Lesson no.

24 Transducers

Transducers are devices that are used to convert one form of energy into another form. They convert physical
quantities such as pressure, force, temperature into quantities suitable for measuring. The transducer, which
converts non-electrical form of energy into electrical form ofenergy, is known as electrical transducer. The
output of electrical transducer is equivalent to the input, which has non-electrical energy.

Non-
Mechanical
quantity Mechanical signal Electrical signal
Transducer Transducer

Fig 1: cascading of mechanical and electrical transducers

Transducer is a device which responds to the physical conditions or chemical state of a substance and converts
to an output signal. If the output is a mechanical signal then it is called as Mechanical Transducer and if the
output signal is electrical in nature then it is termed as Electrical transducer. The Electrical transducers are the
devices that convert energy in the form of sound, light, heat, etc., into an equivalent electrical signal, or vice
versa. The output electrical signal may be voltage, current, or frequency. Production of these electrical signals
is based upon resistive, inductive, capacitive effects. For measuring non electrical quantities, a detector is used
which usually converts the physical quantity into a displacement, that activates the electrical transducers.
Transducer is a device that can convert energy from one form to another, whereas a sensor is a device that can
detect a physical quantity and convert the data into an electrical signal.

Based on the role of transducers, it can be classified into input and output type. An input transducer is used to
measure and hence is known as instrument transducer. The power transducers are nothing but output
transducers which provide output signals like force, torque etc when electrical signal is given as input.

Based on operation it is classified as active and passive transducers. When the physical quantityis measured
active transducers produce voltage and current as output signals. But in case of passive transducer external
energy is required to create electrical signals.

Need for transducers

1. Physical parameters like temperature need to measured and controlled in the industry
2. To measure heart rate, blood pressure, to obtain EEG and ECG waveforms in the medicalfield
3. Converting variations in sound into variations in voltage or current in communicationsystem
4. To measure and indicate the speed, to indicate the fuel level and so on in automobile industry
 Passive Transducers:

It is also called as externally powered transducers. They derive the power required for energy
conversion from an external power source. The passive transducers are further classified into Resistive
type, Inductive type and capacitive type.

I) Resistance: Thermistor, Photoconductive cell, Resistance strain gauge

II) Inductance: LVDT- Linear Variable Differential Transformer
III) Capacitance: Photoemissive cell, Hall effect based devices.

i. Resistance thermometer
The change in temperature is measured in terms of the change in resistance. The resistive element is
usually made from metal, metal alloy or semiconductor. The only difference is that the resistivity
decreases in semiconductor and insulator materials where as in metals it increases as the temperature
increases. In metals there is change in resistance due to change in length also.
RT = Ro (1 + αt)
Ro= resistance at 00C T=
temperature in 0C
α = temperature co-efficient in 0C
= 1 ∆𝑅
∆𝑇 𝑅0
Where ΔT = change in temperature
ΔR = change in resistance

Fig 2a: Wire resistance thermometer construction 2b: RTD with wheat stone bridge

Wire resistance thermometer consists of fine wire wrapped around a ceramic, mica or glass bar. Since the
element is very fragile and hence it is enclosed in protective glass, porcelain, quartz or nickel. Thermometer
is built using platinum, copper etc (fig 2a). Temperature measurement is carried on by placing resistance
thermometer as one of the arm in wheat stone bridge as in the (fig 2b). Whenever resistance of RTD changes
due to change in temperature the bridge is imbalanced generating difference voltage Vd.
Advantages:
Accurate temperature sensor
Provides excellent stability and precision
High linear temperature-resistance characteristics Faster
response
Disadvantage:
Bigger in size Higher
cost
Possibility of self heating

ii. Thermistor
 Thermistor is a temperature sensing device made from semiconductor material that acts like anelectrical
resistor but is temperature sensitive. Thermistors can be used to produce an analogue output voltage with
changes in temperature and hence is referred to as transducer. It is a two terminal device whose
resistance decreases with increase in temperature i.e. negative temperature coefficient.
𝑅 = 𝑅0𝑒−𝛼𝑇
R0=maximum resistance corresponding to minimum temperature
𝛼 =a constant dependent on the thermistor type
It is made up of oxides of metals such as manganese, nickel etc

Advantages:
Small size Fast
response
Good sensitivity
Disadvantages:
The temp-resis characteristics is non-linear
Not suitable for wide range of temperature measurement

Fig 3: Thermistor
Applications: measurement of temperature, flow and pressure, liquid level, voltage and power

LVDT
The differential transformer is a passive inductive transformer. It is also known as a Linear Variable
Differential Transducer (LVDT).

The transformer consists of a single primary winding P1 and two secondary windings S1 and S2 wound on
a hollow cylindrical former.
The secondary windings have an equal number of turns and are identically placed on either side of the
primary windings.
The primary winding is connected to an ac source. An movable soft iron core slides within the hollow former
and therefore affects the magnetic coupling between the primary and the two secondaries.
The displacement to be measured is applied to an arm attached to the soft iron core.
When the core is in its normal (null) position, equal voltages are induced in the two secondary windings. The
frequency of the ac applied to the primary winding ranges from 50 Hz to 20 kHz.
The output voltage of the secondary windings S1 is Es1 and that of secondary winding S2 is Es2.
In order to convert the output from S1 to S2 into a single voltage signal, the two secondaries S1 and S2 are
connected in series opposition, Hence the output voltage of the transducer is the difference of the two
voltages.
Therefore the differential output voltage Eo=Es1~Es2. When the core is at its normal position, the flux
linking with both secondary windings is equal, and hence equal emfs are induced in them.
Hence, at null position Es1 = Es2. Since the output voltage of the transducer is the difference of the two
voltages, the output voltage Eo is zero at null position.
Now, if the core is moved to the left of the null position, more flux links with winding S1 and less with
winding S2.
Hence, output voltage Es1 of the secondary winding S1 is greater than Es2 . The magnitude of the output
voltage of the secondary is then Es1 — Es2, in phase with Es1 (the output voltage of secondary winding S1)

Similarly, if the core is moved to the right of the null position, the flux linking with winding S2 becomes
greater than that linked with winding S1. This results in Es2 becoming larger than Es1. The output voltage
in this case is Eo = Es2— Es1 and is in phase with Es2.

Advantages
 Linearity: The output voltage of this transducer is practically linear for displacements upto 5 mm (a
linearity of 0.05% is available in commercial LVDTs).
 Infinite resolution: The change in output voltage is stepless. The effective resolution depends more
on the test equipment than on the High output: It gives a high output (therefore there is frequently no
need for intermediate amplification devices).
 High sensitivity: The transducer possesses a sensitivity as high as 40 V/mm. Ruggedness: These
transducers can usually tolerate a high degree of vibration and shock. Less friction: There are no
sliding contacts.
 Low hysteresis: This transducer has a low hysteresis, hence repeatability is excellent under all
conditions. Low power: consumption Most LVDTs consume less than 1 W
Disadvantages
 Large are sensitive to stray magnetic fields (but shielding is possible).
 The receiving instrument must be selected to operate on ac signals, or a demodulator network must be
used if a dc output is required.
 The dynamic response is limited mechanically by the mass of the core and electrically by the applied
voltage.
 Temperature also affects the transducer.
 Displacements are required for appreciable differential output.
 They are sensitive to stray magnetic fields.
 LSN. 25 Active Transducers:
It is also known as self-generating type transducers. They develop their own voltage or current asthe output
signal. The energy required for production of this output signal is obtained from the physical phenomenon
being measured.
Examples: Thermocouple, Piezoelectric transducers, Photovoltaic cell, Moving coil generator,Photoelectric
cell.

I) Piezoelectric transducers
The ability of materials to produce charges when subjected to mechanical stress is called piezoelectric effect.
The EMF develops because of this displacement of the charges. The effect ischangeable, i.e. if the varying
potential applies to a piezoelectric transducer, it will change the dimension of the material or deform it. This
effect is known as the piezoelectric effect. The
piezo-electric effect is direction sensitive (fig.4)

V0

Fig 4 (a): direction sensitivity of Piezo-electric material (b): Piezoelectric Transducer

The Quartz is the examples of the natural piezoelectric crystals, whereas the Rochelle salts, ammonium
dehydration, phosphate, lithium sulphate, dipotassium tartrate are the examples of the man-made
crystals.
These materials operate in four different modes: (i) thickness expander mode (ii) length expander mode (iii)
thickness shear mode (iv) face shear mode
When the mechanical deformation occurs in the crystals, it generates charges. And this charge develops
the voltages across the electrodes. The Piezoelectric crystal is direction sensitive. The polarity of the
voltage depends on the direction of the force which is either tensile or ompressive. The magnitude and the
polarity of the charges depend on the magnitude and the direction of the applied force. The whole setup of
parallel plates and piezoelectric material between them forms acapacitor structure. 𝑉 = 𝑄/𝐶

Advantages:
1) High frequency response 2) High transient response
3) High output 4) The piezoelectric transducers are small in size and have rugged construction

Disadvantages:
i) High impedance: The piezoelectric crystals offer high impedance hence they have to be connected to the
amplifier and the auxiliary circuit. These external circuits have the potential to cause errors in
measurement. To reduce these errors amplifiers high input impedance and long cables should be used.
ii) Forming into shape: It is very difficult to give the desired shape to the crystals with sufficient strength.
Applications:
Used to measure force, pressure, acceleration, torque, strain etc
1 ) Photoelectric transducer
Low-work function materials like cesium emit electrons when light falls on it. This property of materials
is called as photo electricity. When the light falls on such materials photons interact with the electrons
on the surface of such materials, converting quantum energy into kinetic energy. Acceleration of
electrons in the flow of current.

Fig 5: Photoconductive Cell

Different types of Photo-electric transducers:
Photo-emissive Cell: it consists of semi cylindrical cathode coated with photo-emmisive material and
anode is made from thick metallic wire, both of these enclosed in glass tube. When the light is made to
fall on the emmisive material electrons are emitted. If positive voltage is applied the anode draws all these
electrons. The current generated is proportional to the light incident on the material.
Photoconductive Cell: The photoconductive cell converts the light energy into an electric current. It uses
the semiconductor material like cadmium selenide, Ge, Se, as a photo sensing element. When the beam of
light falls on the semiconductor material, their conductivity increasesand the material works like a closed
switch. The current starts flowing into the material and deflects the pointer of the meter.
Photo-voltaic cell: it generates potential when light falls on it. Photodiode and Phototransistor work in
both photo-voltaic and photo-emmisive modes
Applications:
 Power stations for generating electrical power
 Solar vehicle
 Space craft
 Rural electrification
Piezoelectric Transducers and its working
A Symmetrical crystalline material such as Quartz, Rochelle salt and Barium titanate produces an emf when
they are placed under stress. This property is used in Piezoelectric Transducer Working Principle, where a
crystal is placed between a solid base and the force-summing

For a Piezoelectric Transducer element under pressure, part of the energy is, converted to an electric potential
that appears on opposite faces of the element, analogous to a charge on the plates of a capacitor.
The rest of the applied energy is converted to mechanical energy, analogous to a compressed spring. When
the pressure is removed, it returns to its original shape and loses its electric charge. From these relationships,
the following formulas have been derived for the coupling coefficient K
 𝐦𝐞𝐜𝐡𝐧𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐨 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐞𝐫𝐲
K=
𝐀𝐩𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐞𝐝 𝐌𝐞𝐜𝐡𝐧𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲
OR
𝐄𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐨 𝐦𝐞𝐜𝐡𝐧𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐞𝐫𝐲
K=
𝐀𝐩𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐞𝐝 𝐄𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲
An alternating voltage applied to a crystal causes it to vibrate at its natural resonance frequency. Since the
frequency is a very stable quantity, Piezo electrical Transducer crystals are principally used in HF
accelerometers.
The principal disadvantage is that voltage will be generated as long as the pressure applied to the piezo
electric element changes

2) Photoelectric Transducer Working:

Photoelectric Transducer Working can be categorized as photo emissive, photo-conductive or photo-voltaic.
The Photoelectric Transducer that changes the rays, light into electrical energy. As a light energy drops over
the exterior of metal, the energy can be changed into KE (kinetic energy) of the electron & the electron lefts
the metal. This is mainly lying on the charge ‘e’ and work function ‘φ’ of the material. The emission of
electrons mainly depends on the strength of light which falls on the exterior. This kind of transducer is mainly
designed for measuring diameter as well as length differences within arterial sections within elastic & vitro
tubes.
Working Principle
The working principle of Photoelectric Transducer can be classified like photoemissive, photovoltaic
otherwise photoconductive. In photoemissive type devices, once the radiation drops over a cathode can cause
emission of electrons from the cathode plane.

The output of the PV cells can generate a voltage which is relative to the intensity of radiation. The
occurrence of radiation can be IR (infrared), UV (ultraviolet), X-rays, gamma rays, and visible light. In
photo-conductive devices, the material’s resistance can be changed once it is light up.
Applications of Photoelectric Transducer
The applications of this transducer mainly include the following.
These transducers are used in biomedical applications
Pickups of pulse
Pneumograph respiration
Measure blood pulsatile volume changes
Records Body movements.
26. Basic Analog Communication System
The elements of basic analog communication system are input signal or information, input transducer,
transmitter, channel, Noise, Receiver, Output transducer.

1.Information or Input signal: The information is transmitted from one place to another.
This information can be in the form of a sound signal like speech, or it can be in the form of pictures or it
can be in the form of data information.
2.Input transducer:
The information in the form of sound, picture or data signals cannot be transmitted as it is. First it has to be
converted into a suitable electrical signal. The input transducer commonly used are microphones, TV etc.
3.Transmitter:
The function of the transmitter is to convert the electrical equivalent of the information to a suitable form so
that it can transfer over long distance .This signal is called modulated signal..
4.Channel:
The communication channel is the medium used for transmission of electrical signal from one place to other.
The communication medium can be conducting wires, cables, optical fibres or free space. Depending on the
type of communication medium, two types of communication system exists.
 Line communication: The line communication systems use the communication medium like
the simple wires or cables or optical fibres. Eg: Telephone, Cable TV.
 Radio communication: The radio communication systems use the free space as their
communication medium. The transmitted signal is in the form of electromagnetic waves. E.g. Mobile
communication, satellite communication.
5.Noise:
Noise is an unwanted electrical signal which gets added to the transmitted signal when it is travelling towards
the receiver. Due to noise quality of information gets degrade
6.Receiver:
The receiver always converts the modulated signal into original signal which consist of Amplifier, Oscillator,
Mixer.
7.Output transducer:
Output transducer converts electrical signal into the original form i.e. sound or TV pictures etc.
E.g. Loudspeaker, data and image converto
Digital Communication System

1. Source
The source can be an analog signal. Example: A Sound signal
2. Input Transducer
This is a transducer which takes a physical input and converts it to an electrical signal (Example:
microphone). This block also consists of an analog to digital converter where a digital signal is needed for
further processes. A digital signal is generally represented by a binary sequence.
3. Source Encoder
The source encoder compresses the data into minimum number of bits. This process helps in effective
utilization of the bandwidth. It removes the redundant bits unnecessaryexcessbits,i.e.,zeroes
4. Channel Encoder
The channel encoder, does the coding for error correction. During the transmission of the signal, due to the
noise in the channel, the signal may get altered and hence to avoid this, the channel encoder adds some
redundant bits to the transmitted data. These are the error correcting bits.
5. Digital Modulator
The signal to be transmitted is modulated here by a carrier. The signal is also converted to analog from the
digital sequence, in order to make it travel through the channel or medium.
6. Channel
The channel or a medium, allows the analog signal to transmit from the transmitter end to the receiver end.
7. Digital Demodulator
This is the first step at the receiver end. The received signal is demodulated as well as converted again from
analog to digital. The signal gets reconstructed here.
8. Channel Decoder
The channel decoder, after detecting the sequence, does some error corrections. The distortions which might
occur during the transmission, are corrected by adding some redundant bits. This addition of bits helps in the
complete recovery of the original signal.
9. Source Decoder
The resultant signal is once again digitized by sampling and quantizing so that the pure digital output is
obtained without the loss of information. The source decoder recreates the source output.
10. Output Transducer
This is the last block which converts the signal into the original physical form, which was at the input of the
transmitter. It converts the electrical signal into physical output (Example: loud speaker).
11. Output Signal
This is the output which is produced after the whole process. Example − The sound signal received.
Block diagram of Satellite Communication system

Satellite communication is the method of transporting information from one place to another using a
communication satellite in orbit around the Earth. A communication satellite is an artificial satellite that
transmits the signal via a transponder by creating a channel between the transmitter and the receiver located
at different locations on the Earth.
Watching the English Premier League every weekend with your friends would have been impossible without
this.
Telephone, radio, television, internet, and military applications use satellite communications. Believe it or
not, more than 2000 artificial satellites are hurtling around in space right above your heads.
There are three stages that are involved which explain the working of satellite communications. These are:
i.Uplink
ii.Transponders
iii.Downlink
Let’s consider an example of signals from a television.
In the first stage, the signal from the television broadcast on the other side of the earth is first beamed up to
the satellite from the ground station on the earth. This process is known as uplink.
The second stage involves transponders such as radio receivers, amplifiers, and transmitters. These
transponders are used for boosting the incoming signal and to change their frequency so that the outgoing
signals are not altered. Depending on the incoming signal sources, the transponders vary.
The final stage involves a downlink in which the data is sent to the other end of the receiver on the earth.
It is important to understand that usually there is one uplink and multiple downlinks.
It is important to understand that usually there is one uplink and multiple downlinks.
References:
1) Basic electronics (Book), U B Mahadevaswamy
2) Basic electronics (Book), D P Kothari, I J Nagrath
3) Electronics Measurement By H. S Kalsi
4) Tutorials Point,
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/electronic_measuring_instruments/electronic_measuring_instrum
ents_transducers.htm