Packet Switching

Around 1970, research began on a new form

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Introduction
Packet Switching refers to protocols in
which messages are divided into packets
before they are sent. Each packet is then
transmitted individually and can even
follow different routes to its destination.
Once all the packets forming a message
arrive at the destination, they are
recompiled into the original message.

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Packet Switching Operation
Data are transmitted in short packets. Typically
an upper bound on packet size is 1000 octets.
If a station has a longer message to send it
breaks it up into a series of small packets. Each
packet now contains part of the user's data and
some control information.
The control information should at least contain:
Destination Address
Source Address
Store and forward - Packets are received, stored
briefly (buffered) and past on to the next node 3
 Advantages
Line efficiency
Single node to node link can be shared by many
packets over time
Packets queued and transmitted as fast as possible
Data rate conversion
Each station connects to the local node at its own
speed
Nodes buffer data if required to equalize rates
Packets are accepted even when network is busy
Delivery may slow down
Priorities can be used
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Switching Technique - Virtual
Circuits and Datagrams
Station breaks long message into packets
Packets sent one at a time to the network
Packets handled in two ways
Datagram
Virtual circuit

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Datagram Packet Switching
In datagram approach each packet is treated
independently with no reference to packets that
have gone before. No connection is set up.
Packets can take any practical route
Packets may arrive out of order
Packets may go missing
Up to receiver to re-order packets and recover
from missing packets
More processing time per packet per node
Robust in the face of link or node failures.
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Packet
Switching
Datagram
Approach

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 Virtual Circuit Packet
Switching
 In the Virtual Circuit approach a pre-planned route is
established before any packets are sent.
 There is a call set up before the exchange of data
(handshake).
 All packets follow the same route and therefore arrive in
sequence.
 Each packet contains a virtual circuit identifier instead of
destination address
 More set up time
 No routing decisions required for each packet - Less routing
or processing time
 Susceptible to data loss in the face of link or node failure
 Clear request to drop circuit
 Not a dedicated path 8
Packet
Switching
Virtual
Circuit
Approach

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Virtual Circuits vs. Datagram
Virtual circuits
Network can provide sequencing and error
control
Packets are forwarded more quickly
No routing decisions to make
Less reliable
Loss of a node looses all circuits through that node
Datagram
No call setup phase
Better if few packets
More flexible
Routing can be used to avoid congested parts of the
network
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Packet switching -
datagrams or virtual circuits
Interface between station and network node
Connection oriented
Station requests logical connection (virtual circuit)
All packets identified as belonging to that connection
& sequentially numbered
Network delivers packets in sequence
External virtual circuit service
e.g. X.25
Different from internal virtual circuit operation
Connectionless
Packets handled independently
External datagram service
Different from internal datagram operation
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External
Virtual
Circuit and
Datagram
Operation

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Internal
Virtual
Circuit and
Datagram
Operation

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Circuit vs. Packet Switching
Performance
Propagation delay
Transmission time
Node delay

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Comparison with Circuit
Switching - Event Timing

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Comparison with Circuit
Switching

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Routing
Complex, crucial aspect of packet switched
networks
Characteristics required
Correctness
Simplicity
Stability
Fairness
Efficiency

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Routing Performance Criteria
Used for selection of route
Minimum hop
Least cost
Using some algorithm
Delay
Throughput

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Routing Decision Time and
Place
Time
Packet basis
virtual circuit basis
Place
Distributed
Made by each node
Centralized
Source (originating node)

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Fixed Routing
Single permanent route for each source to
destination pair
Determine routes using a least cost
algorithm
Route fixed, at least until a change in
network topology

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Fixed Routing
Tables

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Flooding
No network info required
Packet sent by node to every neighbor
Incoming packets retransmitted on every link
except incoming link
Eventually a number of copies will arrive at
destination
Each packet is uniquely numbered so duplicates
can be discarded
Nodes can remember packets already forwarded
to keep network load in bounds
Can include a hop count in packets 22
Flooding
Example

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Properties of Flooding
All possible routes are tried
Very robust
At least one packet will have taken
minimum hop count route
Can be used to set up virtual circuit
All nodes are visited
Useful to distribute information (e.g. routing)

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Random Routing
Node selects one outgoing path for
retransmission of incoming packet
Selection can be random or round robin
Can select outgoing path based on
probability calculation
No network info needed
Route is typically not least cost nor
minimum hop

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Adaptive Routing
Used by almost all packet switching networks
Routing decisions change as conditions on the
network change
Failure
Congestion
Requires info about network
Decisions more complex
Tradeoff between quality of network info and
overhead
Reacting too quickly can cause oscillation
Too slowly to be relevant
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Adaptive Routing -
Advantages
Improved performance
Aid congestion control (See chapter 12)
Complex system
May not realize theoretical benefits

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Packet Switching Evolution
X.25 packet-switched network
Router-based networking
Switching vs. routing
Frame relay network
ATM network

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 Switching vs Routing
 Switching  Routing
 path set up at connection  can work as connectionless
time  complex routing algorithm
 simple table look up  table maintainance via
 table maintainance via protocol
signaling  out of sequence delivery
 no out of sequence delivery likely
 lost path may lose  robust: no connections lost
connection  significant processing delay
 much faster than pure  output link decision based on
routing packet header contents - at
 link decision made ahead of every node
time, and resources
allocated then 29