UNIT-I

Introduction: The Structure of Complex systems, The Inherent Complexity of Software,

Attributes of Complex System, Organized and Disorganized Complexity, Bringing Order to
Chaos, Designing Complex Systems, Evolution of Object Model, Foundation of Object Model,
Elements of Object Model, Applying the Object Model.

COMPLEXITY
Systems: Systems are constructed by interconnecting components (Boundaries, Environments,
Characters, Emergent Properties), which may well be systems in their own right. The larger the
number of these components and relationships between them, higher will be the complexity of
the overall system.
Software Systems: Software systems are not any different from other systems with respect to
these characteristics. Thus, they are also embedded within some operational environment, and
perform operations which are clearly defined and distinguished from the operations of other
systems in this environment. They also have properties which emerge from the interactions of
their components and/or the interactions of themselves with other systems in their environment.
A system that embodies one or more software subsystems which contribute to or control a
significant part of its overall behavior is what we call a software intensive system. As examples
of complex software-intensive systems, we may consider stock and production control systems,
aviation systems, rail systems, banking systems, health care systems and so on.
Complexity: Complexity depends on the number of the components embedded in them as well
as the relationships and the interactions between these components which carry;
• Impossible for humans to comprehend fully
• Difficult to document and test
• Potentially inconsistent or incomplete
• Subject to change
• No fundamental laws to explain phenomena and approaches

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THE STRUCTURE OF COMPLEX SYSTEMS
Examples of Complex Systems: The structure of personal computer, plants and animals,
matter, social institutions are some examples of complex system.
The structure of a Personal Computer: A personal computer is a device of moderate
complexity. Major elements are CPU, monitor, keyboard and some secondary storage devices.
CPU encompasses primary memory, an ALU, and a bus to which peripheral devices are
attached. An ALU may be divided into registers which are constructed from NAND gates,
inverters and so on. All are the hierarchical nature of a complex system.
The structure of Plants: Plants are complex multicellular organism which are composed of
cells which is turn encompasses elements such as chloroplasts, nucleus, and so on. For example,
at the highest level of abstraction, roots are responsible for absorbing water and minerals from
the soil. Roots interact with stems, which transport these raw materials up to the leaves. The
leaves in turn use water and minerals provided by stems to produce food through
photosynthesis.
The structure of Animals: Animals exhibit a multicultural hierarchical structure in which
collection of cells form tissues, tissues work together as organs, clusters of organs define
systems (such as the digestive system) and so on.
The structure of Matter: Nuclear physicists are concerned with a structural hierarchy of
matter. Atoms are made up of electrons, protons and neutrons. Elements and elementary
particles but protons, neutrons and other particles are formed from more basic components
called quarks, which eventually formed from pro-quarks.
The structure of Social institutions: In social institutions, group of people join together to
accomplish tasks that can not be done by made of divisions which in turn contain branches
which in turn encompass local offices and so on.

THE INHERENT COMPLEXITY OF SOFTWARE

The Properties of Complex and Simple Software Systems: Software may involve elements of
great complexity which is of different kind.
Some software systems are simple.
• These are the largely forgettable applications that are specified, constructed, maintained,

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and used by the same person, usually the amateur programmer or the professional developer
working in isolation.
• Such systems tend to have a very limited purpose and a very short life span.
• We can afford to throw them away and replace them with entirely new software rather
than attempt to reuse them, repair them, or extend their functionality, Such applications are
generally more tedious than difficult to develop; consequently, learning how to design them
does not interest us.
Some software systems are complex.
• The applications that exhibit a very rich set of behaviors, as, for example, in reactive
systems that drive or are driven by events in the physical world, and for which time and space
are scarce resources; applications that maintain the integrity of hundreds of thousands of records
of information while allowing concurrent updates and queries; and systems for the command
and control of real-world entities, such as the routing of air or railway traffic.
• Software systems such as world of industrial strength software tend to have a long life
span, and over time, many users come to depend upon their proper functioning.
• The frameworks that simplify the creation of domain-specific applications, and
programs that mimic some aspect of human intelligence.
• Although such applications are generally products of research and development they are
no less complex, for they are the means and artifacts of incremental and exploratory
development.
Why Software is inherently Complex
The complexity of software is an essential property not an accidental one. The inherent
complexity derives from four elements; the complexity of the problem domain, the difficultly of
managing the developmental process, the flexibility possible through software and the problems
of characterizing the behavior of discrete systems.
1. The complexity of the problem domain
• Complex requirements
• Decay of system
The first reason has to do with the relationship between the application domains for which
software systems are being constructed and the people who develop them. Often, although

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software developers have the knowledge and skills required to develop software they usually
lack detailed knowledge of the application domain of such systems. This affects their ability to
understand and express accurately the requirements for the system to be built which come from
the particular domain. Note, that these requirements are usually themselves subject to change.
They evolve during the construction of the system as well as after its delivery and thereby they
impose a need for a continuous evolution of the system. Complexity is often increased as a result
of trying to preserve the investments made in legacy applications. In such cases, the components
which address new requirements have to be integrated with existing legacy applications. This
results into interoperability problems caused by the heterogeneity of the different components
which introduce new complexities.
Consider the requirement for the electronic systems of a multi-engine aircraft, a cellular phone
switching system or a cautious (traditional) robot. The row functionality of such systems is
difficult enough to comprehend. External complexity usually springs from the impedance
mismatch that exists between the users of a system and its developers. Users may have only
vague ideas of what they want in a software system. Users and developers have different
perspectives on the nature of the problem and make different assumptions regarding the nature
of the system. A further complication is that the requirement of a software system is often
change during its development. Once system is installed, the process helps developers master
the problem domain, enabling them to ask better questions that illuminate the done existing
system every time its requirements change because a large software system is a capital
investment. It is software maintenance when we correct errors, evolution when we respond to
changing environments and preservations, when we continue to use extraordinary means to keep
an ancient and decaying piece of software in operation.
2. The Difficulty of Managing the Development Process
• Management problems
• Need of simplicity
The second reason is the complexity of the software development process. Complex software
intensive systems cannot be developed by single individuals. They require teams of developers.
This adds extra overhead to the process since the developers have to communicate with each
other about the intermediate artifacts they produce and make them interoperable with each other.
This complexity often gets even more difficult to handle if the teams do not work in one location
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but are geographically dispersed. In such situations, the management of these processes
becomes an important subtask on its own and they need to be kept as simple as possible.
None person can understand the system whose size is measured in hundreds of thousands, or
even millions of lines of code. Even if we decompose our implementation in meaningful ways,
we still end up with hundreds and sometimes even thousand modules. The amount of work
demands that we use a team of developers and there are always significant challenges associated
with team development more developer’s means more complex communication and hence more
difficult coordination.
3. The flexibility possible through software
• Software is flexible and expressive and thus encourages highly demanding
requirements, which in turn lead to complex implementations which are difficult to assess
The third reason is the danger of flexibility. Flexibility leads to an attitude where developers
develop system components themselves rather than purchasing them from somewhere else.
Unlike other industrial sectors, the production depth of the software industry is very large. The
construction or automobile industries largely rely on highly specialized suppliers providing
parts. The developers in these industries just produce the design, the part specifications and
assemble the parts delivered. The software development is different: most of the software
companies develop every single component from scratch. Flexibility also triggers more
demanding requirements which make products even more complicated.
Software offers the ultimate flexibility. It is highly unusual for a construction firm to build an
onsite steel mill to forge (create with hammer) custom girders (beams) for a new building.
Construction industry has standards for quality of row materials, few such standards exist in the
software industry.
4. The problem of characterizing the behavior of discrete systems
• Numerous possible states
• Difficult to express all states
The final reason for complexity according to Booch is related to the difficulty in
describing the behavior of software systems. Humans are capable of describing the static
structure and properties of complex systems if they are properly decomposed, but have problems
in describing their behavior. This is because to describe behavior, it is not sufficient to list the

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properties of the system. It is also necessary to describe the sequence of the values that these
properties take over time.
Within a large application, there may be hundreds or even thousands of variables well as
more than one thread of control. The entire collection of these variables as well as their current
values and the current address within the system constitute the present state of the system with
discrete states. Discrete systems by their very nature have a finite numbers of possible states.
The Consequences of Unrestrained Complexity
The more complex the system, the more open it is to total breakdown. Rarely would a builder
think about adding a new sub-basement to an existing 100-story building; to do so would be
very costly and would undoubtedly invite failure. Amazingly, users of software systems rarely
think twice about asking for equivalent changes. Besides, they argue, it is only a simple matter
of programming.
Our failure to master the complexity of software results in projects that are late, over budget,
and deficient in their stated requirements. We often call this condition the software crisis, but
frankly, a malady that has carried on this long must be called normal. Sadly, this crisis translates
into the squandering of human resources - a most precious commodity - as well as a
considerable loss of opportunities. There are simply not enough good developers around to
create all the new software that users need. Furthermore, a significant number of the
developmental personnel in any given organization must often be dedicated to the maintenance
or preservation of geriatric software. Given the indirect as well as the direct contribution of
software to the economic base of most industrialized countries, and considering the ways in
which software can amplify the powers of the individual, it is unacceptable to allow this
situation to continue.

THE FIVE ATTRIBUTES OF A COMPLEX SYSTEM

There are five attribute common to all complex systems. They are as follows:
1. Hierarchical and interacting subsystems
Frequently, complexity takes the form of a hierarchy, whereby a complex system is composed
of interrelated subsystems that have in turn their own subsystems and so on, until some lowest
level of elementary components is reached.
2. Arbitrary determination of primitive components
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The choice of what components in a system are primitive is relatively arbitrary and is largely up
to the discretion of the observer of the system class structure and the object structure are not
completely independent each object in object structure represents a specific instance of some
class.
3. Stronger intra-component than inter-component link
Intra-component linkages are generally stronger than inter-component linkages. This fact has the
involving the high frequency dynamics of the components-involving the internal structure of the
components – from the low frequency dynamic involving interaction among components.
4. Combine and arrange common rearranging subsystems
Hierarchic systems are usually composed of only a few different kinds of subsystems in various
combinations and arrangements. In other words, complex systems have common patterns. These
patterns may involve the reuse of small components such as the cells found in both plants and
animals, or of larger structures, such as vascular systems, also found in both plants and animals.
5. Evolution from simple to complex systems
A complex system that works is invariably bound to have evolved from a simple system that
worked ……….. A complex system designed from scratch never works and can't be patched up
to make it work. You have to start over, beginning with a working simple system.
Booch has identified five properties that architectures of complex software systems have in
common.
Firstly, every complex system is decomposed into a hierarchy of subsystems. This
decomposition is essential in order to keep the complexity of the overall system manageable.
These subsystems, however, are not isolated from each other, but interact with each other.
Very often subsystems are decomposed again into subsystems, which are decomposed and so
on. The way how this decomposition is done and when it is stopped, i.e. which components are
considered primitive, is rather arbitrary and subject to the architects decision.
The decomposition should be chosen, such that most of the coupling is between components that
lie in the same subsystem and only a loose coupling exists between components of different
subsystem. This is partly motivated by the fact that often different individuals are in charge with
the creation and maintenance of subsystems and every additional link to other subsystems does
imply an higher communication and coordination overhead.
Certain design patterns re-appear in every single subsystem. Examples are patterns for iterating
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over collections of elements, or patterns for the creation of object instances and the like.
The development of the complete system should be done in slices so that there is an increasing
number of subsystems that work together. This facilitates the provision of feedback about the
overall architecture.

ORGANIZED AND DISORGANIZED COMPLEXITY

Simplifying Complex Systems
• Usefulness of abstractions common to similar activities
e.g. driving different kinds of motor vehicle
• Multiple orthogonal hierarchies
e.g. structure and control system
• Prominent hierarchies in object-orientation “ class structure ” “ object structure ”
e. g. engine types, engine in a specific car
One mechanism to simplify concerns in order to make them more manageable is to identify and
understand abstractions common to similar objects or activities. We can use a car as an example
(which are considerable complex systems). Understanding common abstractions in this
particular example would, for instance, involve the insight that clutch, accelerator and brakes
facilitate the use of a wide range of devices, namely transport vehicles depending on
transmission of power from engine to wheels).
Another principle to understand complex systems is the separation of concerns leading to
multiple hierarchies that are orthogonal to each other. In the car example, this could be, for
instance, the distinction between physical structure of the car (chassis, body, engine), functions
the car performs (forward, back, turn) and control systems the car has (manual, mechanical, and
electrical). In object-orientation, the class structure and the object structure relationship is the
simplest form of related hierarchy. It forms a canonical representation for object oriented
analysis.
The canonical form of a complex system – the discovery of common abstractions and
mechanisms greatly facilitates are standing of complex system. For example, if a pilot already
knows how to fly a given aircraft, it is easier to know how to fly a similar one. May different
hierarchies are present within the complex system. For example an aircraft may be studied by

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decomposing it into its propulsion system. Flight control system and so on the decomposition
represent a structural or "part of" hierarchy. The complex system also includes an "Is A"
hierarchy. These hierodules for class structure and object structure combining the concept of the
class and object structure together with the five attributes of complex system, we find that
virtually all complex system take on the same (canonical) form as shown in figure. There are
two orthogonal hierarchies of system, its class structure and the object structure.

Figure: Canonical form of a complex system

The figure represents the relationship between two different hierarchies: a hierarchy of objects
and a hierarchy of classes. The class structure defines the 'is-a' hierarchy, identifying the
commonalities between different classes at different levels of abstractions. Hence class C4 is
also a class C1 and therefore has every single property that C1 has. C4, however, may have
more specific properties that C1 does not have; hence the distinction between C1 and C4. The
object structure defines the 'part-of' representation. This identifies the composition of an object
from component objects, like a car is composed from wheels, a steering wheel, a chassis and an
engine. The two hierarchies are not entirely orthogonal as objects are instances of certain

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classes. The relationship between these two hierarchies is shown by identifying the instance-of
relationship as well. The objects in component D8 are instances of C6 and C7 As suggested by
the diagram, there are many more objects then there are classes. The point in identifying classes
is therefore to have a vehicle to describe only once all properties that all instances of the class
have.
APPROACHING A SOLUTION
Hampered by human limitations
• dealing with complexities
• memory
• communications
When we devise a methodology for the analysis and design of complex systems, we need to bear
in mind the limitations of human beings, who will be the main acting agents, especially during
early phases. Unlike computers, human beings are rather limited in dealing with complex
problems and any method need to bear that in mind and give as much support as possible.
Human beings are able to understand and remember fairly complex diagrams, though linear
notations expressing the same concepts are not dealt with so easily. This is why many methods
rely on diagramming techniques as a basis. The human mind is also rather limited. Miller
revealed in 1956 that humans can only remember 7 plus or minus one item at once. Methods
should therefore encourage its users to bear these limitations in mind and not deploy overly
complex diagrams.
The analysis process is a communication intensive process where the analyst has to have
intensive communications with the stakeholders who hold the domain knowledge. Also the
design process is a communication intensive process, since the different agents involved in the
design need to agree on decompositions of the system into different hierarchies that are
consistent with each other.
The Limitations of the human capacity for dealing with complexity: Object model is the
organized complexity of software. As we begin to analyze a complex software system, we find
many parts that must interact in a multitude of intricate ways with little commonality among
either the parts or their interactions. This is an example of disorganized complexity. In complex
system, we find many parts that must interact in a multitude of intricate ways with little

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commonality among either the parts or their intricate. This is an example in an air traffic control
system, we must deal with states of different aircraft at once, and involving such it is absolutely
impossible for a single person to keep track of all these details at once.

BRINGING ORDER TO CHAOS

Principles that will provide basis for development
• Abstraction
• Hierarchy
• Decomposition
The Role of Abstraction: Abstraction is an exceptionally powerful technique for dealing with
complexity. Unable to master the entirely of a complex object, we choose to ignore its
inessential details, dealing instead with the generalized, idealized model of the object. For
example, when studying about how photosynthesis works in a plant, we can focus upon the
chemical reactions in certain cells in a leaf and ignore all other parts such as roots and stems.
Objects are abstractions of entities in the real world.
In general abstraction assists people's understanding by grouping, generalizing and chunking
information.
Object-orientation attempts to deploy abstraction. The common properties of similar objects are
defined in an abstract way in terms of a class. Properties that different classes have in common
are identified in more abstract classes and then an ‘is-a’ relationship defines the inheritance
between these classes.
The role of Hierarchy: Identifying the hierarchies within a complex software system makes
understanding of the system very simple. The object structure is important because it illustrates
how different objects collaborate with one another through pattern of interaction (called
mechanisms). By classifying objects into groups of related abstractions (for example, kinds of
plant cells versus animal cells, we come to explicitly distinguish the common and distinct
properties of different objects, which helps to master their inherent complexity.
Different hierarchies support the recognition of higher and lower orders. A class high in the ‘is-
a’ hierarchy is a rather abstract concept and a class that is a leaf represents a fairly concrete
concept. The ‘is-a’ hierarchy also identifies concepts, such as attributes or operations, that are

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common to a number of classes and instances thereof. Similarly, an object that is up in the part-
of hierarchy represents a rather coarse-grained and complex objects, assembled from a number
of objects, while objects that are leafs are rather fine grained. But note that there are many other
forms of patterns which are nonhierarchical: interactions, ‘relationships’.
The role of Decomposition: Decomposition is important techniques for copying with
complexity based on the idea of divide and conquer. In dividing a problem into a sub problem
the problem becomes less complex and easier to overlook and to deal with. Repeatedly dividing
a problem will eventually lead to sub problems that are small enough so that they can be
conquered. After all the sub problems have been conquered and solutions to them have been
found, the solutions need to be composed in order to obtain the solution of the whole problem.
The history of computing has seen two forms of decomposition, process-oriented (Algorithmic)
and object-oriented decomposition.
Algorithmic (Process Oriented) Decomposition: In Algorithmic decomposition, each module
in the system denotes a major step in some ovrall process.

Figure: Algorithmic decomposition

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Object oriented decomposition: Objects are identified as Master file and check sum which
derive directly from the vocabulary of the problem as shown in figure. We know the world as a
set of autonomous agents that collaborate to perform some higher level behavior. Get formatted
update thus does not exist as an independent algorithm; rather it is an operation associated with
the object file of updates. Calling this operation creates another object, update to card. In this
manner, each object in our solution embodies its own unique behavior .Each hierarchy in
layered with the more abstract classes and objects built upon more primitive ones especially
among the parts of the object structure, object in the real world. Here decomposition is based on
objects and not algorithms.

Figure: Object oriented decomposition

Algorithmic versus object oriented decomposition: The algorithmic view highlights the
ordering of events and the object oriented view emphasizes the agents that either cause action or
are the subjects upon which these operations act. We must start decomposing a system either by
algorithms or by objects then use the resulting structure as the framework for expressing the
other perspective generally object oriented view is applied because this approach is better at
helping us organize the inherent complexity of software systems. Object oriented algorithm has
a number of advantages over algorithmic decomposition. Object oriented decomposition yields
smaller systems through the reuse of common mechanisms, thus providing an important
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economy of expression and are also more resident to change and thus better able to involve over
time and it also reduces risks of building complex software systems. Object oriented
decomposition also directly addresses the inherent complexity of software by helping us make
intelligent decisions regarding the separation of concerns in a large state space.
Process-oriented decompositions divide a complex process, function or task into simpler sub
processes until they are simple enough to be dealt with. The solutions of these sub functions
then need to be executed in certain sequential or parallel orders in order to obtain a solution to
the complex process. Object-oriented decomposition aims at identifying individual autonomous
objects that encapsulate both a state and a certain behavior. Then communication among these
objects leads to the desired solutions.
Although both solutions help dealing with complexity we have reasons to believe that an object-
oriented decomposition is favorable because, the object-oriented approach provides for a
semantically richer framework that leads to decompositions that are more closely related to
entities from the real world. Moreover, the identification of abstractions supports (more abstract)
solutions to be reused and the object-oriented approach supports the evolution of systems better
as those concepts that are more likely to change can be hidden within the objects.

ON DESIGNING COMPLEX SYSTEMS

Engineering as a Science and an Art: Every engineering discipline involves elements of both
science and art. The programming challenge is a large scale exercise in applied abstraction and
thus requires the abilities of the formal mathematician blended with the attribute of the
competent engineer. The role of the engineer as artist is particularly challenging when the task is
to design an entirely new system.
The meaning of Design: In every engineering discipline, design encompasses the discipline
approach we use to invent a solution for some problem, thus providing a path from requirements
to implementation. The purpose of design is to construct a system that.
1. Satisfies a given (perhaps) informal functional specification
2. Conforms to limitations of the target medium
3. Meets implicit or explicit requirements on performance and resource usage
4. Satisfies implicit or explicit design criteria on the form of the artifact
5. Satisfies restrictions on the design process itself, such as its length or cost, or the available
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 for doing the design.
According to Stroustrup, the purpose of design is to create a clean and relatively simple
internal structure, sometimes also called as architecture. A design is the end product of the
design process.
The Importance of Model Building: The buildings of models have a broad acceptance among
all engineering disciplines largely because model building appeals to the principles of
decomposition, abstraction and hierarchy. Each model within a design describes a specific
aspect of the system under consideration. Models give us the opportunity to fail under controlled
conditions. We evaluate each model under both expected and unusual situations and then after
them when they fail to behave as we expect or desire. More than one kind of model is used on
order to express all the subtleties of a complex system.
The Elements of Software design Methods: Design of complex software system involves an
incremental and iterative process. Each method includes the following:
1. Notation: The language for expressing each model.
2. Process: The activities leading to the orderly construction of the system's mode.
3. Tools: The artifacts that eliminate the medium of model building and enforce rules about
the models themselves, so that errors and inconsistencies can be exposed.
The models of Object Oriented Development: The models of object oriented analysis and
design reflect the importance of explicitly capturing both the class and object hierarchies of the
system under design. These models also over the spectrum of the important design decisions that
we must consider in developing a complex system and so encourage us to craft implementations
that embody the five attributes of well-formed complex systems.

Figure: Models of object oriented development

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Booch presents a model of object-oriented development that identifies several relevant
perspectives. The classes and objects that form the system are identified in a logical model. For
this logical model, again two different perspectives have to be considered. A static perspective
identifies the structure of classes and objects, their properties and the relationships classes and
objects participate in. A dynamic model identifies the dynamic behavior of classes and objects,
the different valid states they can be in and the transitions between these states.
Besides the logical model, also a physical model needs to be identified. This is usually done
later in the system's lifecycle. The module architecture identifies how classes are kept in
separately compliable modules and the process architecture identifies how objects are
distributed at run- time over different operating system processes and identifies the relationships
between those. Again for this physical model a static perspective is defined that considers the
structure of module and process architecture and a dynamic perspective identifies process and
object activation strategies and inter-process communication. Object-orientation has not,
however, emerged fully formed. In fact it has developed over a long period, and continues to
change.
The elements of the object oriented technology collectively known as the object model. The
object model encompasses the principles of abstraction, encapsulation, modularity, hierarchy,
typing, concurrency and persistency. The object model brought together these elements in a
synergistic way.

THE EVOLUTION OF THE OBJECT MODEL

- The shift in focus from programming-in-the-small to programming-in-the-large.
- The evolution of high-order programming languages.
- New industrial strength software systems are larger and more complex than their
predecessors.
- Development of more expressive programming languages advances the decomposition,
abstraction and hierarchy.
- Wegner has classified some of more popular programming languages in generations
according to the language features.

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