Computer Architecture BPSC PGT CS

Introduction to Computer System

A computer is an electronic device that can process data and produce results. It

consists of different components such as the central processing unit (CPU),

memory, input/output devices, and storage devices. These components work

together to perform tasks and deliver the desired output. Computer systems can

take various forms and sizes, including servers, desktop computers, laptops,

tablets, and smart phones. The flow of data and signals between the components

is represented by directed lines in a block diagram of the computer system.

Components of computer System

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The central processing unit (CPU) is the electronic circuitry in a computer that

performs the actual processing tasks. It is often referred to as the brain of the

computer and can be thought of as the computer's processor. The CPU is typically

composed of one or more microchips called integrated circuits (ICs). These ICs are

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made up of semiconductor materials and contain the necessary electronic

components to carry out the processing operations.

The CPU is responsible for executing instructions and processing data in a

computer. It receives instructions and data from programs and retrieves them

from memory. The CPU then performs arithmetic and logic operations based on

the instructions and store the results back into memory.

During processing, the CPU uses its internal memory called registers to store data,

instructions, and intermediate results. Registers are small and limited in size and

number. Different registers serve specific purposes, such as storing data,

instructions, or temporary results.

The CPU consists of two main components: the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and

the Control Unit (CU). The ALU carries out arithmetic and logic operations

according to the instructions in a program. The CU controls the sequential

execution of instructions, interprets instructions, and manages the flow of data

between the CPU, memory, and input/output devices.

The CPU is also commonly referred to as a microprocessor.

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Input Devices

Input devices are used to send control signals or input data to a computer. These

devices convert the input data into a digital format that can be understood by the

computer system. Examples of input devices include keyboards, mice, scanners,

touch screens, and Braille keyboards for visually impaired individuals. Additionally,

voice input has become possible, such as using Google voice search to enter search

queries using our voice.

When data is entered through an input device, it is temporarily stored in the

computer's main memory, also known as RAM. However, for permanent storage

and future use, both data and instructions are stored in additional storage

locations called secondary memory.

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Output Devices

Output devices receive data from a computer system and present it in a human-

understandable form. These devices convert digital information into various forms,

such as visual displays, physical output, or audio output. Examples of output

devices include monitors, projectors, headphones, speakers, and printers. A braille

display monitor is specifically designed for visually impaired individuals to read the

textual output generated by computers.

Printers are commonly used to obtain physical copies (hardcopies) of output.

Inkjet, LaserJet, and dot matrix printers are the three main types of printers

used. Additionally, there is a new type of printer called a 3D printer, which can

create physical replicas of digital 3D designs. These printers have applications in

manufacturing industries for prototyping products, and they are also being

explored in the medical field for developing organs and tissues.

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Evolution of Computer

Computing devices have evolved significantly over a relatively short period of time.

From simple calculators to powerful data processors, the timeline of computing

devices shows their progression. The Von Neumann architecture, depicted in Figure

consists of a CPU for processing instructions, memory for storing data and

programs, input/output devices, and communication channels.

The ENIAC, based on the Von Neumann architecture, was the first binary

programmable computer. In the 1970s, Large Scale Integration (LSI) enabled

complete CPUs to be integrated onto a single chip called a microprocessor.

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Moore's Law predicted exponential growth in the number of transistors on a

microchip. In the 1980s, Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) allowed for the

integration of around 3 million components on a small-sized chip. Super Large

Scale Integration (SLSI), as shown in Figure, further increased the density of

transistors and components on a single integrated circuit.

IBM introduced the first personal computer (PC) for home users in 1981, followed

by Apple's Macintosh machines in 1984. Graphical User Interface (GUI) based

operating systems, like Microsoft Windows, contributed to the popularity of PCs by

replacing command-line interfaces. The growth of the World Wide Web (WWW) in

the 1990s further accelerated the widespread use of computers, making them an

essential part of everyday life.

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Portable computing was made possible with the introduction of laptops, and later

smartphones, tablets, and other personal digital assistants. These devices benefited

from advancements in miniaturization, faster memory, and high-speed data and

connectivity mechanisms.

The future of computing devices includes wearable gadgets such as smartwatches,

smart lenses, headbands, headphones, and smart appliances that are part of the

Internet of Things (IoT). These devices leverage the power of Artificial Intelligence

and other technologies.

Computer Memory

A computer system requires memory to store data and instructions for processing.

The main or primary memory is used for this purpose, while secondary memory

(storage devices) is used for permanent storage.

Memory units in a computer system use binary numbers. The basic units of

memory are called bits (0 and 1). Bits are grouped together to form words, with

a 4-bit word known as a nibble and an 8-bit word called a byte.

Bytes are further grouped to form larger units of memory. Different measurement

units for digital data stored in storage devices are shown in Table.

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Computers have two types of memory: primary and secondary.

Primary Memory

Primary memory is crucial and is where programs and data are loaded before

processing.

It is divided into Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM).

RAM is volatile and retains data only while the computer is powered on. It is

faster and used for temporary data storage during computer operation.

ROM is non-volatile and retains its contents even when the power is off. It is used

for storing permanent data that rarely changes, such as the startup program

(boot loader).

Cache Memory

Cache memory is a very high-speed memory placed between the CPU and

primary memory.

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It stores copies of frequently accessed data, reducing the time required to access

data from primary memory and speeding up CPU operations.

Secondary Memory

Secondary memory is non-volatile, has larger storage capacity than primary

memory, and is used for permanent data storage.

It is slower and cheaper than primary memory but cannot be directly accessed by

the CPU.

Data from secondary memory needs to be brought into primary memory before

the CPU can access it.

Examples of secondary memory devices include Hard Disk Drives (HDD),

CDs/DVDs, memory cards, and solid-state drives (SSD) which offer faster data

transfer speeds.

Portable storage devices like flash drives have made data transfer between

computers easier and more convenient.

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Data Transfer in a Computer System

In a computer system, the transfer of data between the CPU and different types
of memory is crucial for efficient operation. This section explores the mechanisms
involved in this data transfer process.

Buses: The Pathways of Data Transfer

Data transfer between various components of a computer system is facilitated by
physical wires called buses. Three types of buses are used:
1. Data Bus: This bus is responsible for transferring data between different
components of the computer system.
2. Address Bus: The address bus transfers memory addresses between the CPU
and the main memory. It is used to specify the memory location the CPU
wants to read from or write to.
3. Control Bus: The control bus carries control signals that facilitate
communication between different components of the computer.

Together, these three buses form the system bus, creating the necessary pathways
for data transfer.

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Data Transfer Process

The CPU interacts directly with the main memory, and data from input devices
or the hard disk needs to be transferred to the main memory for processing.
The following steps outline the data transfer process:

Address Specification: The CPU places the memory address it wants to access on
the address bus. This address indicates the specific location in the main memory.

Control Signal: The CPU sends control signals through the control bus to specify
whether it intends to read data from or write data to the specified memory
address.

Data Transfer: To write data into memory, the CPU places the data on the
bidirectional data bus. The data is then written to the specified address in the
main memory. In the case of a read operation, the CPU specifies the address, and
the memory controller, a dedicated hardware component, retrieves the data from
the main memory and places it on the data bus.

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The memory controller manages the flow of data between the CPU and the main
memory, ensuring efficient data transfer.

Microprocessors

Microprocessors are the small electronic components inside computers that have
transformed the way we compute. Here's what you need to know:

Size Revolution: In the past, CPUs took up entire rooms or cabinets. But thanks to
technology advancements, CPUs can now fit onto a single microchip, known as a
microprocessor. Nowadays, almost all CPUs are microprocessors.

Powerful Performers: Microprocessors are tiny powerhouses that handle tasks like
data processing, arithmetic operations, and logic operations. They are made up of

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millions of components like resistors, transistors, and diodes, all packed into
integrated circuits.

Evolving Excellence: Over time, microprocessors have become faster, smaller, and
more affordable. Modern microprocessors can process millions of instructions in a
fraction of a second, supercharging our computers.

Generations and Specs: Microprocessors have evolved since their introduction in

the early 1970s. below Table provides details on different types of
microprocessors, including their generation, time period, and underlying
technology.

Microprocessor Specifications

Microprocessors come with different specifications that determine their

performance and capabilities. Here's a simple breakdown:

(A) Word Size: Word size represents the maximum number of bits a
microprocessor can handle at once. It used to be 8 bits in the past, but now ranges
from a minimum of 16 bits to a maximum of 64 bits.

(B) Memory Size: The word size affects the RAM capacity. Smaller word sizes
limited RAM to 4MB, but with larger word sizes like 64 bits, RAM can reach sizes
up to a whopping 16 exabytes (EB).

(C) Clock Speed: Clock speed refers to the speed at which a microprocessor
executes instructions. It's measured in gigahertz (GHz), representing billions of
pulses per second, and determines how fast a computer can process tasks.

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(D) Cores: Cores are the computation units of a CPU. Older processors had only
one core, capable of handling one task at a time. Nowadays, multicore processors
with two, four, or even eight cores enable simultaneous execution of multiple tasks,
boosting system performance.

Microcontrollers
Microcontrollers are compact computing devices that contain a CPU, a fixed
amount of RAM, ROM, and other peripherals, all integrated onto a single chip. In
contrast to microprocessors, which only have a CPU on the chip, microcontrollers
provide a complete system on a chip. Figure 1.9 illustrates the structure of a
microcontroller.
Microcontrollers find application in various devices such as keyboards, mice,
washing machines, digital cameras, pen drives, remote controllers, and
microwaves. These devices are designed for specific tasks, resulting in reduced size
and cost. Due to their small size, microcontrollers are embedded within other
devices or systems to perform specific functions.

For instance, in a fully automatic washing machine, a microcontroller is employed

to control the washing cycle without human intervention. The cycle initiates with

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water filling, followed by soaking and washing of clothes. Subsequently, the water
is drained, and the clothes undergo spin drying. By utilizing a microcontroller,
repetitive and mundane tasks can be executed automatically, saving valuable time
and eliminating the need for human involvement.

Microcontrollers have revolutionized various industries by enabling automated and

efficient operations in devices and systems. Their integration within products has
led to enhanced functionality and improved user experience.

Data and Information

A computer's main purpose is to process data. In a computer system, everything is

considered as data, such as instructions, pictures, songs, videos, and documents.
Data can be raw and unorganized facts that are processed to derive meaningful
information.
Understanding the concept of data and its different types is crucial to
comprehend how a computer functions. Sometimes, people mistakenly use the
terms data, information, and knowledge interchangeably, but they have distinct
meanings.

Data and Its Types

A computer system has various input devices that provide it with raw data in the
form of facts, concepts, and instructions. Internally, everything is stored in binary
form (0s and 1s). However, externally, data can be input to a computer in text
form, consisting of English alphabets (A-Z, a-z), numerals (0-9), and special
symbols like @ and #. Data can also be input in other languages or read from files.
The input data may come from different sources, resulting in different formats.
For example, an image is composed of Red, Green, Blue (RGB) pixels, a video

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consists of frames, and a fee receipt contains numeric and non-numeric

characters. There are primarily three types of data.
(A) Structured Data
Structured data follows a strict record structure and is easily understood. Such
data with a predefined tabular format can be stored in a data file for future
access. Table 1.3 presents structured data related to monthly attendance of
students maintained by a school. As shown, the data is organized in a row/column
format and is readily comprehensible. Structured data can be sorted in ascending
or descending order. Examples of structured data include sales transactions, online
railway ticket bookings, and ATM transactions.
(B) Unstructured Data
Unstructured data refers to data that is not organized in a predefined record
format. Examples include audio and video files, graphics, text documents, social
media posts, and satellite images. Figure illustrates an unstructured report card
with monthly attendance record details sent to parents. Such data contain textual
contents and graphics that do not follow a specific format.

(C) Semi-structured Data

Semi-structured data lacks a well-defined structure but maintains internal tags
or markings to separate data elements. Examples include email documents, HTML
pages, and comma-separated values (CSV) files. Figure 1.11 showcases an example
of semi-structured data containing a student's month-wise attendance details. In
this case, there is no specific format for each attendance record. Each data value is

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preceded by a tag (Name, Month, Class, Attendance) for data interpretation

during processing.

Understanding the different types of data is essential for effective data processing
and deriving meaningful information from it.

Data Capturing, Storage, and Retrieval

To process data effectively, it is essential to capture, store, and retrieve it in a
computer system. These steps ensure that the data can be used for various
purposes and actions. Let's explore each of these steps in detail.

(A) Data Capturing: Data capturing involves gathering data from different sources
in a digital format. This process can vary depending on the source of data. It may
involve simple instruments like keyboards, barcode readers (used at shopping
outlets), social media comments or posts, remote sensors on satellites, and more.
Sometimes, capturing data from heterogeneous sources can be complex.

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(B) Data Storage: Data storage is the process of storing the captured data for
future processing. With the increasing rate of data production, data storage has
become a challenging task. However, the cost of digital storage devices has
decreased, making it easier to store large amounts of data. There are various
digital storage devices available in the market. As data keeps increasing, storage
devices need to be upgraded periodically. In large organizations, dedicated
computers called data servers are deployed to efficiently store vast amounts of
data. However, setting up and maintaining a data server can be costly, especially
for small organizations and startups.

(C) Data Retrieval: Data retrieval involves fetching data from storage devices for
processing according to user requirements. As databases grow, the challenges
associated with searching and retrieving data within an acceptable time frame
also increase. Minimizing data access time is crucial for faster data processing.

Data Deletion and Recovery

One of the significant concerns with digital data is the risk of deletion. Storage
devices can malfunction, resulting in data loss. Users may accidentally erase data,
or it can be intentionally deleted by hackers or malware. When data is deleted, its

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address entry is marked as free, and the space is shown as empty to the user
without actually deleting the data at the bit level.
In cases of accidental deletion or data corruption, data recovery becomes
necessary. Data recovery is only possible if the memory space marked as deleted
has not been overwritten by other data. It involves retrieving deleted, corrupted,
and lost data from secondary storage devices.
Data security concerns include unauthorized deletion and unwanted recovery of
data. Limiting access to computer systems, using passwords for user accounts and
files, and encrypting files can help protect against unauthorized deletion. Proper
data deletion or shredding tools should be used before disposing of old or faulty
storage devices to prevent unauthorized data recovery and ensure data
confidentiality.
Understanding the processes of data capturing, storage, retrieval, deletion, and
recovery is crucial for effectively managing and protecting digital data.

Software
In addition to the hardware components we have learned about, there is another
important component of a computer system called software. Unlike hardware,
software cannot be physically touched or seen. It consists of instructions and data
that are used to operate the computer hardware effectively. Software and
hardware work together to complete tasks.
Software is a collection of instructions that, when executed, produce the desired
outcome. Each software is designed for a specific computational purpose. Examples
of software include operating systems like Ubuntu or Windows 7/10, word
processing tools like LibreOffice or Microsoft Word, video players like VLC Player,
and photo editors like GIMP and LibreOffice Draw. When a document or image is
stored on a hard disk or pen drive, it is called a soft-copy. Once printed, it
becomes a hard-copy.

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Need of Software
The main purpose of software is to make computer hardware useful and
operational. Software knows how to make different hardware components of a
computer work and communicate with each other and with the end-user. We
cannot directly instruct the hardware of a computer. Software acts as an
interface between human users and the hardware.
Software can be broadly classified into three categories based on the mode of
interaction with hardware and the functions it performs: (i) System software, (ii)
Programming tools, and (iii) Application software.

System Software
System software provides the basic functionality to operate a computer by directly
interacting with its hardware components. It knows how to operate and utilize
different hardware components of a computer. System software provides services
directly to the end-user or to other software programs.
Operating System: The operating system is a fundamental system software that
operates the computer. It manages other application programs and provides access
and security to system users. Popular operating systems include Windows, Linux,
Macintosh, Ubuntu, Fedora, Android, iOS, etc.
System Utilities: System utilities are software used for the maintenance and
configuration of the computer system. Some system utilities come bundled with
the operating system, such as disk defragmentation tools, formatting utilities, and
system restore utilities. Others are external utilities required to enhance system
performance, such as antivirus software, disk cleaner tools, and disk compression
software.
Device Drivers: Device drivers ensure the proper functioning of specific devices in a
computer system. Although the operating system manages the overall workings of
the computer system, new devices and components are constantly being added.
The operating system alone cannot handle all existing and new devices, each with

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different characteristics. Device drivers act as interfaces between devices and the
operating system. They provide necessary services by hiding the hardware-level
operations of the devices. Similar to a language translator, a device driver
mediates between the operating system and the attached device.
The categorization of software is illustrated in Figure

Understanding software is essential as it plays a crucial role in making the

hardware functional and enabling users to perform various tasks on a computer
system.

Programming Tools
To accomplish tasks with a computer, we need to provide instructions that
manipulate input data to produce the desired outcome. However, humans and
computers understand different languages. While humans can write programs in
high-level languages, computers understand machine language. Therefore,
translators are required to convert high-level languages to machine language.
Additionally, code editors (e.g., IDLE in Python) are necessary for writing
instructions. Let's briefly discuss programming languages, language translators,
and program development tools.

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A) Classification of Programming Languages

Writing instructions in the form of 1s and 0s is challenging for humans. To
simplify coding, different computer programming languages have been developed.
There are two main categories: low-level languages and high-level languages.
Low-level languages are machine-dependent and include machine language and
assembly language. Machine language uses 1s and 0s directly understood and
executed by computers. However, writing code in machine language is difficult as
it requires memorizing operation codes and machine addresses. Detecting errors in
machine language code is also challenging.
Assembly language was developed to simplify coding by allowing the usage of
English-like words and symbols instead of 1s and 0s. However, code written in
assembly language is specific to a particular computer's architecture and cannot be
used with other CPUs.
High-level languages are machine-independent and easier to write code in. These
languages use English-like sentences and follow a set of rules, similar to natural
languages. However, computers cannot understand high-level languages directly.
Translators are needed to convert high-level language code into machine language.
Examples of high-level languages include C++, Java, Python, etc.

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B) Language Translators
Since computers understand only machine language, translators are needed to
convert code written in assembly or high-level language into machine language.
The code written in assembly or high-level language is called source code.
Translators convert the source code into machine-understandable form, known as
object (machine) code.
Different types of translators are used depending on the computer language. The
three types of translators commonly used are as follows:
1. Assembler: Translates code written in assembly language to machine
language. Each assembler understands a specific microprocessor instruction
set, making the resulting machine code non-portable.
2. Compiler: Converts high-level language source code into machine code. If the
code follows the syntactic rules of the language, it is executed by the
computer. Once translated, the compiler is not needed for execution.
3. Interpreter: Translates and executes one line of code at a time instead of the
entire program at once. The interpreter checks the syntax of each line,
converts it into executable code, and repeats these steps for all lines in the
source code. An interpreter is required whenever the source code needs to be
executed.

C) Program Development Tools

When writing a program, a text editor is needed to create a text file where
instructions can be typed and saved as source code. To simplify program
development, Integrated Development Environments (IDEs) are used. IDEs consist
of a text editor, building tools, and a debugger. They allow programmers to type,
compile, and debug programs directly within the environment. Examples of IDEs
include Python IDLE, Netbeans, Eclipse, Atom, and Lazarus. Debuggers help detect
and correct errors in the source code.

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Application Software
While system software provides the core functionality of a computer system,
application software caters to specific user requirements and is built on top of the
system software. There are two main categories of application software: general-
purpose software and customized software.
A) General-Purpose Software
General-purpose software is developed for generic applications and is designed to
serve a broad audience. End users can utilize ready-made application software
according to their requirements. Examples of general-purpose software include
spreadsheet tools like Calc in LibreOffice, Adobe Photoshop, GIMP, Mozilla web
browser, and iTunes.
B) Customized Software
Customized software, also known as tailor-made software, is developed to meet
the specific requirements of an organization or an individual. It is designed to suit
the unique needs of the user, considering factors like functionality, workflow, and
user interface. Examples of customized software include websites, school
management software, accounting software, etc. It is similar to buying a piece of
cloth and getting a tailor-made garment with the fitting, color, and fabric of our
choice.

Proprietary or Free and Open Source Software

Some application software developers provide their source code along with the
software for free, allowing further development and improvement with the help of
the community. This type of software is known as Free and Open Source Software
(FOSS). Examples of FOSS include Python, LibreOffice, OpenOffice, Mozilla Firefox,
etc.
Freeware refers to software that is freely available for use but may not provide
access to the source code. Examples of freeware include Skype and Adobe Reader.

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Proprietary software, on the other hand, requires purchasing from the vendor
who holds the copyright. Examples of proprietary software include Microsoft
Windows, Tally, Quickheal, etc. The categorization of software as freeware, open
source, or proprietary depends on the terms and conditions set by the developers.

Operating System
An operating system (OS) serves as a resource manager, overseeing the computer's
hardware, software, and user interactions. It manages resources such as the CPU,
RAM, disk, network, and input/output devices. The primary objectives of an
operating system are to provide services for building and running application
programs and to offer an interface for user interaction.
When an application program needs to be executed, the operating system loads it
into memory and allocates it to the CPU for processing. The operating system
determines the execution order for multiple programs. It also provides an interface
through which users can interact with the computer. Popular examples of
operating systems include Windows, Linux, Android, Macintosh, etc.

OS User Interface
The user interface (UI) of an operating system provides the means for users to
interact with the computer system. There are several types of user interfaces
commonly used:
A) Command-based Interface: In a command-based interface, users enter specific
commands to perform tasks such as creating, opening, editing, or deleting files.
Users need to remember the names of the programs or commands supported by
the operating system. The primary input device for command-based interfaces is
the keyboard. Examples of operating systems with command-based interfaces
include MS-DOS and Unix.

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B) Graphical User Interface (GUI): GUI allows users to run programs and give
instructions to the computer through icons, menus, and visual options. Icons
represent files and programs, while windows represent running programs
launched through the operating system. GUIs enable interaction using both the
mouse and keyboard. Examples of operating systems with GUI interfaces include
Microsoft Windows, Ubuntu, Fedora, and Macintosh.
C) Touch-based Interface: Touch-based interfaces are used in smartphones, tablets,
and touchscreen PCs. Users interact with the system by directly touching the
screen, performing actions such as opening apps, closing apps, scrolling, etc.
Examples of operating systems with touch-based interfaces include Android and
iOS. Windows 8.1 and 10 also support touch-based interfaces on touchscreen
devices.
D) Voice-based Interface: Voice-based interfaces allow users to interact with
computers or smartphones using voice commands. Users can give commands to
the operating system, such as opening apps or performing specific tasks, using
their voice. Examples of operating systems that provide voice-based control include
iOS (Siri), Android (Google Now or "OK Google"), and Microsoft Windows 10
(Cortana).
E) Gesture-based Interface: Gesture-based interfaces enable users to interact with
devices using gestures such as waving, tilting, eye motion, and shaking. This
technology is evolving rapidly and has potential applications in gaming, medicine,
and other areas. Some smartphones based on Android and iOS, as well as certain
laptops, support gesture-based interactions.

Functions of Operating System

Now let's explore some important services and tasks provided by an operating
system for managing the computer system:
A) Process Management: When a computer system is operational, multiple tasks
run simultaneously. Each task in execution is called a process. The operating
system manages these processes, allocates resources (especially the CPU) among

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them, and facilitates the exchange of information between processes. Process

management ensures efficient execution of multiple tasks in minimum time.
B) Memory Management: The primary/main memory of a computer system is
limited. Memory management involves allocating and freeing memory for running
processes. As there are multiple processes running simultaneously, memory must
be dynamically allocated and freed as needed. The operating system should
manage memory without affecting other processes already residing in memory.
Memory management ensures efficient utilization of memory by tracking free and
occupied memory locations.
C) File Management: Data and programs are stored as files in the secondary
storage of a computer system. File management involves creating, updating,
deleting, and protecting files in secondary memory. Protection is a crucial function
to prevent unauthorized access to files by multiple users. The file management
system manages secondary memory, while the memory management system
handles main memory.
D) Device Management: A computer system has various input/output (I/O) devices
and hardware components. The operating system manages these heterogeneous
devices and their interactions. It interacts with device drivers and related software
to control and configure devices for end users. Device management also includes
security measures to restrict device access to authorized users, software, and
hardware.
These functions collectively ensure the efficient utilization and management of
resources in a computer system, providing a smooth user experience and enabling
the execution of various tasks and applications.

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