BODY IMAGE AND EATING DISORDERS:

Characteristics of anorexia:
Below average weight by 15%
Vomiting, purging, exercise, appetite
Distorted body image
Mental health conditions

Excessive growth of fine hairs

Menstrual problems= amenorrhea

-BULIMIA NERVOSA
Binge eating
Vomiting
Maintain normal weight
COGNITNE DEVELOPMENT
I prefronta1 cortex devt!lops further for more 9ognintve capabilities

I limbic sysytem is involved with processing social and emotional information

I system develops earlier than prefrontal cortex

Theories of cognitive development

1. The Constructive perspective: Jean Piaget

Assumes that individuals must continualy interpret or make sense of experiemces.

Events remain ambiguous until we respond to them.

piaget was fasinated by the differences in how adults and children

understand the world
children 11-12 enter formal operation stage of cognintve development

I capasity for abstract and scientific thinking

able to think about possible occurences

CHARACTERISTICS OF FORMAL OPERATIONAL THINKING

n HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE REASONING: alternative ways or hypothesis
to solve problems this means they can apply scientific reasoning

11 PROPOSITIONAL THINKING: evaluate logic of verbal statements

n COMBINATORIAL ANALYSIS: ability to organise various possible

combinations inherent in a problem
11 RELATIVISTIC RELATMSTIC THINKING : absolute right answers exist for
everything and are knwon by authority = realism

SIX SKILLS THAT EMERGE DURING THIS STAGE

1.1. can mentaly manipulate for than two catagories of variables at the same
time
1.2. think about changes that come with time

1.3 able to hypothesise about the logical sequence of possible events

1.4. able to antisipate consequences consequences of consequences of actions

1.5. able to detect logical consistancy or inconsistancy in a set of statements

1.6. they can think in elativistic ways about themselves

Evaluation of theory?

l strong emphasis on maturation

l aknowledged some degree of individual differences

1 claims were inaccurate

l minority of people use formal operations in their daily life

1 underestimated how much effort energy and knowledge it takes to perform

formal operatons
1 cultural differences in thinking

l RESPONCE was that all people reach the potential for formal operational
thinking , will apply first to areas where culture has provided them with
expertise and experience
2. A componential approach: information processing view

Refers to the breaking down of thinking processes into various components.

Example of the approach is the information processing view.
Changes occur in following areas:

l ATTENTION: eludes selective attention and divided attention

l PROCESSING INFORMATION- speed, capasity and automaticity

related to 2 developments:
2.1. Structural capasity: cognitive ability

2.2. Functional capasity: making effective use of excisting mental abilities,

attention and mnemonic aids
I KNOWKEDGE base, encoding, storing and retriving information: short and
long term memory plays role improves sustainability
1 METACOGNITION a.rid cognitive self regul~tion: metacogniton leads to new
insights into effective stratagies for aquiring information and solving
probkems

Cognitive self regulation (monitoring success etc) improves and betters moment
by moment monitoring
 1 media for exposure to verbal expressions Other religions religions and ethnic
groups
1 coworkers for procedures

PRACTICAL COGNITION: effects of adolescents cognitive abilities on certain areas

of their development
n cognitive development functions as a organisational core that effects all
thinking
Implications of the classroom:
1. Inductive reasoning: person reasons from particular to general.
2. Deductive reasoning: person general to paticular
n They can gather facts that support or oppose their ideas
n generate possibilities
n Can effect study skill
n most adolescents have the potential to succeed in one area or another
ArgumentativeNess, idealism idealism and criticism
possible because they can think abstractly and use hypothetico reasoning. They can
gather facts ans build a case.
Can effect the parent child relationship:
n want to make decisions without parents help, conflict if parents dont consider
the drive for independance
n questioing attitude of adolescents, can question parents values and attitudes
n can reason from the beyond the real to the impossible, leave no room for
shortcomings. Generation gap=tension.
Social cognition:
Refers to the way in which we think of other people, social relationships and social
institutions.
n perspective talking, ability to consider a situation from a point of view other
than your own
n Robert selman
n young children cant seperate perspectives
n 6-8 develop perspective taking skills= can't compare
n 10-12 = mutural perspective taking page 334
 n late adolescence= social and conventional system perceptive talking
develops
n perception influenced by others as well as their roles in society

0 making judgements , what people are like and how they behave

6-7 Describe in term of external characteristics

8-10 Internal traits and abilities not iust external
Adolescents abstract personality traits, organised and more
inteirration

Self conciousness and self focusing

n personality theories become less egocentric

n david elk:ind

n adolescent egocentrism includes two images of the self

1. Imaginary audience : they believe they are the focus of everyone

else's attention
Like they are on stage, makes them self-conscious
Personal fable: intense investment in one's own thoughts and feelings and a belief that those
things are unique.

Personal fable is built on the imaginary audience

Inflated opinion of own importance- they are special and unique
Can be a source of anguish and they feel like no-one understands them

Contributes to risk taking behaviour

They believe they are invincible
Imaginary audience and personal fable are strongest during the transition to
formal operational thinking
All people experience optimistic bias: accidents etc. happen to others and
can't happen to you
PLANNING AND DECISION MAJ(ING

Adolescents who think more analytically can handle cognitive tasks better
Better at cognitive self-regulation: planning, monitoring progress etc
They feel overwhelmed with decision making in everyday life
Perspectives:
 Behavioural decision theory: states decision making process includes

o Identifying a range of possible choices

o Identifying the consequences that would result from each choice

o Evaluating the consequences

o Assessing the likelihood of each consequence

o Integrating the consequences

Important transition (11-12 ; 15-16)

Cognitive decision making involves psychosocial components and

cognitive

Deficiency in areas undennines decision making process

Different brain stems mature at different rates

Can contribute to making risky decision

SCHOOLING
I
School transitions may disrupt academic performance

Over time they adapt to changing schools

Experts: secondary schools fail to meet particular developmental needs of
adolescents

Schools are characterised by adequate application of resources

Dedicated teachers, disciplined pupils

Focus is on the school as an institution for learning

Generally appreciative of teaching skills and take advantage

Other schools: wasted resources, demoralised teachers and rebel students

Some view school as a frustrating exercise

Satisfaction= combine structure with high learner involvement and high

teacher support

Adolescents own attitudes, views may play a role

SA: poor understanding of what educ&tional achievement entails

No effort, bunking, risky and criminal behaviour, dropping out

High unemployment rate in SA= not the right colour

IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT: NB

1. Erikson's theory: Identity vs. identity confusion

He provided the most detailed and valid description of identity development.

a. Development of one's identity

ID DEVELOPMENT: adolesc~nt's need to define who they are, what's
important to them and what directions they want to take ih life
 It was identified as a CRISIS: a temporary period of confusion, during which
adolescent's explore, question and experiment in order to develop their own
set of values
Society allows them time, PSYCHOSOCIAL MORATORIUM: find themselves
and their roles as adults
Important themes: gender roles, relationships, marriage, religion, politics,
value systems
They have to master the following tasks:

0 Ego-synthesis: continuous, integrated, unified image of the self

0 Socio-cultural identity: identity must include value orientations of his or her
culture
0 Gender role identity: accept identities as male or female.
0 Career identity: realistic regarding own abilities and achievements in order
to make a realistic career choice
0 Own value system: own basic philosophy and anchor for their lives

b. Identity Confusion
Usually adolescents are indecisive about themselves and their roles. This can cause
anxiety as well as apathy or hostility towards roles or values.

Identity foreclosure:

0 Premature decisions about one's identity

0 Others expectations
0 External demands/role expectations pose a threat
0 Adopt roles to meet expectations

Negative identity:

0 Fonn an identity contrary to the cultural values and expectations

c. Evaluation of Erikson' view of identity formation

0 He was a big contributor
Shortcomings:

0 Crisis= intense traumatic experience

0 View too optimistic
 0 Don't fonn identity in a11 areas at one as his theory implied

2. James Marcia~s theory: formulation of identity statuses

0 Distinguished various statuses in which the crisis can be resolved

0 Identity statuses: determined according to crisis they have already
worked through
Four identity statuses:

1. Identity achievement :individual has passed through crisis, strong

commitment to a career and value system

11. Identity moratorium: still in crisis period and looking for various
alternatives

rn. Identity foreclosure: no crisis has been experienced, is commitment to

certain goals but is a result of parental influence

1v. Identity diffusion: crisis may or may not be experience~ not committed to
anything, no attempt to commit.
Identity development study .findings:

Traditional backgrounds = fore.c losed identities

Extreme stressors such as illness = best adjusted with foreclosure status

Identity formation occurs at a later age = university

Some are stuck in certain stages= adjustment problems

Adolescent's is only one period of identity formation among many

Factors that contribute to identity formation: 346

Cognitive development

Parenting
Peer interactions

Schools and communities

Personality

Socio-cultural and socio-political event

3. Farming a group identity:

Larger cultural context plays a role
 Personal id is what one has in common with others and leads to a group id

SA is challenging

Must come to tenn with ethnicity and cultural ancestry

Sa has to accommodate many different cultures
Rainbow nation
South African-ness is an umbrella identity

National identity

SELF-CONCEPTIONS: THEIR UNDERSTANDING OF THE SELF

Aspect:

1. Actual self: real self and who they really are

Possible self: ideal self and feared self

Ideal- person they would like to be

Feared- person they are scared to become but it is possible to become them
Both need abstract thinking, they are ideas in their mind.

2. Recognising contradictions in personalities

False self: person they present to others while realising it is not actuaUy them
Self-esteem: Way one views and evaluates themselves as well as values themselves.

New dimensions: changing physical appearance, sexuality, social relationships, choosing

carers.

Early adolescence: temporary decline in self-esteem

Adjust and feelings of self-worth are restored
Eight domains of adolescent self-esteem:
I. Scholastic competence

II. Social appearance

Ill. Athletic competence
IV. Physical appearance
v. Job competence
Vl. Romantic appeal
vu. Behavioural conduct
Vlll. Close friendship
CAREER CHOICE
Theoretical perspectives on career choice:

l. Donald Super's lifespan lifespace approach

Choice of and adjustment to a career is a continuous process
Career: constant decision making, change etc.
Entire life course
Skills and adaptability is required for career planning or change (SPAN)
Focus of individual aspects such as values, self-concept and life themes
(SPACE)
Success in coping with the demands of each career/environment depend
on readiness and maturity
Process of career choice: progres sive interaction between self and the
environment
2. John Holland's theory of personality types:
Relationship between person, environment and interaction between the
two
Six basic personality types:

1. Realistic: physically strong, deal with problems practically and aren't

very socially competent. Handiness = engineering
11. Investigative: thinkers and avoid interpersonal contact, want to know
about phenomena_. Science and maths.
m. Social: verbal activities, interpersonal relationships, helping orientation.
Human orientated- psychology.

1v. Conventional: work with numbers, perform clerical tasks. Well-

structured work = accountancy
v. Enterprising: verbal. Sales.
vi. Artistic: creative and relate to art. Photographer.
Hexagonal model: predictability of behaviour

Adjacent types have more in common

3. Social cognitive career theory : 359

Assumptions of previous theories not always applicable to SA.
 Not everyone has access to education

Unstable and unsafe conditions

Unemployment rate and few work opportunities - even for the educated
Main components of this theory:

1. Triadic reciprocity: mutual interactions between personal attributes,

environment and overt behaviour.

11. Self-efficacy: capability to perform a particular task

111. Outcome expectations: believe the results of certain behaviour- desirable

results

1v. Goals: guide to actions and behaviours

v. Interests:
v1. Career choices: flows from goals and activities

SA learners: anxiety

Interests vs. availability

Social development:

Parent-adolescent conflict: mainly occurs as a result of questioning parental values, rules

and regulations set by parents, distancing and argumentativeness.

This causes anxiety in the parents and they become more contro11ing.
Biological changed during puberty, when hormonal secretion may cause
mood swings.
Cognitive changes, which cause increasing questioning, idealism and
argumentativeness.
Development of own identity may be associated with experimentation.
Social development associated with more independence.
Generation gap: difference in viewpoints, attitudes and values between
parents and children.
Conflict does not necessarily undermine the bonds of love between parents
and adolescents; a degree of conflict is unavoidable and necessary for
personality growth.

Interactional changes are due too:

Biological changes during puberty

Cognitive changes
Adolescent egocentrism
Development of an own identity
Social development
Overlaps with parents 'midlife crisis'
Autonomy and attachment:
- Most conflict between parents- and adolescents 1nay be related to the
adolescents' increasing need for autonomy (independence).
- Needfor autonomy is -a necessary developmental taskandnot as a rejection
of parental authority.
Adolescents strive for the following goals:
1. Cognitive autonomy: making decisions and assuming responsibility for these
choices.
2. Behavioural autonomy: making choices regarding friendships, leisure time
and finances.
3. Emotional autonomy: being self-reliant and independent of their parents and
being able to exert s~lf-control.

4. Moral or value autonomy: forming an own value system that may serve as a
guideline for their own behaviour.
Separation anxiety: characterised by intense longing for the parents, regularly
phoning the parents and going home on weekends.
} Stage· 5: interaction with members of opposite gender in large crowds does
not seem to be enough any longer.
The crowd gradually disintegrate while a loose association of couples
deveJops.
Conformity: refers to the tendency to give i1J. to social pressure influenced by the
adolescent's age, needs and situation.
} Adolescents are often sensitive about the approval of the peer group and
therefore, conform in order to be accepted.
- Not developed sufficient sclf-conficlcnce and independence to make their own
choices.
} Parents of adolescents are often concerned their values wi11 become
unacceptable and their children will conform to the wrong groups with values
different from theirs.
} Go through phases: clothes ect.

} Counter-culture: culture against the-values ofparents and society.

ADOLESCENT'S AND TECHNOLOGY 375
Needs:

Identity exploration and experimentation: intense, websites

Intimacy and belonging: friends/more, need for individualisation
Separation from parents and family: cyberspace good and bad, social lives

Venting frustrations: expectations overwhelming

· Mastery and accomplishment: self worth, blog.

Good, bad and ugly:

Negative information: porn

· Autonomy leads to venting feelings in inappropriate ways= online disinhibition

Bullying
Join groups not in best interests

Shallow and artificial

Cybersex

Internet addiction
Moral development
Theories regarding moral development of adolescents:

1. Psychoanalytic theory:

Superego is regarded as the moral judge of behaviour.

Mora1ity is formed by the e]ektra and oedipus compelxes.
Superego is re-externalised: values adopted by the superego during
childhood are now experienced consciously during adolescence.
- re-evaluated or tested.

2. Social learning theory:

- Moral values are behaviour acquired, through observing and imitating the
behaviour of models.
They conform to the views of their peers which provides them with the
necessary guidelines to make choices regarding the formation of an own
value system.

3. Cognitive perspective: Kohlberg's theory:

- Development of moral reasoning and judgement progresses through three

levels.

1. Preconventional level
2. Conventional level
3. Postconventional level

1. Preconventional morality level:

Generally attained during childhood.

2. Conventional morality level: referred to as the morality of conventional role-

conformity.
Individual conforms to the social order and the expectations of others.
 Moral reasoning becomes less egocentric.
Behaviour is now judged according to the doer's motive.
2.1 Morality of mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships and conformity -
good boy/girl orientation.
Good behaviour is seen by persons in this developmental stage as behaviour
that other people approve of.
People in this stage try to win approval and avoid disapproval.

2.2 morality of social systems and conscience orientation:

Correct behaviour is associated with doing one's duty, respect for authority
and upholding existing social law and order.
An act is wrong if it violates society's laws or rules or if it harms someone.

3. Postconventional morality level:

Called the morality of self-accepted or autonomous moral principles.
Individual now defines and internalises moral values and principles
independent from the groups or people who uphold these principles.
Besides being aware of personal values and opinions, individuals
nevertheless confonn to established nonns if these help to promote human
welfare.

3.1 Morality of social contract, usefulness and individual rights:

Moral or immoral behaviour is defined in terms of laws or established rules
relating to general rights and standards.
Individuals personal values and beliefs also serve as guidelines in
determining what is correct and incorrect.
Rules may be changed if the change is rationally and socially justified and for
the common good of people.

3.2 Morality of universal ethical principles (sometimes also referred to as

morality of individual principles of conscience):

Individuals judge behaviour not only as the basis of society's existing norms
but also on the basis of their own conscience or own internalised abstract
ethical principles.

Not concrete moral rules but universal principles ofjustice, equality of human
rights and respect for the dignity of the individual.
Act accordingly to their own opinions and do not care how others react to
them.

Criticisms:

1. Gender bias: based theory on theory or information from research in which

male participants were used.

Men and women differ in their moral reasoning.

Women consider responsibilities, commitment to obligations and

responsiveness in interpersonal relationships.
 2 . Research methodology: criticised on the reliability and validity of the
measurements.

- No guarantee that the responses of the participants reflect their own moral
reasoning and are not socially desirable answers.

3. Moral reasoning and moral behaviour: correlation between moral thought and
behaviour.

However, the correlation is only moderate and the behaviour of individuals

often differs from their moral reasoning.

Cultural bias: system is based in favour of the individualistic thinking of

western elites of the highest social classes and highest levels of western
education.

- However, people in many cultures make reference to objective, universal

principles in moral reasoning.

4. Cultural bias: system is based in favour of the individualistic thinking of

western elites of the highest social class.es and highest levels of western
education.
However, people in many cultures make reference to objective, universal
principles in moral reasoning.

Alternative coding system based on three types of ethics

l . The ethic of autonomy: defines the individual as the primary moral authority.
Do as they wish as long as no harm happens to another.
2. The ethic Qf community: defines individuals as members of social groups to
which they have commitments and obligations.
Responsibilities of roles in the family; community and other groups are the
basis of one's moral judgement.
3. The ethic of divinity: defines the individual as a spiritual entity, subject to the
prescriptions of a divine authority.
Includes moral views based on traditi.o nal religious authorities and religious
texts.

Factors influencing moral development during adolescence: 388

l . cognition: various characteristics of formal-operational thinking play a role in

the development of a personal value system.

Role-taking/ perspective-taking: enable an adolescent to look at a situation

from another's perspective.

The greater the person's role taking ab1lity, the more advanced he or she is.in
moral reasoning.
2. Parental attitudes and actions: moral values becoming -internalised is largely
influenced on the relationship of adolescents with their parents.
3. Peer interaction: interaction amongst peers who confront one another with
different viewpoints promotes moral development.
4. Religion: attitude towards religion affect their moral development and
behaviour.
5. Socio-economic class- schooling
6. Personality
7. Demographical region
Moral immaturity seems to be characterised by:
1. Egocentrism: the inability to see matters from another's viewpoint.
2. Heteronymous acceptance of others' value system: individuals are under the
authority of other's values and have not formed an own value system
independently or autonomously to which they can be faithful.