How the Web Works

Chapter 1

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

© 2015 Pearson
Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals ofhttp://www.funwebdev.com
Web Development
 Objectives

1 Definitions and
History 2 Internet
Protocols

3
Client-Server
Model 4 Where is the
Internet?

5 Domain Name
System 6 Uniform Resource
Locators (URL)

Hypertext Transfer
7 Protocol
Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development
 Section 1of 8
DEFINITIONS AND HISTORY
Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development
 Internet = Web?
The answer is no

The World-Wide Web (WWW or simply the Web) is certainly what

most people think of when they see the word “internet.”

But the WWW is only a subset of the Internet.

The Internet is the infrastructure

that connects computers.

The World Wide Web is the

method of accessing that
infrastructure.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 Communication Definitions
We will begin with the telephone

Telephone networks provide a good starting place to learn about

modern digital communications.

In the telephone networks of old, calls were routed through

operators who physically connected caller and receiver by
connecting a wire to a switchboard to complete the circuit.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 Circuit Switching

A circuit switching establishes an actual physical

connection between two people through a series of
physical switches.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 Circuit Switching
Its Limitations

Circuit Switching Weaknesses

▪You must establish a link and maintain a dedicated
circuit for the duration of the call
▪Difficult to have multiple conversations
simultaneously
▪ Wastes bandwidth since even the silences are
transmitted

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 ARPANET
The beginnings of the Internet

The research network ARPANET was created. In the

1960s
▪ ARPANET did not use circuit switching
▪ it used packet switching

A packet-switched network does not require a continuous

connection. Instead it splits the messages into smaller
chunks called packets and routes them to the appropriate
place based on the destination address.
The packets can take different routes to the destination.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 Packet Switching
......
Thou ma p of w oe, t h at
thu s d ost ta lk in signs! Thou map of woe, that
thus dost talk in sign s !

Sender
address

Original message
broken into

Original message
reassembled from
packets

Randy Connolly a n d Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of W e b Developmen t

 Packet Switching
Isn’t this more complicated?

While packet switching may seem a more complicated

and inefficient approach than circuit switching, it is:
▪more robust (it is not reliant on a single pathway
that may fail) and
▪a more efficient use of network resources (since a
circuit can communicate multiple connections).

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 Short History of the Internet
Perhaps not short enough

The early ARPANET network was funded and

controlled by the United States government, and was
used exclusively for academic and scientific purposes.
The early network started small with just a handful of
connected campuses in 1969 and grew to a few
hundred by the early 1980s.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 TCP/IP
Rides to the rescue

To promote the growth and unification of the disparate

networks a suite of protocols was invented to unify the
networks together.

By 1981, new networks built in the US began to adopt the

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol)
communication model (discussed in the next section),
while older networks were transitioned over to it.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 Tim Berners-Lee
I meant Sir Tim Berners-Lee

The invention of the WWW is usually attributed to

the British Tim Berners-Lee, who, along with the
Belgian Robert Cailliau, published a proposal in
1990 for a hypertext system while both were
working at CERN in Switzerland.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 Core Features of the Web

Shortly after that initial proposal Berners-Lee developed

the main features of the web:
1. A URL to uniquely identify a resource on the WWW.
2. The HTTP protocol to describe how requests and
responses operate.
3. A software program (later called web server software)
that can respond to HTTP requests.
4. HTML to publish documents.
5. A program (later called a browser) to make HTTP
requests from URLs and that can display the HTML it
receives.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 W3C
The World Wide Web Consortium

Also in late 1994, Berners-Lee helped found the World Wide Web
Consortium (W3C), which would soon become the international
standards organization that would oversee the growth of the
web.
This growth was very much facilitated by the decision of CERN to
not patent the work and ideas done by its employee and instead
left the web protocols and code-base royalty free.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 Web Apps Compared to Desktop Apps
First the advantages of web apps

Some of the advantages of web applications include:

• Accessible from any internet-enabled computer.
• Usable with different operating systems and browser platforms.
• Easier to roll out program updates since only need to update software on
server and not on every desktop in organization.
• Centralized storage on the server means fewer concerns about local
storage (which is important for sensitive information such as health care
data).

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 Web Apps Compared to Desktop Apps
Now the disadvantages of web apps

Some of the disadvantages of web applications include:

• Requirement to have an active internet connection (the internet is not always
available everywhere at all times).
• Security concerns about sensitive private data being transmitted over the
internet.
• Concerns over the storage, licensing and use of uploaded data.
• Problems with certain websites on certain browsers not looking quite right.
• Limited access to the operating system can prevent software and hardware
from being installed or accessed (like Adobe Flash on iOS).

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 What is an “Intranet”?
A short digression

One of the more common terms you might encounter

in web development is the term “intranet” (with an
“a”), which refers to an internet network that is local
to an organization or business.
Intranet resources are often private, meaning that only
employees (or authorized external parties such as
customers or suppliers) have access to those
resources.
Thus Internet (with an “e”) is a broader term that
encompasses both private (intranet) and public
networked resources.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 What is an “Intranet”?
Intranets are typically protected from unauthorized external access
via security features such as firewalls or private IP ranges.
Because intranets are private, search engines such as Google have
limited or no access to content within a private intranet.
Due to this private nature, it is difficult to accurately gauge, for
instance, how many web pages exist within intranets, and what
technologies are more common in them.
Some especially expansive estimates guess that almost half of all web
resources are hidden in private intranets.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 Intranet versus Internet

Financial and other Off-site workers might be

enterprise systems able to access internal
system.

Firewall

Public can
access public
Customers and corporate web system.
partners might be able to
access internal system.

Randy Connolly a n d Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of W e b Developmen t

 Static Web Sites
Partying Like It’s 1995

In the earliest days of the web, a webmaster (the term popular

in the 1990s for the person who was responsible for creating
and supporting a web site) would publish web pages, and
periodically update them.
In those early days, the skills needed to create a web site were
pretty basic: one needed knowledge of the HTML markup
language and perhaps familiarity with editing and creating
images.
This type of web site is commonly referred to as a static web site,
in that it consists only of HTML pages that look identical for all
users at all times.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 Static Web Sites
I want to see
0 vacation.html

0 Browser
displays files

8 Server retrieves files

from its hard drive

0
• ..,

Server "sends" HTML

and then later the image
_
to browser
vaclati tml
pi ctu re . j pg

Randy Connolly a n d Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of W e b Developmen t

 Dynamic Web Sites

Within a few years of the invention of the web, sites

began to get more complicated as more and more
sites began to use programs running on web servers
to generate content dynamically.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 Dynamic We b Sites
0 I want t o see
vacation.php

8• Browser
displays files
8 Server recognizes
that it must run a
dynamic script that
is on its hard drive.
0 Server "sends"
generated HTML
and the image
file t o user.
) Server executes
or interprets

0 Scripts
EJ the script.
"outputs" HTML
vacation.php

Randy Connolly a n d Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of W e b Developmen t

 Dynamic Web Sites
What are they?

These server-based programs would read content from

databases, interface with existing enterprise computer
systems, communicate with financial institutions, and
then output HTML that would be sent back to the
users’ browsers.
This type of web site is called here in this book a
dynamic web site because the page content is being
created at run-time by a program created by a
programmer; this page content can vary for user to
user.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 Web 2.0 and Beyond

In the mid 2000s, a new buzz-word entered the

computer lexicon: web 2.0.
This term had two meanings, one for users and one
for developers.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 Web 2.0
Its meaning for users

For the users, Web 2.0 referred to an interactive

experience where users could contribute and consume web
content, thus creating a more user- driven web experience.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 Web 2.0
Its meaning for developers

For software developers, Web 2.0 also referred to a change in the

paradigm of how dynamic web sites are created.
Programming logic, which previously existed only on
the server, began to migrate to the browser.
This required learning Javascript, a rather tricky programming
language that runs in the browser, as well as mastering the rather
difficult programming techniques involved in asynchronous
communication.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 Section 2 of 8
INTERNET PROTOCOLS
Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development
 What’s a Protocol?

The internet exists today because of a suite of

interrelated communications protocols.
A protocol is a set of rules that partners in
communication use when they communicate.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 A Layered Architecture

The TCP/IP Internet protocols were originally

abstracted as a four-layer stack.
Later abstractions subdivide it further into five or
seven layers.
Since we are focused on the top layer anyhow, we will
use the earliest and simplest four-layer network
model.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 Four Layer Network Model

Randy Connolly a n d Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of W e b Developmen t

 Link Layer
Save this for your networking course

The link layer is the lowest layer, responsible for both the
physical transmission across media (wires, wireless) and
establishing logical links.
It handles issues like packet creation, transmission,
reception and error detection, collisions, line sharing and
more.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 Internet Layer

The internet layer (sometimes also called the IP Layer)

routes packets between communication partners across
networks.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 Internet Protocol (IP)

The Internet uses the Internet Protocol (IP) addresses to

identify destinations on the Internet.
Every device connected to the Internet has an IP
address, which is a numeric code that is meant to
uniquely identify it.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 IP addresses and the Internet
c . - ... 00.
,._.,_
a. -

1..---
CI0'-
1Pv4
M
address
. .. . -

IP: 22.15.216.13
10'-
. . . Doldc;.._
- 0k l S .. .

All r i g h u
reserved.

W1ndo..s I P Conhguration

Ethernet adapter Local Area Connection:

IP : 142.108.149.36 connecnon-spec1f1c DNS suff1X
IPv4 Address . .
subnet Mask • • •
. . . . . 192.168.123.254
. .
oefau l Gauway . . . . . .
. .
:\>

IP: 192.168.123.254

IPAddre s s

OHCP BootP Static

- - - - - - -

IP Addres s 10.239.28.131 IP: 142.181.80.3

Randy Connolly a n d Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of W e b Developmen t

 IP Addresses
Two types

IPv4 addresses are the IP addresses from the original

TCP/IP protocol.
In IPv4, 12 numbers are used (implemented as four 8-
bit integers), written with a dot between each integer.
Since an unsigned 8-bit integer's maximum value is 255,
four integers together can encode approximately
4.2 billion unique IP addresses.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 IP Addresses
Two types

To future proof the Internet against the 4.2 billion limit,

a new version of the IP protocol was created, IPv6.
This newer version uses eight 16-bit integers for 2128
unique addresses, over a billion billion times the number
in IPv4.
These 16-bit integers are normally written in
hexadecimal, due to their longer length.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 4 - 8 bit components
1Pv4
(32 bits)
232 addresses

192.168.123.254

8 - 16 bit components
1Pv6
(128 bits)
2 128 addresses

3fae:7a10:4545:9:291:e8ff:fe21:37ca

Randy Connolly a n d Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of W e b Developmen t

 Transport Layer

The transport layer ensures transmissions arrive, in order,

and without error.
This is accomplished through a few mechanisms.
First, the data is broken into packets formatting according to the
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 Transport Layer

Secondly, each packet is acknowledged back to the sender so

in the event of a lost packet, the transmitter will realize a
packet has been lost since no ACK arrived for that packet.
That packet is retransmitted, and although out of order, is
reordered at the destination.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 TCP Packets
• Message broken
into packets with a
sequence number.

11IThou map o f woe, I

Thou map of woe, that
thus dost talk in signs! I 2 1that thus dost I
I3 1talk in signs! I

For each TCP packet

sent, an ACK
(acknowledgement)
must be received back.

Thou map of woe, that

thus dost talk in signs!
e Eventually, sender will
0 Message reassembled from
resend any packets that packets and ordered according
didn 't get an ACK back. to their sequence numbers.

Randy Connolly a n d Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of W e b Developmen t

 Application Layer

With the application layer, we are the level of protocols

familiar to most web developers.
Application layer protocols implement process-to- process
communication and are at a higher level of abstraction in
comparison to the low-level packet and IP addresses protocols
in the layers below it.
Examples: HTPP, SSH, FTP, DNS, POP, SMTP.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 Section 3 of 8
CLIENT-SERVER MODEL
Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development
 Client-Server Model
What is it?

The web is sometimes referred to as a client-server

model of communications.
In the client-server model, there are two types of
actors: clients and servers.
The server is a computer agent that is normally active
24 hours a day, 7 days a week (or simply 24/7),
listening for queries from any client who make a
request.
A client is a computer agent that makes requests and
receives responses from the server, in the form of
response codes, images, text files, and other data.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 Request-Response Loop

Within the client-server model, the request-response

loop is the most basic mechanism on the server for
receiving requests and transmitting data in response.
The client initiates a request to a server and gets a
response that could include some resource like an
HTML file, an image or some other data.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 The Peer-to-Peer Alternative
Not actually illegal

In the peer-to-peer model where each computer is

functionally identical, each node is able to send and
receive directly with one another.
In such a model each peer acts as both a client and
server able to upload and download information.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 Peer-to-Peer Model

Request and Respond

Randy Connolly a n d Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of W e b Developmen t

 Server Types
A server is rarely just a single computer

Earlier, the server was shown as a single machine,

which is fine from a conceptual standpoint.
Clients make requests for resources from a URL; to the
client, the server is a single machine.
However, most real-world web sites are typically not
served from a single server machine, but by many
servers.
It is common to split the functionality of a web site
between several different types of server.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 Server Types

Randy Connolly a n d Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of W e b Developmen t

 Server Farms
Have no cows

A single web server that is also acting as an application

or database server will be hard-pressed to handle more
than a few hundred requests a second, so the usual
strategy for busier sites is to use a server farm.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 Server Farm

Randy Connolly a n d Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of W e b Developmen t

 Server Farms

The goal behind server farms is to distribute incoming

requests between clusters of machines so that any
given web or data server is not excessively
overloaded.
Special routers called load balancers distribute
incoming requests to available machines.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 Server Farms

Even if a site can handle its load via a single server, it is

not uncommon to still use a server farm because it
provides failover redundancy.
That is, if the hardware fails in a single server, one of
the replicated servers in the farm will maintain the
site’s availability.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 Server Racks

In a server farm, the computers do not look like the

ones in your house.
Instead, these computers are more like the plates
stacked in your kitchen cabinets.
That is, a farm will have its servers and hard drives
stacked on top of each other in server racks.
A typical server farm will consist of many server racks,
each containing many servers.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 Server Rack
Fiber channel switches

Rack management server

Test server

Keyboard t ray and flip-up monitor

Patch panel

Production w eb server

Production data server

RAID HD arrays

Patch pane l

Production w eb server

Production data server

Batteries and UPS

Randy Connolly a n d Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of W e b Developmen t

 Data Centers

Server farms are typically housed in special facilities

called data centers.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 Hypothetical Data Center
Server racks

Air conditioning

'--.
Backup
generators

UPS (batteries)

Randy Connolly a n d Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of W e b Developmen t

 Section 4 of 8
WHERE IS THE INTERNET?
Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development
 Is the Internet a Cloud?

The Internet is often visually represented as a cloud,

which is perhaps an apt way to think about the Internet
given the importance of light and magnetic pulses to its
operation.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 From the Computer to the Local Provider

Our main experience of the hardware component of

the Internet is that which we experience in our homes.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 In the House
The broadband modem (also called a cable modem or DSL modem)
is a bridge between the network hardware outside the house
(typically controlled by a phone or cable company) and the network
hardware inside the house.
These devices are often supplied by the ISP.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 Routers
The wireless router is a device we typically need to
purchase and install.
Routers are in fact one of the most important and
ubiquitous hardware devices that makes the Internet
work.
At its simplest, a router is a hardware device that
forwards data packets from one network to another
network.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 Routers and Routing Tables

Sender addr ess

142.109.149.46

1142.109.149.46 1209.202.161.240 ! 1 !Thou map of woe, I

Sender address Destination
address 127.0.0.1
65.47.242.9
Router address 65.47.242.9
140.239.191.1 90.124.1.2

Address Next Hop

208.68.17.3 140.239.191.1

Address Next Hop

142.109.149.146 66.37.223.130
etc.

Randy Connolly a n d Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of W e b Developmen t

 Fiber Optic Cable

Fiber optic cable (or simply optical fiber) is a glass-

based wire that transmits light and has significantly
greater bandwidth and speed in comparison to metal
wires.
In some cities (or large buildings), you may have fiber
optic cable going directly into individual buildings; in
such a case the fiber junction box will reside in the
building.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 Section 5 of 8
DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM (DNS)

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 Domain Name System
Why do we need it?

As elegant as IP addresses may be, human beings do

not enjoy having to recall long strings of numbers.
Instead of IP addresses, we use the Domain Name
System (DNS)

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 DNS Overview
Ineed t o go t o
www.funwebdev.com

0 What'sthe
IP address of

Here it is,
it's: 66.147.244.79

0 Here it is ...

Randy Connolly a n d Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of W e b Developmen t

 Domain Levels

Third-Level Domain l Top level Domain (TLD)

serverl.www.funwebdev.com
t
Fourth-Level Domain
t
Second-Level Domain (SLD)

Most general Top-level Domain (TLD) com

Second-Level Domain (SLD) funwebdev

Third-Level Domain www

Most specific Fourth-Level Domain serverl

Randy Connolly a n d Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of W e b Developmen t

 Types of TLDs

Generic top-level domains (gTLD)

Country code top-level domain (ccTLD)

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 Name Registration

How are domain names assigned?

Special organizations or companies called domain
name registrars manage the registration of domain
names.
These domain name registrars are given permission to
do so by the appropriate generic top-level domain
(gTLD) registry and/or a country code top-level domain
(ccTLD) registry.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 Section 6 of 8
UNIFORM RESOURCE LOCATORS (URL)

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 URL Components

In order to allow clients to request particular

resources from the server, a naming mechanism is
required so that the client knows how to ask the
server for the file.
For the web that naming mechanism is the Uniform
Resource Locator (URL).

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 Section 7 of 8
HYPERTEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL
(HTTP)
Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development
 HTTP

The HTTP protocol establishes a TCP connection on

port 80 (by default).
The server waits for the request, and then responds
with a response code, headers and an optional
message (which can include files).

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 HTTP

GET /index.html HTTP/1.1

Host: ex....,le.com
User-Agent: Mozilla/5.0 CWindows NT 6.1; WOW64;
rv:15.0) Gecko/20100101 Firefox/15.0.1
Accept: text/html,application/xhtml+xml
Accept-Language: en-us,en;q.0.5
Accept-Encoding: gzip, deflate
Connection: keep-alive
Cache-Contro1: max-age-o

HTTP/1.1 200 OK
Date: Mon, 22 Oct 2012 02:43:49 GMT
Server: Apache
Vary: Accept-Encoding
Content-Encoding: gzip
Content-Length: 4538
Connection: close
Content-Type: text/html; charset•UTF-8
<html>
<head> ...

Randy Connolly a n d Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of W e b Developmen t

 Browser Tools for HTTP

Modern browsers provide the developer with tools

that can help us understand the HTTP traffic for a
given page.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 HTTP Request Methods

The HTTP protocol defines several different types of

requests, each with a different intent and
characteristics.
The most common requests are the GET and POST
request, along with the HEAD request.
Other requests, such as PUT, DELETE, CONNECT,
TRACE and OPTIONS are seldom used, and are not
covered here.

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 GET versus POST requests
<form method="POST" action="FormProcess.php" >

Artist: Picasso

Year : 1906
1 . . . . - - - - - - - - '

Nationality: I Spain fl'l

POST /FormProcess.php http/1.1
I S u b m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .

Web server
<a href="SomePage.php ">Hyperlink</a>

GET /SomePage.php http/1.1

Randy Connolly a n d Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of W e b Developmen t

 WAMP Software Stack

Throughout this textbook we will rely on the WAMP

software stack, which refers to the Windows
operating system, Apache web server, MySQL
database, and PHP scripting language

Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development

 What You’ve Learned
1 Definitions and
History 2 Internet
Protocols

3 Client-Server
Model 4 Where is the
Internet?

5 Domain Name
System 6 Uniform
Resource
Locators (URL)

7 Hypertext
Transfer Protocol
(HTTP)
Randy Connolly and Ricardo Hoar Fundamentals of Web Development