K, T), (Y, T), (T, O), (O, O), (K, O), (Y, O),
(T, K), (O, K), (K, K), (Y, K), (T, Y), (O, Y), (K, Y), (Y, Y)}.
(b) P = {r, a, m}, Q = {d, a, h, l}
(i) P×Q = {(r, d), (r, a), (r, h), (r, l), (a, d), (a, a), (a, h), (a, l), (m, d), (m, a),
(m, h), (m, l)}
Q×P = {(d, r), (a, r), (h, r), (l, r), (d, a), (a, a), (h, a), (l, a), (d, m), (a, m),
(h, m), (l, m)}
Exercise 1.3 (A)
1. Consult with your teacher.
2. a. R1 = {(1, 5), (2, 4)}
b. R2 = {(1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6), (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6)}
c. R3 = {(2, 4)}
d. verify with your teacher.
3. a. {(1, 3), (1, 6), (3, 6), (5, 6)} b. {(1, 1), (3, 3)} c. {(3, 6)}
d. {(1, 1)} e. Consult with your teacher
4. a. R1 = {(6, 2), (6, 4), (7, 2), (7, 4), (8, 2)}
b. R2 = {(6, 2), (6, 4), (6, 6), (7, 2), (7, 4), (7, 6), (8, 2), (8, 4), (8, 6), (10, 2),
(10, 4), (10, 6)}
c. consult with teacher
5 and 6. Consult with teacher
Exercise 1.3 (B)
1. Verify with your teacher.
2. a. D = {1, 2, 3}, R = {3, 5} b. D = {2, 3, 4}, R = {4, 6, 8, 12}
c. D = {5, 6, 7, 8}, R = {8, 9, 10, 11}
d. D = {8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3}, R = {6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1}
3. a. D = {3, 5}, R = {1, 2, 3} b. D = {4, 6, 8, 9, 12}, R = {2, 3, 4}
c. D = {8, 9, 10, 11}, R = {5, 6, 7, 8} d. D = {6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1},
R = {8, 7, 6, 5, 3, 4}
4. a. {(1, 5), (2, 6), (3, 6), (4, 7)} b. D = {1, 2, 3, 4}, R = {5, 6, 7}
c. {(5, 1), (6, 2), (6, 3), (7, 4)}

283
5. a. R1 = {2, 4, -6, -8} b. R = {3, 5, -5, -9}.
c. R = {-3, -4, 1, 2} d. R = {2}
6. R = {(2, 4), (2, 6), (2, 8), (3, 6), (3, 9), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6), (7, 7),
(8, 8), (9, 9)}
a. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} b. {4, 6, 8, 9, 2, 3, 5, 7}
c. R-1 = {(4, 2), (6, 2), (8, 2), (6, 3), (9, 3), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6),
(7, 7), (8, 8), (9, 9)}
d. D = {4, 6, 8, 9, 2, 3, 5, 7}, R = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
7. a. {1, 3, 5, 7} b. {-1, 0, 3, 8} c. {0, 7, 20, 39}
d. {25, 22, 19, 16, 13, 10}
8. a. {(0, 1), (2, 1), (2, 3), (3, 4)} b. {(-1, -1), (0, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2)}
c. {(-1, 3), (-2, 4), (-3, 5), (-4, 6)} d. {(-2, 4), (2, 4), (-1, -1), (1, 1)}
9. a. {(1, 0), (3, 1), (5, 2), (7, 3)} b. {(-1, 0), (0, 1), (3, 2), (8, 3)}
c. {(0, 1), (7, 2), (20, 3), (39, 4)}
d. {(25, 0), (22, ), (19, 2), (16, 3), (13, 4), (10, 5)}.
Exercise 1.4 (A)
1. Consult with teacher.
2. consult with teacher.
3. a) Function b) Function c) Function d) not a Function
d) is not function other are.
4. Consult with your teacher
5. a) Function b) Not Function c) Not Function d) Function
6. Consult with your teacher.
Exercise 1.4 (B)
Consult with your teacher.
Exercise 1.4 (C)
1. a. one to one and onto b. one to one and onto
c. Many to one and into d. many to one and onto
e. Many to one and into f. many to one onto.
2. a. linear function b. Linear Function c. constant function

284
3. Consult with teacher
4. a. 6 b. 3 c. 0 d. 3
Exercise 1.4 (D)
1. (a) 13, 17, 25. (b) 1, -1, 7 (c) -1, 15, 55 (d) -1, -3, 6, -10.
4. (a) {-2, -4, 2} (b) {4, 10, 16}
(c) {5, 2, -1, -4, -7} (d) {2, 3, 6}
5. (a) f(x) = 5x-18, f(5) = 7 (b) f(x) = 3x + 1, f(3) = 10.
(c) f(x) = 2x + 9, f(-2) = 5 (d) f(x) = 4x-13, f(6) = 11
6. (a) h-5, x + h-5 (b) 0, h2+ 2h, h+2
−2
(c) 0, , not defined (d) 25, 2, -9.
5
7. (a) D = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, R = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} not a function.
(b) {±5} (c) {0, 2} (d) Discuss and verify with teacher.
Exercise 1.5 (A)
1. Consult with your teacher
2. (a), (b), (d) are polynomials
3. (a) 1 (b) 1 (d) 3
4. (i) 2, y (ii) 2, x (iii) 3, y (iv) 3, x2
(v) 2/8, No literal coefficient
5. (a) 2 (b) 1 (c) 5 (d) 4 (e) 5 (f) 7
6. Consult with your teacher
7. Consult with your teacher
8. (a) a = 6, b = – 2, b) a= 0, b= 0 (c) a = 15, b = 16.
3
(d) a = 9, √8
Exercise 1.5 (B)
1. (a) 4x3-2x2 + 2x-7 (b) 8x3 + 3x2-4
(c) 5x4 + 4x3 + 4x2-6x + 15 (d) 20x4 + 8x3-8x2 + 7x-27
2. (a) 2x3-6x2 + 8x-7 (b) 6x3 + 5x2-6
(c) 5x4-10x3 + 6x-1 (d) -2x4 + 8x3 + 8x2 + 7x-3

285
4. (a) x6-1 both (b) x3 + 1 both
(c) x5- 4x4 + 9x3 - 11x2 + 6x- 4 (d) x5 + 5x4 - 13x3 + 2x2 + 10x - 5
6. (a) 30x5-48x4-75x3-6x2-640x + 567 (b) same as a
(c) 10x4 + 20x3-x2 + 70x-126 (d) 9x3 + 6x2 + 111x - 144
7. Consult with your teacher.
2 3 15 2 1 1
8. a and b, x3 + x2 + x-1 c and d, x3 + x2 + x + 11.
3 2 9 3 2 9
9. Consult with your teacher
10. (a) (2x2 + 6x-16) (b) 7x2 + 10x-30
(c) -4x3- 4x2y -16xy2 (d) -2x3 + 3x2y-5y3
Exercise 1.6 (A)
1) (a) 11, 13 (b) 4, 6 `(c) -2, -6 (d) 0, -5
(e) 80, 160 (f) 4, 2
2) and 3) consult with your teacher.
4) (a) 5, 8, 11, 14, 17 (b) 0, 3, 8, 15, 24
(c) 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 (d) -1, 4, -8, 16, -25.
5) (a) 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36 (b) 0, 3, 8, 15, 24, 35
(c) -1, 5, 15, 29, 47, 69
6) Consult with your teacher
Exercise 1.6 (B)
1. (a) 4, 7, 10, 13, 16 (b) 10, 17, 26, 37, 80.
(c) -2, 7, 22, 43, 70. (d) -2, 5, 24, 61, 122.
2. (a) tn = 2n + 3 (b) tn = 8-3n (c) tn = 4n + 3
3𝑛−2 3𝑛−2
(d) tn = n2 + n (e) tn = ( ) (f) tn = ( )
3𝑛 + 1 𝑛+6

3. (a) tn = 5n-3 (b) tn = 4n2 (c) tn = 3n-1

𝑛(𝑛 + 1) 2
(d) Pattern discuss with your teacher, tn = ( )
2
1
(e) Pattern discuss with your teacher, tn = ( )(n2 + 3n + 6)
2

4. Consult with your teacher.

286
Exercise 1.6 (C)
1. Consult with your teacher.
2. Sequences (a) and (b) series (c) and (d)
3. (a) ∑7𝑛 = 1 3𝑛 − 1 (b) (-1)n + 1∑7𝑛 = 1 𝑛
𝑛2 + 5𝑛 + 6
(c)∑14
𝑛 = 1(𝑎 − 𝑛)
𝑛
(d) ∑10
𝑛=1 4
2502
4. (a) 18 (b) 26 (c) 90 (d) (e) -6 (f) 36
945
5. (a) 45000 (b) 53973.125
Exercise 2.1
Show to your teacher.
Exercise 2.2
1. a) decreasing b) decreasing c) Zero
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
2. a) 𝑠𝑞𝑚. sq m b) 10, , , , , , ………….. c) 0
4 16 4 16 64 256 1024
3. a) Show to your teacher b) zero
1
4. Zero 5. 6. Show to your teacher.
2

Exercise 2.4
1. (a) 10 (b) -1 c) 31 d) 51
2. (a) x5 (b) x-4 c) a10 d) a∞
3. Show to your teacher
lim lim 1 1 lim 1 lim x+2
4. (a) 2x=4 b) = c) = 0 (d) =∞
x2 x10 x 10 x∞ x2 x∞ 2
5. Present in the classroom.
Exercise 3.1
1. Show it to your teacher.
2. a) 3 × 3 b) 3 × 2 c) 1 × 3 d) 3 × 1
3. a) 16 b) i = 2, j = 3, aij = a23 c) u d) i = 2, j = 1
4. 3×2, m3×2 = aij, i = 3, j = 2
5. -2, 3, 7.
6. Consult to your teacher.

287
Exercise 3.2
1. Consult with your teacher.
2. (a) Square matrix (b) column matrix (c) rectangular matrix
(d) row matrix (e) zero matrix (f) upper triangular matrix.
1 4 9 0 1 4
3. (a) (3 4) (b) (0 −1 −2) (c) (4 16 36) (d) (1 0 1)
5 6 1 0 −1
9 36 81 4 1 0
4. (a) a = 2, b = -2, c = 1, d = 3. (b), p = 4, q = 2
3
(c) x = 2, y = 2, z = 1, w = 7. (d) x = 7, y = , p = 2, q = -1
2
Exercise 3.3
1. Consult with your teacher.
2. a. M+N, N+M b. Q+R, R+Q c. Q+T, T+Q d. R+T, T+R
e. P+U, U+P f. S+V, V+S
3. a) (i) (1 3 2) (ii) (1 3 2)
2 5 3 2 5 3
3−𝑎 4−𝑏
(iii) (𝑎 − 3 𝑏 − 4) (iv) ( 7 − 𝑐 𝑔 − 𝑑)
𝑐−7 𝑑−9
𝑒+1 3−𝑓 𝑔−2 𝑒+1 3−𝑓 𝑔−2
(v) ( ) (vi) ( )
2−ℎ 𝑖+5 𝑗+3 2−ℎ 𝑖+5 𝑗+3
𝑒+1 3−𝑓 𝑔−2 𝑒+1 3−𝑓 𝑔−2
(vii) ( ) (viii) ( )
2−ℎ 𝑖+5 𝑗+3 2−ℎ 𝑖+5 𝑗+3
−𝑎 −𝑏
b) –A = ( )
−𝑐 −𝑑
4. a. x = 2, y = 1 b. x = 5, y = 3 c. x = 2, y = 2, z = 10 d. x = 2, y = 1
5. a. (i) (9 21 4) (ii) (1 11 4) (iii) (5 16 -2)
b. (i) (−1) (ii) (0) (iii) (1)
1 4 1
3 2
6. a. (i) ( ) (ii) ( 12 −1
) (iii) (4 4) (iv) (-12 -11)
5 −5 −6 9
4 5
(e) (−5) (f) ( 0 )
−3 10
7. a. (−5 −8) b. (0 0) c. (−10 −16)
9 −3 0 0 18 −6

288
8. Consult with your teacher.
106 134 171
9. ( 80 124 125)
112 178 102
100 120 160
Exercise 3.4
1. Consult with your teacher.
𝑝
2. a. (𝑞 ) b. (m n p) c. (1 3 −2
)
2 −1 5
𝑟
3
−2 𝑎 𝑑 𝑔
d. ( 5 −7) e. (𝑏 𝑐 ℎ )
−9 4 𝑐 𝑓 𝑖
3-7 consult with your teacher
Exercise 3.5
1. Consult with your teacher.
2. a) (21 −7) b) ( 9 7
) c) ( 4 6
) d) (28 20)
28 14 14 16 12 13 60 48
e) (28 20) f) (−4 0 ) g) (−4 0 ) h) (14 5
)
60 48 0 −4 0 −4 32 30
14 5 15 16 15 16
i) ( ) j) ( ) k) ( )
32 30 80 68 80 68
1 5
3. a) i. (2 3) ii. ( ) iii.(−12)
3 15
a) i. ( 2 −1
) ii. ( 3 −1
) iii. (03
) iv. (−1 3)
−1 3 −1 2 1 −1 1 0
v. (7 6) vi. (3 0) vii. (5 10) viii. (7 6)
4 7 0 3 6 3 4 7
−4 8 15
c) MN = (−11 −5
), NM = ( 2 8 24 ), MN≠M
−18 −21
−3 −12 −36
d) Consult with your teacher.
1 1

4. a.(42 2
4) b. (−1) c. x = 8, y = 126, z = -7/3 d. (1 0)
2 0 1
5 5
3 4
e. a = 2, b = 2 f. x = , y = 0, z =
2 3

289
5. Consult with your teacher.
1
6. a. b. (5 4) c. x = 2, y = 3 d. consult with your teacher
1
3 5
e. x = , y = 0, z = f. and g. consult with your teacher
4 4
7. Consult with your teacher.
Exercise 4.1
1. (a) x2+y2+8x–64 (b) y–5 = 0 (c) x+3 = 0
(d) x2+y2+10x+2y–7 = 0 (e) x2+y2–2x–12y–12 = 0
2. (a) (1, 1) (b) (1, 3) (c) yes (i) yes (ii) No (iii) yes (iv) yes
15
(d) Show to your teacher (e) (f) (4, 4)
14
3. (a) (x-a)2 +(y-b)2 = k2
(b) (i) x2-4y+4 = 0 (ii) 3x–5y = 1 (iii) 3x–y = 5
(iv) 7x+4y = 4 (v) x-y = 0
4. Show to your teacher
Exercise 4.2

1. (a) 5 units (b) 64 units (c) √8 Units (d) √85 units

−4 −7 21 11 −1 4 4
2. (a)(1, ) (b) ( , ) (c) ( , ) (d) ( , )
5 5 5 7 7 5 5
10
3. (a) (–28, –23) (b) ( , 5) (c) (–11, 33) (d) (−7)
3

4. (a) (6, 3) (b) (3, 5) (c) (–4, 1) (d) (1, 1) (e) (6, 1)
7
5. (a) 1: 6 (b) 2: 1 (c) 4: 7 (d) 1: 2 (e) 2: 5, 4
9

6. (a) (–5, –2), (–2, –4) and (1, –6) (b) (0, 7), (3, 5)
(c) Show to your teacher
15 92
7. (a) (–5, 0) and (0, )(b) ( , 0) and (0, 8) (c) Show to your teacher.
2 3

8. (a) Show to your teacher. (b) Parallelogram (c) (–8, 2)

(d) Show to your teacher (f) (8, 3) (g) Show to your teacher
10 10
9. (a) (i) (1, 4) (ii) (2, –3) (iii) ( , )
3 3

290
 (b) (3, 1) (c) –5, –5 (d) √53 units (e) (4, 0), (0, 6)

Exercise 4.3
1
1. (a) (b) 1 (c) 0 (d) √3
√3

2. (a) 450 (b) 600 (c) 300 (d) 00

1 5 2
3. (a) 1 (b) (c) (d)
2 2 3
4. (a) 3 (b) 7 (c) –2
5. (a) y = 0 (b) x = 0 (c) x = 3 (d) x = –2
(e) y = 5 (f) y = –4 (g) y = 2 (h) x = –3
6. Show to your teacher.
7. (a) a = 6, b = 6 (b) a = 10, b = 10
Exercise 4.4
1.(a) y = 5x + 3 (b) x - y = 4 (c) 2x – 3y + 12 = 0
(d) 𝑥 − √3y + 3 = 0 (e) √3y = y
2. (a) 𝑥 − √3y + 4√3 = 0 (b) √3y + y = 5 (c) 𝑥 + y = 6
(d) 3𝑥 + 𝑦 = 4, x − y + 4 = 0
3. (a) 3𝑥 − 4y = 12 (b) 𝑥 − y + 3 = 0
(c) 𝑥 + y = 5 (d)3𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 12 = 0
4. (a) 𝑥 + y = 8 (b) (i) x + y = 10 (ii) 𝑥 − y = 2
(c) 𝑥 − 2y = 7 (d) 4𝑥 + 3y = 12, 16𝑥 + 3y = 24
5. (a) 𝑥 + 2y = 6 (b) 8𝑥 + 5y + 10 = 0 (c) 9𝑥 − 20y + 96 = 0
6. (a) √3𝑥 + y = 4 (b) 𝑥 + y = 6√2 (c) y = 5
(d) 𝑥 − √3y + 6 = 0 (e) 𝑥 + √3y = 14 (f) 𝑥 + y = 4
7. (a) 𝑥 + y = 6 (b) √3y + y = 6 (c) 𝑥 + √3y = 5
Exercise 4.5
8 8
1. (a) y = – 4x – 3; – 4, – 3 (b) y = 𝑥 − 2; 𝑥 − 2
3 3
−5 −5 5 3
(c) y = 𝑥 + 3; , 3 (d) y = 4𝑥 + (e) y = 3𝑥 −
3 3 3 2

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 𝑥 4 𝑥 4
2. (a) − = 1, 4 − 3 (b) + = 1. −3, 3
4 3 −3 3
𝑥 4 𝑥 y
(c) + = 1; 5, 5 (d) + − 1, −4, 4
5 5 −4 4
𝑥 y 𝑥 y
(e) − = 1, 5, −2 (f) + = 1, −9, 27
5 2 −9 24

3. (a) xcos 60 + y sin 60 = 2, 60, 2

(b) xcos 45 + ysin 45 = 2 45,
(c) xcos 30 + ysin 30 = 5, 300, 5
3 3
(d) 𝑥cox −1 ( ) + ysin−1 ( ) = 5
4 5

e) xcos 30 + ysin30 = 3, 30, 3

x 4
4. (a) y = √3𝑥 − 6, 2 + = 1, 𝑥cos 30 +ysin30 = 3
⁄ 6
√3
11 x y 11
(b) y = √3𝑥 − , 11 + 11 = 1; 𝑥cos300 + ysin300 =
2 √3 4
2 √3 2

−3 1 x y 4 6 3√2
(c) y = 𝑥+ ; +1 = 1; 𝑥cos−1 ( ) + y sin−1 ( ) =
2 √2 3⁄ ⁄ √50 √50 √50
√2 √2
1 x y
(d) ) y = 𝑥 − 2√3; − = 1; 𝑥cos300 − ysin300 = 3
√3 6 2√3

5. (a) 6sq. units (b) 14sq. unit (c) Show to your teacher
Exercise 4.6

1. (a) √3 − y + 5 − 3√3 = 0 (b) 𝑥 + √3y + 2 + 4√3 = 0

(c) √3𝑥 + y − 2 + 5√3 = 0 (d) 𝑥 − y = 11
(e) 𝑥 − √3y = 7 − 4√3
2. (a) 2𝑥 − 7y + 29 = 0 (b) 𝑥 + y = 1 (c) 3𝑥 − 5y = 25
(d) 2𝑥 − y = 0 (e) b𝑥 + ay = ab
3. (a) Show to your teacher.
4. (a) 𝑥 + y = 9 (b) Show to your teacher
(c) 𝑥 − 5y = 0 (d) 3𝑥 − y = 0
5. (a) 2x + y = 1, x – 2y = 3, x + 3y = 8 (b) 2𝑥 − 3y = 13, √13
(c) 𝑥 + y = 9, √50 (d) Show to your teacher.

292
6. (a) a = 6 (b) b = 2 (c) k = 6 (d) p = 0
Exercise 4.7
3√3−8 7+5√2
1. (a) units (b) units (c) 8 units (d) 1 units
2 √2
1 17
(e) 5 units (f) √𝑝2 + 𝑞 2 (g) units (h) units
√2 5
19
2. (a) 8 units (b) √34 units (c) units (d) 8 units
2√13

(e) 4 units
3. (a) 20 or 6 (b) –6
Exercise 4.8
1. (a) 5sq. unit (b) 1 sq. unit (c) 8 sq. unit (d) 4.5 sq. units
(e) 8 sq. unit (f) 10 sq. unit (g) 0 sq. unit (h) 7 sq. unit
(i) 0 sq. unit (j) 10 sq. unit
2. Show to your teacher.
3. (a) 24 sq. unit (b) 2.5 sq. unit (c) 20.5 sq. unit
(d) 41 sq. units (e) 44 sq. unit
4. Show to your teacher.
11 8
5. (a) (b) (c) –3 (d) Show to your teacher.
8 5
9
6. (a) (2, 4) 6 sq. units (b) (i) 18 sq unit and sq. unit.
2
Exercise 5.1
2. (a) 198030'' b) 36925'' c) 201388''
3. (a)36.9 b) 25.29833 c) 48.84583
4. (a) 250029'' b) 253429'' c) 257499''
5. (a).36.3g b)27.283g c )79.4723
6. (a) 38.29 b) 32.08905 c) 76.90090
7(a) 75.5 b) 46.917 c)85.4111
8. (a) 60.75π/180 b) 57.84084π/180 c) 67.572π/180
9. a) 22.30' b) 51.25' 42.8574 c) 16.52'30"
10. a) 12950' b) 50' c) 47961'9''

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11. a) 80.1 b) 83.3 c) 104g d) 79g e) πc/4
12. a) 107.1 b) 2π/9, 5π/18, π/2 c) 409, 80g, 120g, 160g
d)10.5, 52.5 e) 25:27
13. a) 750 b) 97.50 c)19π/24
14. a) 254.78g b) 0.037cm c) 49.49cm d) 33.33m
e) 4.365cm f)11.62cm
Exercise 5.2
2 a. cosθ = 4/5 tanθ = 3/4
b. sinA = 5/13, TanA = 5/12 CosecA = 13/5
c. sinθ = 15/17 cotθ = 8/15 cosecθ = 17/15
2√𝑎 𝑎−1 1
d. sinα = cosα = e. cosx = Tanx = 1
𝑎+1 𝑎+1 √2
213 1 1
3. a) − b) − c)
60 5 18
56 33 16 63 56 16
4. a) b) c) d) e) f) −
65 65 65 65 33 63
5. a. 2mn
Exercise 5.3
1 √3−1 2√3+1 √3 5
2. a) b) c) d) e) 2 f)
4 2√2 2 2 4
√2 13
g) 0 h) 3 i) − j)
√6+2 6

6. a) x = -4 b) 3 c) 3 d) 4 e) 3
Exercise 5.4
2. a. sin2A – sin2B b. -2cosα c. 1- cos2α d. 1 - tan4A
e. 1 – sin4A f. 1 – tan4α
3. a. (tanA + sinA) (tanA – sinA) b. (cosA –SecA) (cos A + secA)
c. sin2x( 1 + cos2x) d. (sec2θ + cos2θ) (secθ + cosθ) (secθ – cosθ)
e. (sinx + 2) (sinx +3)
Exercise 5.5
−√3 −1 −1 2
2. a) b) c) –1 d) e) –1 f) –1 g)
2 √2 √2 √3

294
 sinA.cosA−1
3. a. b. –tan2A
CosA
1 7 3 1 1
7. a.− b. − c. − d. e. f. 1+ √2
2 6 2 2 2
7 3
g. h. − i. 0 j. 2
2 2
1
8. a. – cosecA b. 1 c. tanA d) –sinα e. sec2 f.
𝑠𝑖𝑛α×cosα
Exercise 5.6
√3+1 √3+1 √3+1 √3+1
2. (a) ( b) (c) (d) 2-√3 (e)
2√2 2√2 2√2 √3−1
−√3−1 −√3−1 √3+1
(f) -2 -√3 (g) (h) ( i) √3 ( j)
2√2 2√2 2√2
√3−1 √3+1
3. (a) (b) (c) 0
√2 √2
56 63 56
8. (a) (b) (c)
65 65 33
1 1
9. (a) − (b) (c) -7
5√2 √2
16 4 𝑚
12. (a) (b) (c)
162 5 𝑚+1
Exercise 6.1
1. (a) Show to your teacher.
2. (a) (2, 1) (b) (–3, 11) (c) (6, 8) (d) (2, 3) (e) (–1, –4) (f) (–1, –1)
3. Show to your teacher.
1 11
4. (a) √5, tan –1( ) ; (−2, −1) (b) √130, tan –1( ) , (3, −11)
2 3
-1 4 -1 4
(c) 10, tan ( ) , (−6, −8) (d) √13, tan ( ) , (−2, −3)
3 3
9 9 −1 −1 −1 −10
5. (a) ( )( , ) (b) ( )( , )
−1 √82 √82 −1 √101 √101
15 3 1 −7 −7 4
(c) ( ) ( , ) (d) ( ) ( , )
5 √10 √10 4 √65 √65

6. Show to your teacher.

7. (a) (5, 7) (b) (–4, –5) (c) (2, 2) (d) (0, 1)

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Exercise 6 .2
9 −6 −20 25
1. (a) ( ) (b) ( ) (c) ( ) (d) ( ) (e) 25
11 −8 24 30

(f) 2√61 (g) 10 + √61

2. (a) (6, 11) (b) (–6, –2) (c) (8, –5) (d) (0, 0)
(e) (–2, 3) (f) (6, 6)
13 0
3. (a) ( ) (b) ( ) (c) 4√6 (d) (5, –1) (e) (–1, –9)
2 −23

(f) √82 (g) √26 4. Show to your teacher.

5. (a) –⃗⃗⃗⃗
4i (b) (3, 4)
1 −3 −6 7
(c) i − 3𝑗
⃗⃗⃗ √10, ( , ) (d) (–6, 7), √85, ( , )
√10 √10 √85 √85

6, 7 and 8 show to your teacher.

Exercise 7.1
4 a. (4, 2) b. (-4, -2) c. (-2, 4) d. (2, -4) e. (2, -2) f. (4, 2)
5 a. (-2, 3) b. (1, 4) c. (-5, -6) 6 a.(-5, -3) b. (-1, 0) d. (0, -6)
7 a. (-7, -5) and (-5, 2) b. (-6, -1) and (-4, 2) c. (-6, 0) and (-2, -4)
7
8 a. ((1, 3) b. (-5 , 7) 9 a. ( a = , b= 8) b. (p= 2, q= 3)
3
10 a. x-axis b. y = x
11 a. (1, -2) (0, 2) (2, -3) b. (-2, -1) (2 0) (-3, -2)
12 a. (-1, 3) (0, 5) (2, 1) (3, 4) b. (-2, -9) (0, -8) (2, -9) (0, -10)
Exercise 7.2
4 a.(1, 3) b. (-3 , 1) c. (-1 , -3) d. (1, 3) e. (-3, 1) f. (-1, -3)
5 a. (-6, 4) b. (-4, 2) c. (6, -5) 6 a. (-5, -3) b. (0, 5) c. (-4, 0)
7a. (-3, -5) (-1, -2) b. (-2, 1) (0, -2) c.(-2, 0) (2, 4)
8a. 90 +ve b. (7, 5)
1
9 a. (a = − , b = 9) b. ( p = 1 , q = 4)
2
10 a. -90 (-ve) b. 180 or Half turn
11 a. (3 , -1) (-4, 0) ( -2, 2) b. (-2, 3) (2. 1) (-3, 0)

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12 a. (1, -3) (2, -5) (4, -1) (5 , -4) b. (0, 2) (2, 3) (3, -1) (4, -3)
Exercise 7.3
4a. (5, 2) b. (-1, 7)
11 . (i) (5, -3) (1, -2) (6, 1) (ii) (4, -4) (7, -3) (6, -6) , (3, -6)
b. (0, -5), (4, -4), (6, -6), (2, -7)
Exercise 7.4
2 5
4. a.( -4, -6) b. (− , ) c. (-9, -5)
3 3

5. a. x = 3, y = 2 b. p = 3, q = 3
1
6. a. b. k = 1
2
3 3 3
7. a (4, 2) (-4, 2) (-6, 2) b. (0, 0) ( , ) ( 0, )
2 2 2
8. a (3, -2) (3, 0) (-3, 6) (-7, 2) b. (-7, -6) (-1, -12) (-1, -9) (2, -6)
Exercise 8.1
2. (a) 26 (b) 75 3 (a) 20 (b) 20 4. (a) 42 (b) 59
5. (a) 6 (b) 20 6. (a) 40 (b) 45 7. (a) 16 (b) 40
8. (a) 23.75, 32, 52.25 (b) 23, 39, 48
9. (a) 69.75, 60, 60 (b) 24.17, 34, 50.45
10. (a) 5, 11 (b) 12, 25 11.(a) 45, 45, 45 (b) 55, 55, 55
Exercise 8.2 (A)
2. (a) 11.5, 0.333 (b) 19.35, 0.60 (c) 61 (d) 40
(e) 65.90 (f) 8.44
3. (a) 46.5, 77.5 (b) 54.4, 105.6
4. (a) 15.5, 0.216 (b) 2, 0.1404 (c) 3.625, 0.19
5. (a) 4, 0.2 (b) 10, 0.25 (c) 10, 0.222
Exercise 8.2 (B)
1. (a) 12.48, 0.17 (b) 1.5, 0.103 (c) 2.83, 0.145
2. (a) 12.42, 0.177 (b) 1.5, 0.1 (c) 2.76, 0.145
3. (a) 3.66, 0.189 (b) 12.29, 0.34 (c) 55.12, 1.17

297
4. (a) 24.39, 0.97 (b) 20.46, 6.821 (c) 11.82, 0.295
Exercise 8.2 (C)
3. (a) 11.33, 0.36 (b) 3.52, 0.15 (c) 8.92, 0.26
4. (a) 6.81, 0.172 (b) 3.9 , 0.05 (c) 4.78, 0.054
5. (a) 34.75, 0.25 (b) 33.78, 0.29 (c) 74.64, 23.9
6. (a) 63.01, 19.70 (b) 217.46, 24.7
7. (a) 39.88, 52.22 (b) 37.13, 61.89
8. (a) 5.76, 12.37 (b) 10.49, 6.9

298