Colloids

 a homogeneous, noncrystalline substance

 consisting of large molecules or ultramicroscopic
particles of one substance dispersed through a
second substance.
 Colloids include gels, sols, and emulsions; the
particles do not settle and cannot be separated
out by ordinary filtering or centrifuging like
those in a suspension.
 Dispersed systems consist of particulate matter (dispersed phase),
distributed throughout a continuous phase (dispersion medium).

 They are classified according to the particle diameter of the

dispersed material:

1- Molecular dispersions (less than 1 nm)

- Particles invisible in electron microscope
- Pass through semipermeable membranes and filter paper
- Particles do not settle down on standing
- Undergo rapid diffusion
- E.g. ordinary ions, glucose
2- Colloidal dispersions (1 nm - o.5 um)
- Particles not resolved by ordinary microscope, can be detected
by electron microscope.
- Pass through filter paper but not pass through semipermeable
membrane.
- Particles made to settle by centrifugation
- Diffuse very slowly
- E.g. colloidal silver sols, natural and synthetic polymers

3- Coarse dispersions (> 0.5 um)

- Particles are visible under ordinary microscope
- Do not pass through filter paper or semipermeable membrane.
- Particles settle down under gravity
- Do not diffuse
- E.g. emulsions, suspensions, red blood cells
 Particles lying in the colloidal size have large surface
area when compared with the surface area of an equal
volume of larger particles.
 Specific surface: the surface area per unit weight or
volume of material.
 The possession of large specific surface results in:
1- platinium is effective as catalyst only when found in colloidal
form due to large surface area which adsorb reactant on their
surface.
2- The colour of colloidal dispersion is related to the size of the
paticles
e.g. red gold sol takes a blue colour when the particles increase in
size
 Mass percent
 Mole fraction
 Weight volume percent
concentration
 Calculate the mass percent of 22g of CuSO4
in a 132g Benzene (MW=76) solvent.
 If 15 g of NaCl is mixed with 250 g of H2O.
What is the mole fraction of NaCl in the
solution.
 A solution is prepared by dissolving 25.5
grams of glucose in enough water to give 500
mL of the solution. What is the weight-
volume percent concentration of glucose in
the solution.
- The shape of colloidal particles in dispersion is
important:

The more extended the particle the greater its specific

surface the greater the attractive force between
the particles of the dispersed phase and the dispersion
medium.
 Flow, sedimentation and osmotic pressure of the
colloidal system affected by the shape of colloidal
particles.

 Particle shape may also influence the pharmacologic

action.
Smectic and nematic liquid
crystals are a state of
matter that exhibits both
fluid and solid properties
 In a smectic liquid crystal,
the molecules are aligned
in layers, while in a
nematic liquid crystal, the
molecules are aligned in
parallel chains.
  When a colloidal solution is prepared is often contains
certain electrolytes which tend to destabilize it. The
following methods are used for purification:

1- Dialysis:
- Semipermeable cellophane
membrane prevent the
passage of colloidal particles,
yet allow the passage of
small molecules or electrolytes.
2- Electrodialysis:
- In the dialysis unit, the movement of ions across the
membrane can be speeded up by applying an electric
current through the electrodes induced in the solution.

- The most important use of dialysis is the purification of

blood in artificial kidney machines.

- The dialysis membrane allows small particles (ions) to

pass through but the colloidal size particles
(haemoglobin) do not pass through the membrane.
1- Therapy--- Colloidal system are used as therapeutic
agents in different areas.
e.g- Silver colloid-germicidal
Copper colloid-anticancer
Mercury colloid-Antisyphilis

2- Stability---e.g. lyophobic colloids prevent

flocculation in suspensions.
e.g- Colloidal dispersion of gelatin is used in coating
over tablets and granules which upon drying leaves a
uniform dry film over them and protect them from
adverse conditions of the atmosphere.
4- Absorption--- As colloidal dimensions are small
enough, they have a huge surface area. Hence, the
drug constituted colloidal form is released in large
amount.
e.g- sulphur colloid gives a large quantity of sulphur
and this often leads to sulphur toxicity

5-Targeted Drug Delivery--- Liposomes are of colloidal

dimensions and are preferentially taken up by the
liver and spleen.
6- Photography:
A colloidal solution of silver bromide in gelatine is applied
on glass plates or celluloid films to form sensitive plates
in photography.

7- Clotting of blood:
- Blood is a colloidal solution and is negatively charged.
- On applying a solution of Fecl3 bleeding stops and blood
clotting occurs as Fe+3 ions neutralize the ion charges on
the colloidal particles.
 Types of colloids
Colloids are usually classified according to:

1- The original states of their constituent parts

2-The nature of interaction between dispersed phase and
dispersion medium.
A-Lyophilic colloids (solvent attracting) (solvent
loving) – The particles in a lyophilic system have a
great affinity for the solvent.
 If water is the dispersing medium, it is often known as
a hydrosol or hydrophilic.
 readily solvated (combined chemically or physically,
with the solvent) and dispersed, even at high
concentrations.
 More viscid
 Examples of lyophilic sols include sols of gum, gelatin, starch, proteins and
certain polymers (rubber) in organic solvents.

 the dispersed phase does not precipitate easily

 the sols are quite stable as the solute particle surrounded by two stability
factors: a- negative or positive charge
b- layer of solvent

 If the dispersion medium is separated from the dispersed phase, the sol can
be reconstituted by simply remixing with the dispersion medium. Hence,
these sols are called reversible sols.

 Prepared simply by dissolving the material in the solvent being used e.g.
dissolution of acacia in water.
 charge

B-lyophobic (solvent repelling) (solvent hating) - The particles resist

solvation and dispersion in the solvent.
- The concentration of particles is usually relatively low.
- Less viscid

- These colloids are easily precipitated on the addition of small

amounts of electrolytes, by heating or by shaking
- Less stable as the particles surrounded only with a layer of positive
or negative charge
- Once precipitated, it is not easy to reconstitute the sol by simple
mixing with the dispersion medium. Hence, these sols are called
irreversible sols.

- Examples of lyophobic sols include sols of metals and their insoluble

compounds like sulphides and oxides.
e.g. gold in water
Prepared by:
I. Physical method (Bridge‘s arc method)
- This method is employed for obtaining colloidal solutions of metals
e.g. silver, gold, platinum

ice
Dispersion medium
(Water + kOH)
 An electric current is struck between two metallic
electrodes placed in a container of water.
 The intense heat of the arc converts the metal into
vapours which condensed immediately in the cold
water bath.
 This results in the formation of particles of colloidal
size.
II. Chemical method :by oxidation
- Sulphur solution is obtained by bubbling H 2S gas through
the solution of an oxidizing agent like HNO3 or Br2 in
water , according to the following equations:
- Br2 + H2S S + 2 HBr

- HNO3 + H2S H2O + NO2 + S

C- Association / amphiphilic colloids
- Certain molecules termed amphiphiles or surface
active agents, characterized by two regions of
opposing solution affinities within the same molecule.
- At low concentration: amphiphiles exist separately
(subcolloidal size)
- At high concentration: form aggregates or micelles (50
or more monomers) (colloidal size)
 Cationic surfactant
 Benzylkonium chloride
 Dimethyldioctadecyl ammonium chloride
 Cetylpyridinium chloride
 Anionic surfactant
 Sodium lauryl sulfate
 Docusate sodium
 Sodium myreth sulfate
 Non-ionic surfactant
 Polyoxyethelene sorbitan fatty acid
 Polyoxyethelene hydroxy stearate
 Amphoteric aka Zwitterion
 (Exhibit both Anionic and cationic) Methycellulose
Critical micelle concentration (C.M.C) : the
concentration at which micelle form
- The phenomenon of micelle formation can be
explained:
1- below C.M.C: amphiphiles are adsorbed at the
air/water interface
2- As amphiphile concentration is raised: both the
interphase and bulk phase become saturated with
monomers (C.M.C)
3- any further amphiphile added in excess: amphiphiles
aggregate to form micelles
- In water: the hydrocarbon chains face inwards into
the micelle forming hydrocarbon core and surrounded
by the polar portions of the amphiphile associated
with water molecules.
- In non-polar liquid: the polar heads facing inward and
the hydrocarbon chains are associated with non-polar
liquid.
- At concentrations close to C.M.C spherical
micelles
- At higher concentrations lamellar
micelles
 Comparison of colloidal sols
Lyophilic Associated Lyophobic
Dispersed phase Dispersed phase Dispersed phase
(large organic mole. (micelles of organic (Inorganic particles as
With colloidal size) molec. Or ion –size gold)
below the colloidal
range)
Molec. of dispersed Hydrophilic and lyophilic Not formed
phase are solvated portion are solvated , spontaneously
Formed Formed at conc. above
spontaneously CMC
The viscosity ↑ with ↑ The viscosity ↑ with ↑ Not greatly increase
the dispersed phase the micelles conc.
conc.

Stable dispersion in CMC↓ with electrolytes Unstable dispersion in

presence of presence of
electrolytes electrolytes
1-Faraday-Tyndall effect
– when a strong beam of light
is passed through a colloidal
sol, the path of light is
illuminated (a visible cone
formed).

- This phenomenon resulting

from the scattering of light
by the colloidal particles.
 The same effect is noticed when a beam of sunlight
enters a dark room through a slit when the beam of
light becomes visible through the room.

 This happens due to the scattering of light by particles

of dust in the air.
2- Electron microscope
- Ultra-microscope has declined in recent years as it does
not able to resolve lyophilic colloids.

- so electron microscope is capable of yielding pictures of

actual particles size, shape and structure of colloidal
particles.

- Electron microscope has high resolving power, as its

radiation source is a beam of high energy electrons, while
that of optical microscope is visible light.
Electron Microscope
3- Light Scattering
- depend on tyndall effect.
- used to give information about particle size and shape and for
determination of molecular weight of colloids.
- Used to study proteins, association colloids and lyophobic sols.
- Scattering described in terms of turbidity, T

- Turbidity: the fractional decrease in intensity due to scattering as

the incident light passes through 1 cm of solution.

- Turbidity is proportional to the molecular weight of lyophilic

colloid
 Hc / T = 1/M + 2Bc

T: turbidity
C: conc of solute in gm / cc of solution
M: molecular weight
B: interaction constant
H: constant for a particular system
1-Brownian motion
- The zig-zag movement of colloidal
particles continuously and randomly.

 This brownian motion arises due to the

uneven distribution of the collisions
between colloid particle and the solvent
molecules.

- Brownian movement was more rapid for

smaller particles.

- It decrease with increase the viscosity of

the medium.
2- Diffusion
- Particles diffuse spontaneously from a region of higher
conc. To one of lower conc. Until the conc. of the
system is uniform throughout.
- Diffusion is a direct result of Brownian motion.
- Fick's first law used to describe the diffusion:
(The amount of Dq of substance diffusing in time dt
across a plane of area A is directly proportional to the
change of concentration dc with distance traveled

dq = -DA (dc / dx) dt

3- Osmotic pressure
- van 't hoff equation:

 = cRT
- Can be used to determine the molecular weight of
colloid in dilute solution.
- Replacing c by C / M (where C = the grams of solute /
liter of solution, M = molecular weight)

/C = RT/M
 = osmotic pressure
R= molar gas constant

4- Sedimentation
- The velocity of sedimentation is given by Stokes‘ Law:

v = d2 (i-e)g/18η

V = rate of sedimentation
D = diameter of particles
 = density of internal phase and external phase
g = gravitational constant
η = viscosity of medium
5- Viscosity:
- It is the resistance to flow of system under an applied stress. The
more viscous a liquid, the greater the applied force required to
make it flow at a particular rate.

- The viscosity of colloidal dispersion is affected by the shape of

particles of the disperse phase:
Spherocolloids dispersions of low viscosity
Linear particles more viscous dispersions
 The particles of a colloidal solution are electrically charged and
carry the same type of charge, either negative or positive.

 The colloidal particles therefore repel each other and do not cluster
together to settle down.

 The charge on colloidal particles arises because of the dissociation

of the molecular electrolyte on the surface.

 E.g. As2S3 has a negative charge

During preparation of colloidal As2S3 , H2S is absorbed on
the surface and dissociate to H+ (lost to the medium)
and S-2 remain on the surface of colloid.
 Fe(OH)3 is positively charged
Due to self dissociation and loss of OH- to the medium,so
they become [Fe(OH)3] Fe+3
 Electrophoresis is the most known electrokinetic
phenomena. It refers to the motion of charged particles
related to the fluid under the influence of an applied
electric field.
 If an electric potential is applied to a colloid, the
charged colloidal particles move toward the oppositely
charged electrode.
 It is the opposite in principal to that of electrophoresis.

 When electrodes are placed across a clay mass and a

direct current is applied, water in the clay pore space is
transported to the cathodically charged electrode by
electro-osmosis.

 Electro-osmotic transport of water through a clay is a

result of diffuse double layer cations in the clay pores
being attracted to a negatively charged electrode or
cathode. As these cations move toward the cathode,
they bring with them water molecules that clump
around the cations as a consequence of their dipolar
nature.
 The sedimentation potential also called the
(Donnan effect).
 It is the potential induced by the fall of a charged
particle under an external force field.

 It is analogous to electrophoresis in the sense that a

local electric field is induced as a result of its motion.

 if a colloidal suspension has a gradient of concentration

(such as is produced in sedimentation or
centrifugation), then a macroscopic electric field is
generated by the charge imbalance appearing at the
top and bottom of the sample column.
 Differs from electro-osmosis in that the potential
is created by forcing a liquid to flow through a
bed or plug of particles.
 Stabilization serves to prevent colloids from
aggregation.
 The presence and magnitude, or absence of a charge
on a colloidal particle is an important factor in the
stability of colloids.
 Two main mechanisms for colloid stabilization:
1-Steric stabilization i.e. surrounding each particle with
a protective solvent sheath which prevent adherence
due to Brownian movement
2-electrostatic stabilization i.e. providing the particles
with electric charge
A- Lyophobic sols:
- Unstable.
- The particles stabilized only by the presence of electrical charges
on their surfaces through the addition of small amount of
electrolytes.

- The like charges produce repulsion which prevent coagulation of the

particles and subsequent settling.

- Addition of electrolytes beyond necessary for maximum stability

results in accumulation of opposite ions and decrease zeta
potential coagulation precipitation of colloids.
- Coagulation also result from mixing of oppositely
charged colloids.
B- Lyophilic sols and association colloids:
- Stable
- Present as true solution
- Addition of moderate amounts of electrolytes not cause
coagulation (opposite lyophobic)
** Salting out:
Definition: agglomeration and precipitation of lyophilic
colloids.
 This is obtained by:
1- Addition of large amounts of electrolytes
- Anions arranged in a decreasing order of precipitating
power: citrate > tartrate > sulfate > acetate > chloride>
nitrate > bromide > iodide
- The precipitation power is directly related to the
hydration of the ion and its ability to separate water
molecules from colloidal particles

2- addition of less polar solvent

- e.g. alcohol, acetone
- The addition of less polar solvent renders the solvent
mixture unfavourable for the colloids
solubility

** Coacervation:
Definition: the process of mixing negatively and
positively charged hydrophilic colloids, and hence the
particles separate from the dispersion to form a layer
rich in the colloidal aggregates (coacervate)
 Sensitization: the addition of small amount of
hydrophilic or hydrophobic colloid to a hydrophobic
colloid of opposite charge tend to sensitize
(coagulate) the particles.
 Polymer flocculants can bridge individual colloidal
particles by attractive electrostatic interactions.
 For example, negatively-charged colloidal silica
particles can be flocculated by the addition of a
positively-charged polymer.
 Protection: the addition of large amount of
hydrophilic colloid (protective colloid) to a
hydrophobic colloid tend to stabilize the system.
 This may be due to:
The hydrophile is adsorbed as a monomolecular layer on
the hydrophobic particles.