DETERMINERS

Determiners are words placed in front of a noun to make it clear what the noun refers to. Use the
pages in this section to help you use English determiners correctly.

DETERMINERS IN ENGLISH

 Definite article : the

 Indefinite articles : a, an
 Demonstratives: this, that, these, those
 Pronouns and possessive determiners : my, your, his, her, its, our, their
 Quantifiers : a few, a little, much, many, a lot of, most, some, any, enough
 Numbers : one, ten, thirty
 Distributives : all, both, half, either, neither, each, every
 Difference words : other, another
 Pre-determiners : such, what, rather, quite

What is a determiner? Simply put, in English, a determiner is a word that introduces a noun. It
always comes before a noun, not after, and it also comes before any other adjectives used to
describe the noun.

Determiners are required before a singular noun but are optional when it comes to introducing
plural nouns. For example, consider the placement and usage of the common determiner the in
the sentences below:

 The bunny went home.

 I ate the chocolate cookie for dessert.
 Metal cans are recyclable.
 The metal cans are recyclable.

In every example, the determiner is placed before the noun or noun phrase, regardless of whether
the noun in the subject or predicate. In the first example, it comes directly before the noun, but in
the second example, it comes before the adjective ("chocolate") that describes the noun
("cookie").

Note also that in the third example there is no determiner, as determiners are optional for plural
nouns and noun phrases. When you want to discuss the noun in general (i.e., all metal cans), you
don't need a determiner for plural nouns. However, the fourth example shows that you may add a
determiner to refer to specific nouns (i.e., the metal cans right here).

There are four different types of determiners in English: articles, demonstratives, quantifiers, and
possessives.

Articles
Articles are among the most common of the determiners. There are three singular articles: a, an,
and the. Articles specify (or determine) which noun the speaker is referring to. A and an are
indefinite articles and are used when you are talking about a general version of the noun. For
example:

 A dog is a good pet.

 An ostrich would beat a chicken in a race.

In these examples, the sentence is talking about dogs or ostriches in general, meaning any dog.
When your meaning is general, use an indefinite article. Note that a is used before words that
begin with consonants while an is used before words beginning with vowels.

On the other hand, the is a definite article, meaning the speaker is referring to a specific noun.
For example:

 We went to the best restaurant in town.

 The dog is barking too loudly.

Here the speaker is referring to a particular dog and a particular restaurant. It's not a general
category, but only one animal or place that's important. When your meaning is specific, use a
definite article.

Demonstratives
Demonstrative pronouns are also used as determiners in English. There are four of them: this,
that, these and those. Demonstratives are used in a situation in which the speaker can point to the
item they mean, making them even more specific than a definite article. For example:

 Do you want this piece of chicken?

 I don't want to go to that movie.
 These black raspberries are sour.
 He wanted those boys to go away.

This and these refer to items nearby; that and those refer to items far away. Note also that this
and that are singular while these and those are plural.

Quantifiers
Quantifiers are determiners that indicate how much or how little of the noun is being discussed.
They include words such as all, few and many. For example:

 He took all the books.

 She liked all desserts equally.
 Few children like lima beans, so the cafeteria stopped serving them.
 Many kittens are taught to hunt by their mothers.

Note that all can be used with other determiners to specify which particular items are meant (i.e.
all the books in this pile). In this case, the quantifier always comes before the article or
demonstrative. It's also possible to use all alone to refer to items generally, as in the second
example.

Possessives
When referring to a noun that belongs to someone or something, you can use possessive
pronouns to show ownership. Possessive pronouns include my, your, his, her, its, our, and their.
For example:

 Where is your car?

 The dog growled and showed its teeth.
 My best friend is a cat.
 Which one is his house?
 Honesty is her best quality.
 The tree shed its leaves.
 It's our secret recipe.

As always, the determiner comes before the noun and any modifying adjectives. In English, you
can use the same possessive whether the noun it references is singular or plural.

Using Determiners Correctly

How should you choose which determiner to use? For native English speakers, determining
which determiner to use is second nature, since determiners are so often used in front of nouns.

For people learning English as a second language, it's helpful to remember a few rules:

 Determiners always come first in the noun phrase.

 Determiners are required with singular nouns.
 To speak about a singular noun generally, use an indefinite article (a or an).
 To speak about a plural noun generally, do not use a determiner.
 To speak about a singular noun specifically, use a definite article, demonstrative pronoun,
possessive pronoun or quantifier.
 To speak about a plural noun specifically, use a definite article, demonstrative pronoun,
possessive pronoun or quantifier.
Once you learn the dictionary definition of each determiner as you study English vocabulary, it
becomes easy to select the determiner that best expresses your meaning, whether you want to
show ownership, quantity or relative location.

What is a determiner? Simply put, in English, a determiner is a word that introduces a noun. It
always comes before a noun, not after, and it also comes before any other adjectives used to
describe the noun.

Determiners are required before a singular noun but are optional when it comes to introducing
plural nouns. For example, consider the placement and usage of the common determiner the in
the sentences below:

 The bunny went home.

 I ate the chocolate cookie for dessert.
 Metal cans are recyclable.
 The metal cans are recyclable.

In every example, the determiner is placed before the noun or noun phrase, regardless of whether
the noun in the subject or predicate. In the first example, it comes directly before the noun, but in
the second example, it comes before the adjective ("chocolate") that describes the noun
("cookie").

Note also that in the third example there is no determiner, as determiners are optional for plural
nouns and noun phrases. When you want to discuss the noun in general (i.e., all metal cans), you
don't need a determiner for plural nouns. However, the fourth example shows that you may add a
determiner to refer to specific nouns (i.e., the metal cans right here).

There are four different types of determiners in English: articles, demonstratives, quantifiers, and
possessives.

Articles
Articles are among the most common of the determiners. There are three singular articles: a, an,
and the. Articles specify (or determine) which noun the speaker is referring to. A and an are
indefinite articles and are used when you are talking about a general version of the noun. For
example:

 A dog is a good pet.

 An ostrich would beat a chicken in a race.
In these examples, the sentence is talking about dogs or ostriches in general, meaning any dog.
When your meaning is general, use an indefinite article. Note that a is used before words that
begin with consonants while an is used before words beginning with vowels.

On the other hand, the is a definite article, meaning the speaker is referring to a specific noun.
For example:

 We went to the best restaurant in town.

 The dog is barking too loudly.

Here the speaker is referring to a particular dog and a particular restaurant. It's not a general
category, but only one animal or place that's important. When your meaning is specific, use a
definite article.

Demonstratives
Demonstrative pronouns are also used as determiners in English. There are four of them: this,
that, these and those. Demonstratives are used in a situation in which the speaker can point to the
item they mean, making them even more specific than a definite article. For example:

 Do you want this piece of chicken?

 I don't want to go to that movie.
 These black raspberries are sour.
 He wanted those boys to go away.

This and these refer to items nearby; that and those refer to items far away. Note also that this
and that are singular while these and those are plural.

Quantifiers
Quantifiers are determiners that indicate how much or how little of the noun is being discussed.
They include words such as all, few and many. For example:

 He took all the books.

 She liked all desserts equally.
 Few children like lima beans, so the cafeteria stopped serving them.
 Many kittens are taught to hunt by their mothers.

Note that all can be used with other determiners to specify which particular items are meant (i.e.
all the books in this pile). In this case, the quantifier always comes before the article or
demonstrative. It's also possible to use all alone to refer to items generally, as in the second
example.

Possessives
When referring to a noun that belongs to someone or something, you can use possessive
pronouns to show ownership. Possessive pronouns include my, your, his, her, its, our, and their.
For example:

 Where is your car?

 The dog growled and showed its teeth.
 My best friend is a cat.
 Which one is his house?
 Honesty is her best quality.
 The tree shed its leaves.
 It's our secret recipe.

As always, the determiner comes before the noun and any modifying adjectives. In English, you
can use the same possessive whether the noun it references is singular or plural.

Using Determiners Correctly

How should you choose which determiner to use? For native English speakers, determining
which determiner to use is second nature, since determiners are so often used in front of nouns.

For people learning English as a second language, it's helpful to remember a few rules:

 Determiners always come first in the noun phrase.

 Determiners are required with singular nouns.
 To speak about a singular noun generally, use an indefinite article (a or an).
 To speak about a plural noun generally, do not use a determiner.
 To speak about a singular noun specifically, use a definite article, demonstrative pronoun,
possessive pronoun or quantifier.
 To speak about a plural noun specifically, use a definite article, demonstrative pronoun,
possessive pronoun or quantifier.

Once you learn the dictionary definition of each determiner as you study English vocabulary, it
becomes easy to select the determiner that best expresses your meaning, whether you want to
show ownership, quantity or relative location.

Determiners (the, my, some, this)

from English Grammar Today
Determiners are words such as the, my, this, some, twenty, each, any, which are used before
nouns:

the countryside some paper this old sofa

my father five green chairs each person

Determiners include the following common types:

Articles: a/an, the

Demonstratives: this, that, these, those

Possessives: my, your, his, her, its, our, their, x’s (possessive ’s)

Quantifiers: (a) few, fewer, (a) little, many, much, more, most, some, any, etc.

Numbers: one, two, three, etc.

Here is a list of the determiners included in this book. Many of them have individual entries:

(a) few, fewer, fewest every most that

(a) little half much the

(an)other her my their

a/an his neither these

all its no this

 any Jim’s, Anna’s, etc. one, two, three, etc. those

both least our what

each less several which

either many some whose

enough more such your

Sometimes we don’t use a determiner before the noun. We call this ‘zero determiner’:

Dogs love biscuits.

See also:

 A/an and the

What do determiners do?

Determiners have two main functions: referring and quantifying.

Referring

Referring means showing us who or what the noun is pointing to or talking about. The most
common types of determiners which we use for referring are articles, possessives and
demonstratives:

A:
Where’s the newspaper?
B:
It’s on the sofa. (the means the noun refers to something the speaker and
listener both know or are familiar with)
A:
Have you seen my MP3 player anywhere?
B:
Yes. It’s on the kitchen table. (my refers to something which belongs to the
speaker; the refers to something the speaker and listener can both identify
because they both know or share knowledge about it.)

Do you want this bag or are you going to put it in that box? (this refers to
something near the speaker; that refers to something further away.)

Charles is looking for his dictionary. Have you got it? (his means the noun
refers to something belonging to a male, in this case, Charles.)
Quantifying

‘Quantifying’ means showing how much of something there is, or how many:

Five people were arrested during an anti-war demonstration in London today.

There are some letters here for you. (some means a non-specific, small
number or quantity of something.)

Do you have enough flour to make the bread. (enough means a quantity that
is sufficient or adequate for something).

A/an and the

from English Grammar Today
A/an and the: meaning

A/an and the are articles. They are a type of determiner and they go before a noun.

A/an before a noun shows that what is referred to is not already known to the speaker, listener,
writer and/or reader (it is the indefinite article):
Do you have a car?
A:
Do you live in a house?
B:
No, actually, I live in an apartment.

The before a noun shows that what is referred to is already known to the speaker, listener,
writer and/or reader (it is the definite article):

Where did we park the car? (The speaker and the listener know what car is
being referred to.)

We had to paint the apartment before we sold it. (The speaker and the
listener know what apartment is being referred to.)

The makes a noun specific.

Compare

Have you been Have you ever been to any ice rink? (an doesn’t make the noun
to an ice rink? ice rink specific)

The speaker and listener know the ice rink which is being referred
Have you been
to (e.g. the one in their town/the local one). The makes the noun
to the ice rink?
ice rink specific.

Not specific Specific (‘the one you and I know’)

Would you like

Would you like to try the apple pie?
an apple?

Do you have a Have you seen the cat?

 cat?

See also:

 Determiners (the, my, some, this)

When do we use a and when do we use an?

In speaking, we use a /ə/ before a consonant sound:

a car a house a big truck a wheel a grey day

Warning:
Some words that begin with a vowel letter in writing have a consonant sound:

/ə ju:ˈnaɪtɪd …/ /ə ju:niˈvɜ:sɪti/ /ə wʌn …/

a united group a university a one-year-old child

We use an /ən/ before a vowel sound:

an apple an old shoe an orchestra an umbrella

Warning:
Some words that begin with a consonant letter in writing have a vowel sound:

/ən aʊə(r)/ an hour /ən empi:θri: …/ an MP3 player

How do we pronounce the?

We pronounce the in two ways depending on whether the sound which comes after the is a
vowel or a consonant:

/ði:/ before vowel sounds

/ði: eksɪt/ the exit /ði: æpəl/ the apple

/ðə/ before consonant sounds

/ðə ti:m/ the team /ðə ju:niən/ the union

When do we use articles?

A/an and the with types of nouns

Countable nouns

We only use a/an with singular countable nouns:

I have a sister and a brother.

That was an excellent meal.

We can use the with singular and plural countable nouns:

The lion roared. The tree fell.

The lions roared. The trees fell.

Uncountable nouns

We don’t use a/an before uncountable nouns:

Could I have rice instead of potatoes with my fish?

Not: Could I have a rice

I hope we have nice weather.

Not: I hope we have a nice weather.

We can use the before uncountable nouns when they refer to a specific example:

The rice we bought in the Thai shop is much better than the supermarket rice.
The weather was awful last summer.

To talk about an individual quantity or more than one quantity of an uncountable noun, we use
expressions such as a bit of, a piece of or a [specific measure] of:

That’s an amazing bit of news.

Not: That’s an amazing news.

We just made a big bowl of pasta.

Not: We just made a pasta.

Could I have a litre of milk, please?

Not: Could I have a milk, please?

General nouns

We only use the with general plural nouns when we are referring to a specific set within a
general class of people or things.

Compare

Books are so important in my life. I mean all books in general.

The books were all over the floor. I mean specific books (that you and I know).

We can make general nouns specific by using an article and adding more information after the
noun.

The life of a soldier is full of danger.

(specifically the life of soldiers, not life in
Life is wonderful. (life in general)
general)
She had a life of hard work. (one specific
life)
 He wrote a book on the history of boxing.
History sometimes repeats (specifically the history of boxing)
itself. (history in general) The country has a history of going to war.
(one specific history of one country)

Inventions, musical instruments and cultural institutions

When we talk in general about inventions, musical instruments or cultural institutions (such as
the cinema, the theatre, the circus, the opera, the ballet), we often use the:

The computer must be the greatest invention ever. (The computer as an

invention in general, not a specific computer)

The violin sounds different to the viola.

I love a night at the opera.

See also:

 Nouns

No article before determiners (any, some, my, this)

We don’t use an article with other words that specify a noun (determiner), e.g. any, some, my,
her, this, that:

I love my job. Does she want this book?

Not: I love the my job. Not: Does she want the this book?

See also:

 Determiners (the, my, some, this)

The with things that are universally known

We use the with things known to everyone (the sun, the stars, the moon, the earth, the planet)
because they are a part of our physical environment or part of the natural world:
The earth moves around the sun.

We lay on the grass and watched the stars.

The with everyday things

We use the with things that we know as part of our daily lives. The does not refer to particular
things in this context.

I don’t buy the newspaper these days. It’s free on the Internet. (newspapers
in general)

They always take the train. (trains in general)

Jobs and professions

When we talk about a person’s job, we use a:

She’s a gardener.

He’s an ambulance driver.

Places

We use the with mountain ranges and some mountains (the Alps, the Eiger), groups of islands
(the West Indies), rivers (the Danube), deserts (the Gobi Desert), seas (the Black Sea),
geographical regions or habitats (the Amazon rainforest), motorways (the M42), the names of
some countries (the People’s Republic of China).

We don’t usually use articles with individual mountains or lakes when the name includes Mount
or Lake: Mount Fuji, Lake Victoria. We don’t use articles with continents (Asia), countries
(Romania), towns (Edinburgh), and streets (Lombard Street).

See also:

 Geographical places

 Nationalities, languages, countries and regions

 Place names

The with groups within society

When we talk about particular groups or people within society, we use the + adjective:

I think the rich should pay more tax and that the poor shouldn’t pay any.

The young need to be encouraged and supported in society.

The with dates

When we say a specific date, we use the, but when we write it, we don’t use the:

Speaking: ‘I’ll see you on the twenty fourth of May.’

Writing: I’ll see you on 24th May.

When we talk about months, we don’t use the:

My birthday is in September.

May is my favourite month of all.

When we talk about seasons in general, we can use either in or in the. In without the is often
used in more formal or literary contexts:

These birds arrive in Britain in summer, and leave as the winter begins.

In the summer, we usually go to the mountains.

We rarely get snow in the winter.

When we talk about a specific season, we use the:

The winter of 1947 was one of the coldest in Britain.

We’ll definitely visit you in the summer. (meaning next summer)

See also:

 Nouns

The with Internet, radio and newspaper but mostly not with TV

I looked it up on the Internet.

Not: on internet

She was on the radio once.

Not: on radio

Did you see that story about parrots in the newspaper?

Not: in newspaper

There’s usually nothing on TV. (TV means television)

There’s usually nothing on the television. (less common)

The with go to, be at, be in hospital, school, prison

When we talk about the activity that happens in a building rather than about the building itself,
we don’t use the.

Compare

without the with the

She didn’t want to be in hospital but She didn’t want to be in the

she was too ill to go home. (in hospital hospital … (in the hospital
means being there as a patient) means being in the building)

When I was at school, we didn’t have When I was at the school …

computers. (at school means being (at the school means being in
there as a student) the building)

We don’t use the with bed when we go there to sleep:

I always go to bed at eleven o’clock.

Not: I always go to the bed …

We don’t use the before work when we talk about the place where we do our job:
They go to work at 8 am every morning.

Not: They go to the work …

See also:

 At, on and in (time)

Possessive expressions

We don’t use the to refer to an individual’s behaviour or to parts of an individual’s body:

He spends most of his free time playing computer games.

Not: He spends most of the free time …

I must wash my hands.

Not: I must wash the hands.

This, that and articles

We can use this instead of a/an or the, and these instead of zero article or some when we tell
stories and jokes to create a sense of the present:

[beginning of a joke]

There was this chicken who wanted to cross the road … (compare There was
a chicken who wanted to cross the road …)

These tourists came into the restaurant once and they ordered fifteen Irish
coffees. (compare Some tourists came into the restaurant once and they
ordered …)
Spoken English:
In informal speaking, we can use that as an alternative to the in stories when we refer to
something familiar or known to the listener. That highlights the fact that the thing being referred
to is known to the speaker and listener:

A:
Where did you buy your skirt? I really like it.
B:
I got it at that new shop next to Green’s Hotel. (compare I got it at the new
shop next to Green’s Hotel.)

A/an and the: typical errors

 We don’t use the with plural nouns when we are referring to things in general:

We have to protect wild animals. (referring to wild animals in general)

Not: the wild animals.

 We don’t use the when we refer in general to something abstract or uncountable:

I love Japanese food. (all Japanese food/Japanese food in general)

Not: I love the Japanese food.

 We don’t use the when the noun is not known to the listener or reader:

Last Sunday, we saw a film called ‘Nightmare’. (The speaker doesn’t think that
the listener knows of this film.)

Not: … we saw the film called ‘Nightmare’.

 We don’t use the instead of a possessive pronoun:

The police asked us to put our hands up.

Not: The police asked us to put the hands up.

 We don’t use an article with go to bed:

I go to bed at eleven most nights.

Not: I go to the bed at eleven most nights.

Geographical places
from English Grammar Today
Rivers

We use the before the names of rivers. We usually write the without a capital letter. If we use
the word river, we usually write it without a capital letter: the river Thames, the river Severn, the
Yangtze river.

We don’t always use the word river, especially when it is obvious that we are talking about a
river: the Mississippi, the Nile, the Ganges, the Loire.

Mountains and islands

We use the with the names of some mountains: the Matterhorn, the Jungfrau.

We do not use the if the name includes Mount or Mountain: Mount Olympus, Brokeback
Mountain.

We often refer to some mountains just by their name without the: Everest, Kilimanjaro,
Snowdon.

We usually use the before the names of ranges of mountains and groups of islands: the
Dolomites, the Himalayas, the Rockies, the Bahamas, the Florida Keys, the Canaries.

Deserts, oceans and seas

We usually use the before the names of deserts, oceans and seas. We often leave out the word
desert, ocean or sea: the Sahara or the Sahara Desert, the Atlantic or the Atlantic Ocean, the
Mediterranean or the Mediterranean Sea.

Cities, countries and continents

We don’t use the with the names of cities, countries or continents: Paris, Tokyo, France, Peru,
Africa, Asia.

A small number of country names include the: The United Kingdom, The USA, The United Arab
Emirates, The Netherlands.
Lakes

We don’t usually use the with the names of lakes. We often use the word Lake before the name:
Lake Como, Lake Michigan, Lake Geneva, Lake Tahoe

Nationalities, languages, countries and regions

from English Grammar Today
When we refer to a nation or region, we can use:

– the name of the country or region: Turkey, Japan, Germany, Brazil, Asia

– a singular noun that we use for a person from the country or region: a Turk, a Japanese, a
German, a Brazilian, an Asian

– the plural expression the … used for the whole population of a country or region: the Turks,
the Japanese, the Germans, the Brazilians, the Asians

– an adjective: Turkish, Japanese, German, Brazilian, Asian

The name of a national language is commonly the same as the national adjective. In this case,
the words are nouns and may be modified by adjectives. We don’t use the or the word
language:

Do you speak Chinese?

Not: Do you speak the Chinese? or Do you speak Chinese language?

Russian is difficult to learn, isn’t it, especially the alphabet?

She speaks fluent French.

We use a capital letter when we refer to a nationality, a language, a country and a region:

They have studied American literature.

Not: They have studied american literature.

When we talk about the United Kingdom (UK), English is not the same as British. English is not
used for Scottish or Welsh or Northern Irish people. (Great) Britain refers to the territory of
England, Scotland and Wales. The United Kingdom refers to England, Scotland, Wales and the
six counties of Northern Ireland. Some people from Northern Ireland refer to themselves as
British in the context of the United Kingdom of Britain and Northern Ireland. However, everyone
from Northern Ireland has the right to Irish nationality and can hold an Irish passport. Irish also
refers to citizens of the Irish Republic.

The Scots themselves prefer the adjective Scots and it also occurs in the compounds Scotsman
and Scotswoman. We use the adjective Scotch to refer only to food and drink from Scotland e.g.
Scotch broth (broth is a kind of soup).

Nowadays we use the noun Briton only to refer to the ancient tribes that lived in Britain:

The ancient Britons built huge earthworks to bury their kings and leaders.

The short form of British, Brit, is often used as a noun (or less commonly as an adjective) in
journalistic style and in informal situations to refer to British people:

The Brits have a bad reputation in some countries.

We use Arabic for the language spoken in Arab countries; the normal adjective is Arab (e.g. the
Arab World, the Arab Press). We use Arabian in a few fixed expressions and place names (e.g.
Arabian Nights is a famous film; the Arabian Sea).

Countries and regions and their adjectives and nouns

The singular noun is normally the same as the adjective (e.g. Moroccan), and the plural
expression is the same as the adjective + -s (e.g. the Moroccans).

Country/Region Adjective Person (noun) People (plural noun)

Algeria Algerian an Algerian the Algerians

Australia Australian an Australian the Australians

Country/Region Adjective Person (noun) People (plural noun)

America/the USA American an American the Americans

Belgium Belgian a Belgian the Belgians

Brazil Brazilian a Brazilian the Brazilians

Europe European a European the Europeans

Italy Italian an Italian the Italians

Hungary Hungarian a Hungarian the Hungarians

Morocco Moroccan a Moroccan the Moroccans

Norway Norwegian a Norwegian the Norwegians

Greece Greek a Greek the Greeks

Iraq Iraqi an Iraqi the Iraqis

 Country/Region Adjective Person (noun) People (plural noun)

Israel Israeli an Israeli the Israelis

Thailand Thai a Thai the Thais

China Chinese a Chinese the Chinese

Portugal Portuguese a Portuguese the Portuguese

Russia Russian a Russian the Russians

Slovakia Slovaks a Slovak the Slovaks

Switzerland Swiss a Swiss the Swiss

Here are some exceptions:

Country/region Adjective Person (noun) People (plural noun)

Britain British a British man/woman the British

England English an Englishman/woman the English

Country/region Adjective Person (noun) People (plural noun)

France French a Frenchman/woman the French

Ireland Irish an Irishman/woman the Irish

Spain Spanish a Spaniard the Spanish

The Netherlands/ Dutch a Dutchman/woman the Dutch

Holland

Wales Welsh a Welshman/woman the Welsh

Denmark Danish a Dane the Danes

Finland Finnish a Finn the Finns

Poland Polish a Pole the Poles

Sweden Swedish a Swede the Swedes

Turkey Turkish a Turk the Turks

The + country name

A few countries have the as part of their name, for example, The United States, The United
Kingdom, The United Arab Emirates. We often abbreviate these to USA, UK and UAE.

Place names
from English Grammar Today
Buildings, monuments, cathedrals, etc.

We use the with some names of buildings (we usually write the without a capital letter, the Taj
Mahal, the Alhambra, the Houses of Parliament, the Pentagon) but not with others: Stonehenge,
Windsor Castle, St Paul’s Cathedral, Chichen Itza.

Roads, streets, etc.

We use the with the names of major roads in a country: the M6, the A40, but not with the names
of areas, squares, streets and roads in a town or city: Broadway, Covent Garden, Times
Square, Princes Street.

Facilities in a town or city

We usually use the with the names of hotels, cinemas, museums and art galleries: the Marriott,
the Louvre, the National Gallery.

When we are referring to buildings or institutions that don’t include the name of a town or city,
we use the: the airport, the University Press, but not when the name of the town or city is
included: Gatwick Airport, Cambridge University Press.

But there are some exceptions:

Have you been on the London Eye?

They’ve been on the Eye at least ten times.

We saw ‘Mamma Mia’ at the Bristol Hippodrome. (the name of a theatre)

Have you been to the Hippodrome since they renovated it?

The sea, the coast, etc.

When we are referring to general features of a country or its landscape, we use the: the sea, the
countryside, the city, the coast.

Places: fixed expressions

There are a lot of common fixed expressions relating to places. We don’t normally use the with
these expressions. Here are some of them:

to town: I’m going to town this afternoon.

in town: She works in town.

at school/university: They met at university.

from school/university: What time do they get home from school?

in hospital: Linda’s been in hospital since Friday.

in prison: Her husband is in prison, and life is very difficult for her.

Some and any

from English Grammar Today
We use some and any in different types of clauses.

He’s got some

homework.
+ Some is most common in affirmative clauses.
Not: He’s got any
homework.
 He hasn’t got any
homework.
– Any is most common in negative clauses.
Not: He hasn’t got
some homework.

Has he got any

?
homework? Any is more common in questions but we can use
+ Has he got some some when we are expecting the answer to be ‘yes’.

homework?

Hasn’t he got any

?
homework?
− Hasn’t he got some
homework?

Possession (John’s car, a friend of mine)

from English Grammar Today
Possessive ’s

We use apostrophe s (’s), also called possessive ’s, as a determiner to show that something
belongs to someone or something:

Is that Olivia’s bag?

Britain’s coastline is very beautiful.

We can also use it in complex noun phrases (underlined):

Greg is her youngest daughter’s husband.

We can use two possessive ’s constructions in the same noun phrase:

We went to Jake’s father’s funeral.

We also use possessive ’s to talk about time and duration:

Is that yesterday’s paper?

I’ve only had one week’s holiday so far this year.

Rules for using possessive ’s

We use ’s after a singular noun and ’ after a plural noun.

Compare

singular noun + ’s plural noun + ’

The girl’s bedroom The girls’ bedroom.

(The bedroom belongs to one girl.) (The bedroom belongs to more than one girl.)

We use ’s with irregular plural nouns (e.g. children, men, people, women):

The children’s parents decided which university they would go to.

They have no respect for other people’s property.

The rules for the pronunciation of a noun with ’s are the same as the rules for pronunciation of
plural forms of nouns.

Compare
 pronunciatio
noun + ’s or ’ plural noun
n

The cat’s dinner is in the The cats were running

/s/
fridge. around the garden.

The kids’ uncle gave them The kids are getting

/z/
all some money. impatient.

There are three Georges in

George’s brother was there. /ɪz/
my family.

When a first or second name ends in -s, we can either add ’ or ’s. It is more common to use ’
than ’s. When we speak, we usually pronounce the final part of the word as /zɪz/ or /sɪz/:

Is that James’ car? (or Is that James’s car?) (both usually pronounced
/ˈdʒeɪmzɪz/)

I love Keats’ poetry. (or I love Keats’s poetry.) (both usually pronounced
/ˈki:tsɪz/)

With compound nouns, we add ’s to the final noun:

My sister-in-law’s friend came with us.

Not: My sister’s-in-law friend

We don’t usually use the possessive ’s with things:

the door handle

Not: the door’s handle

the shop window

Not: the shop’s window

the kitchen table

Not: the kitchen’s table

Spoken English:
When we talk about places which are familiar to the speaker and the listener, we sometimes
don’t use the noun after possessive ’s:

the hairdresser’s salon – the hairdresser’s

the doctor’s surgery – the doctor’s

We had to take our cat to the vet’s twice last month. (the same as: We had to
take our cat to the vet’s clinic twice last month.)

Do you shop in Marks and Spencer’s?

We decided to go to John’s after the cinema. (the same as: We decided to go

to John’s house after the cinema.)

In short answers, we can omit the noun if it is not necessary to repeat it:

A:
Is that your coat?
B:
No, it’s Sandra’s.

We use possessive ’s with words such as one, anyone, someone, anybody, somebody:

It’s important to know one’s rights as a tenant.

Is this someone’s coat here?

When we use else with these words, the ’s is added to else:

Why didn’t you come? Everyone else’s husband was there.

Warning:
The pronoun other has the same forms as nouns. We add ’s to the singular form, and we add
an apostrophe after the plural -s ending in the plural form:

They took each other’s hand and started walking.

All of our luggage arrived but the others’ cases didn’t. The airline promise
they will be here this evening.
Warning:
We don’t use ’s with possessive pronouns:

Is that dog yours?

Not: Is that dog your’s?

I think that car is theirs.

Not: I think that car is theirs’

We don’t use ’s with the possessive determiner its. It’s means ‘it is’:

The city is proud of its parks.

Not: The city is proud of it’s parks.

Possessives with of
Noun phrase + of + possessive pronoun

We can talk about possession using the pattern: noun phrase + of + possessive pronoun:

A friend of mine told me that all of the tickets have already sold out.
A:
Where’s Martin?
B:
He’s gone to pick up a cousin of his at the station.

Is Linda McGrath a close friend of yours?

Warning:
We use a possessive pronoun, not the object form of the pronoun:

A neighbour of mine called late last night.

Not: A neighbour of me …
Noun phrase + of + possessive ’s noun phrase

We can also use the noun phrase + of pattern before a noun phrase with possessive ’s:

He’s a brother of Maria’s.

A friend of my sister’s has opened a café on Dawson Street.

She was a daughter of the President’s.

’s or of or either?

There are some general rules about when to use ’s and when to use of but there are many
cases where both are possible:

The film’s hero or The hero of the film

The car’s safety record or The safety record of the car

The report’s conclusion or The conclusion of the report

Sometimes when we first mention a noun, we use of, and later when we refer to it again, we use
’s:

The mountains of Pakistan are mostly in the north. At least one hundred of
them are above 7,000 metres … Most of Pakistan’s mountains are in the
spectacular Karakoram range.
When we don’t use ’s

We don’t use ’s when the noun is not a person, animal, country, organisation, etc., or when the
noun phrase is very long:

The name of the ship was ‘Wonder Queen’. (preferred to The ship’s name
was ‘Wonder Queen’.)

The house of the oldest woman in the village. (preferred to The oldest
woman in the village’s house.)
When we don’t use of
When we are talking about things that belong to us, relationships and characteristics of people,
animals, countries, categories, groups or organisations made up of people, we usually use ’s:

The men’s dressing room is on the left at the end of the corridor.

Not: The dressing room of the men …

The cat’s paw was badly cut.

Not: The paw of the cat …

See also:

 Possessive ’s

Possession: typical errors

 We don’t use ’s with plural nouns:

It’s my responsibility to deal with customers’ complaints.

Not: … to deal with customers's complaints.

 The possessive determiner its has no apostrophe:

We bought this car because we liked its colour.

Not: … because we liked it’s colour.

 We don’t use ’s to make nouns plural. When we want to show that something is plural, we
add -s without an apostrophe:

They had to rebuild the roads after the earthquake.

Not: They had to rebuild the road’s …

Determiners: position and order
from English Grammar Today
Where do determiners go?

Determiners come first in noun phrases, before adjectives and noun modifiers.

determiner(s) adjective(s) noun modifier(s) head noun

her little brother

every university student

three big, old kitchen tables

my two best friends

See also:

 Noun phrases

More than one determiner

We can use more than one determiner in a noun phrase:

My two best friends at school were Mike and Terry.

All your books got wet when you left them in the garden – do you remember?

We don’t use two referring determiners or two quantifying determiners together:

We sold the house.

We sold our house.

Not: We sold the our house.

I have some questions.

I have many questions.

Not: I have some many questions.

However, we can use a quantifying determiner (some, many, enough, etc.) + of together with a
referring determiner (the, this, my, etc):

Many of the people present were very angry.

Some of his friends are awful people.

When there is more than one determiner in a noun phrase, we put them in a fixed order. The
table shows the order from left to right.

number
quantifier possessive
article demonstrative
(e.g. head
(e.g. all, (a/an, (this, that, (e.g. my,
one, noun
both, the) these, those) her, our,
three,
some) Anna’s)
26)

childre
all (of) the
n

both (of) my parents

his two sisters

 number
quantifier possessive
article demonstrative
(e.g. head
(e.g. all, (a/an, (this, that, (e.g. my,
one, noun
both, the) these, those) her, our,
three,
some) Anna’s)
26)

animal
many of these
s

the three girls

half a mile

glasse
none of those six
s

some of our friends

Many, much, more, most, few, little

We can use many, much, more, most, few and little after the or after a demonstrative or a
possessive, especially in formal styles:

She spent the little money she had left on a new coat and hat.
Those few books which were not destroyed in the fire have been transferred
to the new library.

I shall invite my many friends to join me on my 65th birthday.

All, both, half

All, both and half can come before articles, demonstratives and possessives. We can use them
with or without of, with no difference in meaning:

All that food should be put in the fridge. (or All of that food)

Do both your parents work in the city? (or both of your parents)

Half the people at the party hadn’t been invited. (or Half of the people)

See also:

 All

 Both

One of, most of, etc.

Determiners other than all, both and half must be used with of if they come before articles,
demonstratives or possessives:

Do you want any of these boxes, or shall I throw them away?

Not: Do you want any these boxes…

Most of her school friends got married before she did.

I’d like some of the green grapes, please.

Two of my favourite programmes are on TV at the same time!

Determiners which we use with of in this way are:

(a) few enough most

 (a) little every (every one of) much

all fewer neither

another fewest no (pronoun form none)

any least one, two, three, etc.

both less several

each many some

either more which

In formal styles, we use each of, every one of, none of and any of with a singular verb when
they are the subject:

Each of the children was given a place to hang their coat and bag.

None of my friends owns a house.

However, in informal speaking, people often use plural verbs:

None of the computers are working. They’re all being repaired at the moment.

Determiners with and without of may have slightly different meanings.

Compare
 without of with of

Some people had gathered in Some of the people in the hall

the main square. (a fairly small sounded very angry. (a proportion of
number of people) the particular group of people)

The school needs more I wish we had more of this paper. I

teachers. (a greater number of like the colour. (a greater quantity of
teachers) this particular paper)

Few cities have solved the Very few of the children seemed to
problems associated with traffic know basic maths. (not many of the
congestion. (not many cities) particular group of children)

Determiners and modifiers

Determiners which show quantity (underlined) may occasionally have words before them
(modifiers, in bold) which make them more specific or stronger:

Nearly every shop was closed for the public holiday.

The college has received many more applications this year than last year, but
the total is still far fewer than ten years ago.

They were able to give me very little information.

This, that, these, those

from English Grammar Today
This, that, these and those are demonstratives. We use this, that, these and those to point to
people and things. This and that are singular. These and those are plural. We use them as
determiners and pronouns.

determiners pronouns

What’s in this box? Come and look at this.

That water tastes strange. That’s a very good idea.

I might get myself a pair of those shoes. Can I have one of these?

This, that, these, those as determiners

Pointing to things

We use this and that with singular and uncountable nouns:

Try to repeat this exercise every morning and evening. (this + singular
countable noun)

What does this music make you think of? (this + singular uncountable noun)

I’ve never been to that part of France. (that + singular countable noun)

Can I have some of that juice, please? (that + singular uncountable noun)

We use these and those with plural nouns:

You can use any one of these computers. (these + plural noun)

I need to paint those windows. (those + plural noun)

Time phrases

We often use this with words describing time and dates like morning, afternoon, evening, week,
month, year to refer to ‘the one that’s coming’ or ‘the one we’re currently in’:
I’ll be with you some time this evening.

Johan seemed very happy this afternoon.

Ian is in Germany all this week.

This, that, these, those as pronouns

Referring to things or ideas

We normally use this, that, these and those as pronouns to refer to things or ideas:

Put the butter, chocolate and sugar in a saucepan. Heat this over a low flame
until it melts.

We’re going to eat first and then go to the film. Are you happy with that? (Are
you happy with the idea of eating first, then going to the film?)

[talking about the TV]

Can you turn that off if you’re not watching it?

[talking about shoes]

What colour are those? Black or dark blue. I can’t see.

Referring to people

We can use this and that as pronouns to refer to people when we want to identify ourselves or
others, or to ask the identity of other speakers:

Linda, this is my mother, Anne.

Is that your brother over there?

We often do this in telephone calls and in answer-phone messages:

Hello, is that Ken Orm? This is Jane Bromham here.

This and these, that and those: uses

Physical closeness and distance

We use this and these most commonly to point to things and people that are close to the
speaker or writer, or things that are happening now:

Shall I use this knife here?

[pointing to something]

Is this what you mean?

I’ll post these letters on my way home.

[pointing to a pile of books]

Do these belong to the Bradshaws?

We use that and those most commonly to point to things and people which are not easy to
identify in a situation. They are often more distant from the speaker, and sometimes closer to
the listener:

What’s in that bottle over there?

Could you blow out those candles near you?

Sometimes they are not visible to either the speaker or listener:

Budapest! That’s my favourite place!

Emotional distance

We sometimes use this, these, that, those to identify emotional distance. We use this and these
to refer to things that we feel positive about, that we are happy to be associated with, or we
approve of:

I love these new woollen mobile phone covers that you can get.

We use that and those to create distance:

What are you going to say to that sister of yours?

[talking about a restaurant]

I didn’t like the decoration. It had those awful paintings.
Shared knowledge and new information

We sometimes use that instead of the to refer the listener to shared knowledge, often when we
are telling a story or explaining something:

You know that old shop on the corner? Well, they’re going to turn it into a
restaurant.

We sometimes use this instead of a/an to refer to something important or recent, or to introduce
a new person or thing in a story:

This guy knocked on the door and asked if I wanted new windows.

Then suddenly she pulled out this big pile of papers from her briefcase and
threw them on the table.

See also:

 It, this and that in paragraphs

 Pronouns

 Determiners (the, my, some, this)

Substitution with that, those

In formal contexts, we can use that and those as substitutes meaning ‘the one(s)’:

The most important information is that given at the beginning of the manual.
(that substitutes for the information)

The methods employed are those familiar to researchers. (more formal than
The methods employed are the ones familiar to researchers.)

In formal contexts, especially in academic style, we use that of/those of instead of the one of/the
ones of or the … one/the … ones. This is preferred to the possessive X’s one/X’s ones:

The proton has a similar mass to that of a neutron. (preferred to The proton
has a similar mass to the neutron’s.)
The emotions in the poems are those of loss and grief.

Not: The emotions in the poem are loss and grief ones.

We normally only use that as a substitute for a thing, not for a person or animal:

A:
Have you met Mr Kelly?
B:
The one who works at the town hall, or his brother?
A:
The one at the town hall.

Not: That who works at the town hall.

We can use those as a substitute for persons, animals or things:

There are sports facilities for guests. Those interested in golf can enjoy our
eighteen-hole course.

Grammar - common adverbs

 Even

o Even though and even if

o Even and comparatives

 Eventually

 Hardly

 Hopefully

 Largely

 Likely and unlikely

 Surely
 Too

o Too meaning ‘also’

o Too meaning ‘more than enough’

 Ultimately

Grammar - adverbs of degree

 Fairly

 Intensifiers (very, at all)

 Much, a lot, lots, a good deal: adverbs

 Pretty

 Quite

 Rather

o Or rather

 Really

 Scarcely

 Very

Grammar - adverbs of place and movement

 Abroad

 Away and away from

 Back

o Back as an adverb

o Back as an adjective

o Back as a noun

o Back as a verb

 Inside

 Nearby

 Outside

 Up

o Up as an adverb

o Up as a particle

o Up as a preposition

o Up to with numbers

o Up as an adjective

Back
from English Grammar Today
Back is an adverb, noun, adjective or verb.

Back can mean ‘returning to an earlier starting point or situation’ or ‘moving to a point further
away’ or ‘replying to something’. Back also means ‘at the rear of’ or ‘the part of a person or thing
that is opposite the front’.

Back as an adverb

Olga’s not looking forward to going back to school in September.

[taking a photograph]
Don’t move too far back or you’ll fall in the swimming pool.

Sorry, I’m just finishing a meeting. Can I ring you back in ten minutes?

Back as a noun

There’s a new restaurant at the back of our office building.

Will Hoskins is unlikely to play as he hurt his back badly playing in the Rugby
World Cup semi-final and is still receiving treatment.

Back as an adjective

The reporters were chasing her and, in order to avoid the cameras, she had to
use the back door of the theatre.

Unfortunately she’s spilt coffee over the back seat of the car.

Back as a verb

[talking about a pet dog]

He’s got a lovely temperament but he may panic and bite you if you back him
into a corner.

Did you know that during his driving test he backed his car into a bicycle?

What Is An Interjection?
5th grade6th grade7th grade8th grade9th grade10th grade11th gradeElementary SchoolMiddle
SchoolHigh School

An interjection is one of the eight major parts of speech, along with verbs, nouns, pronouns,
adjectives, adverbs, prepositions and conjunctions. Some grammarians believe that interjections
are the least important part of speech. This is because interjections are not generally required in
order for the meaning of a sentence to become clear.

An interjection is a word solely designed to convey emotion. It expresses meaning or feeling. It

does not:

 relate grammatically to the other parts of the sentence

 help the reader understand the relationship between words and phrases in the sentence

Instead, it simply conveys to the reader the way the author is feeling. Interjections are rarely used
in academic or formal writing, but are common in fiction or artistic writing. They are usually, but
not always, offset by an exclamation point (which is also used to show emotion).

Use of Interjections
Beginning of Sentences

When people think of interjections, they commonly think of them being used at the beginning of
the sentence. Many also associate interjections with a punctuation mark designed to convey
emotion: the exclamation point.

This is often true. Interjections can and do appear in the beginning of sentences. For example:

 "Yikes, I didn't realize that there was a test on grammar today!"

 "Oh no, I can't believe that it is snowing here again!"

In both of these sentences the interjection - "yikes" and "oh no" appear at the beginning of the
sentence. In addition, in both of the sentences, the emotion is a strong emotion and the sentence
itself ends with an exclamation point.

Middle or End of Sentences

Interjections do not always have to be at the beginning of a sentence. They can appear in the
middle, at the end, or anyplace else where the author wants to interject a bit of feeling and
emotion.

For example, in the sentence "So, it's snowing again, huh?" the interjection is found at the end.
Here, the interjection is designed to express confusion (or perhaps dismay) at the continued snow
falling. In this sentence, the emotion wasn't an emotion that necessitated an exclamation point--
instead, the interjection 'huh' turned the sentence into a question.

The sentence "In my opinion, my gosh, this is just the smartest thing you have ever said" the
interjection is found in the middle. It designed to express or convey the author's emphasis on his
opinion that the statement was smart. Again, no exclamation point is required.
Stand-alone Sentence

An interjection can also be used by itself as a stand-alone sentence. For example, look at the two
sentences: "Oh gosh! I can't believe how late it is." The interjection "oh gosh" is a stand-alone
sentence. This is grammatically correct, although "Oh Gosh" does not contain a subject and
action that is normally required for a complete thought to be expressed. The interjection--or the
emotion felt--is the entire point of the sentence.

Types of Interjections
There are literally hundreds, if not thousands, of interjections in the English language. Most are
designed to express strong emotions, such as love, hate, surprise, happiness, anger, enthusiasm,
disgust, boredom, confusion or unhappiness. However, this is not always true. Some interjections
can express either a mild emotion, or can be expressions, such as "Excuse me."

A sample list of interjections includes words such as:

 Aha
 Boo
 Crud
 Dang
 Eew
 Gosh
 Goodness
 Ha
 Oh
 Oops
 Oh no
 Ouch
 Rats
 Shoot
 Uh-oh
 Uh-huh
 Ugh
 Yikes
 Yuck

This is by no means an exhaustive list, but is representative of the types of interjections you may
use on a daily basis. For more examples see Examples of Interjections.

Identifying Interjections
Now that you've looked at a list of interjections, practice identifying them in these ten sentences:

1. Yowza! That is a fine looking car.

 2. Hurray! It is a snow day and school is cancelled.
3. It is so exciting, my goodness, I just can't believe it.
4. Joe was late to school and yikes, the teacher was mad.
5. Oh! I can't believe how nice you look.
6. Well, gee, that sure is a kind thing to say.
7. Boo! I scared you.
8. Woops, I dropped the milk and it spilled.
9. Yay, it is finally Friday and the work week is over.
10. Oh well, all good things must come to an end.

Answers to Identifying Interjections:

1. Yowza! That is a fine looking car: Yowza is the interjection here. It is expressing the
emotion of being quite impressed with the car.
2. Hurray! It is a snow day and school is cancelled Hurray is the emotion here. Clearly, it is
expressing happiness.
3. It is so exciting, my goodness, I just can't believe it. My goodness is the interjection here,
expressing excitement.
4. Joe was late to school and yikes, the teacher was mad. Yikes is the emotion being
expressed here.
5. Oh! I can't believe how nice you look. Oh, the interjection, acts as a classic interjection at
the beginning of a sentence. It is offset by its exclamation point.
6. Well, gee, that sure is a kind thing to say. Here, we have two interjections: well and gee.
7. Boo! I scared you. Boo is the rather obvious (and scary) interjection in this sentence.
8. Woops, I dropped the milk and it spilled. Woops is the interjection used to express the
error.
9. Yay, it is finally Friday and the work week is over. Yay is another interjection that
expresses the emotion of happiness, just as hurray did in sentence #2.
10. Oh well, all good things must come to an end. Oh well is the emotion here, an interjection
with a tinge of resignation.

Interjections in Writing
Interjections are not commonly used in formal or academic writing. Because of the function that
interjections serve, there is virtually no place for them in an academic paper that is designed to
convey facts. By definition, facts should be devoid of emotion or opinion such as the emotions
conveyed by interjections.

Interjections are used most often in speech. While people don't necessarily pause to think about
it, they use interjections all the time. This is even more true when you consider the fact that
common words used in pauses, such as "uh," and "um" are interjections.

Interjections can find their way into fictional pieces, most often in the form of dialogue. They
can also be used in informal written communication between two people, such as letters or
emails.
Ouch! Oh my! Wow! Yikes!

If you’ve ever uttered any of the words above, you’ve used an interjection, whether
you knew it at the time or not. The word interjection comes from the Latin words inter
(between) and jacĕre (to throw). So, an interjection is a word that you throw in
between sentences or thoughts to express a sudden feeling.

Standalone Interjections

Because interjections usually express sudden feelings, you’ll often see them used to
convey surprise (both good surprises and bad ones) or excitement.

Yikes! There’s a snake in the garage! You planned this party just for me? Wow! Ouch! That
wasp just stung me! Yahoo! Oops. Terrific! Jordan will send you the contract this afternoon.

There’s no strict rule about where an interjection must go in relation to other

sentences. You can use an interjection before or after a sentence that explains what’s
going on. You can also use an interjection alone, although it may not make sense if
you haven’t adequately described the situation that caused you to use the interjection.
Interjections often use exclamation points, but they don’t necessarily have to.
Interjections in a Sentence
It’s possible to use an interjection within a sentence. When you do, treat the
interjection as a parenthetical element that’s separate from the rest of the sentence.
You can put the interjection inside parentheses or set it off with commas.

I may not succeed, but, hey, at least I tried. The project was delayed because the logistics team
made a few (ahem) miscalculations. It will take only thirty minutes (Wow!) to reach the city on
the new train.

The important thing to remember is that the interjection should be set off somehow.
Don’t just drop it in with nothing to mark it as separate from the rest of the sentence.

I forgot to do the homework assignment oops but my teacher gave me an extra day to finish it.

I forgot to do the homework assignment (oops), but my teacher gave me an extra day to finish it.

Gee I hadn’t thought of that.

Gee, I hadn’t thought of that.

When to Use Interjections

Because interjections are usually separate from other sentences, it’s hard to use them
incorrectly. The bigger concern is whether it’s appropriate to use an interjection in
your writing. Interjections are fine to use in casual and informal writing. It’s okay to
use them in speech, too. But avoid using interjections in formal writing because it may
appear that you’re not treating the topic seriously.

And now, you’re ready to go out and use interjections. Hooray!

Conjunctions and Interjections
A conjunction is a word that connects phrases, words, or clauses.
Conjunctions are often used as transitions. An interjection is an exclamatory
word (or words) that shows strong or sudden feeling and has no grammatical
function in the construction of a sentence, such as "Ah ha!".

CONJUNCTIONS
A conjunction is a word that connects phrases, words, or clauses.
Conjunctions are often used as transitions. There are two kinds of
conjunctions: Coordinating and Subordinating.

COORDINATING: connects words, phrases, or clauses

and, but, or, for

Gallaudet teachers communicate in American Sign Language and English.

either... or; neither... nor; both... and; not only... but also

Most students use either ASL or English.

hence, therefore, moreover, however, besides, consequently

I like to read; however, I hate to write.

SUBORDINATING: introduces subordinate clauses and connects them
with the main clause

who, which, that

People who live in glass houses don't like children to play catch in front of
their houses.

although, because, since, through, if, as if

Although I work hard, I'm still broke.

INTERJECTIONS
An interjection is an exclamatory word (or words) that shows weak, mild, or
strong feeling and has no grammatical function in the construction of a
sentence.

The table below shows some interjections with examples.

interjectionmeaningexampleahexpressing pleasure"Ah, that feels

good."expressing realization"Ah, now I understand."expressing
resignation"Ah well, it can't be helped."expressing surprise"Ah! I've
won!"alasexpressing grief or pity"Alas, she's dead now."dearexpressing
pity"Oh dear! Does it hurt?"expressing surprise"Dear me! That's a
surprise!"ehasking for repetition"It's hot today." "Eh?" "I said it's hot
today."expressing enquiry"What do you think of that, eh?"expressing
surprise"Eh! Really?"inviting agreement"Let's go, eh?"erexpressing
hesitation"Lima is the capital of...er...Peru."hello, hulloexpressing
greeting"Hello John. How are you today?"expressing surprise"Hello! My
car's gone!"heycalling attention"Hey! look at that!"expressing surprise, joy
etc"Hey! What a good idea!"hiexpressing greeting"Hi! What's
new?"hmmexpressing hesitation, doubt or disagreement"Hmm. I'm not so
sure."oh, oexpressing surprise"Oh! You're here!"expressing pain"Oh! I've got
a toothache."expressing pleading"Oh, please say 'yes'!"ouchexpressing
pain"Ouch! That hurts!"uhexpressing hesitation"Uh...I don't know the answer
to that."uh-huhexpressing agreement"Shall we go?" "Uh-huh."um,
ummexpressing hesitation"85 divided by 5 is...um...17."wellexpressing
surprise"Well I never!"introducing a remark"Well, what did he say?"

Without conjunctions, you’d be forced to express every complex idea in a series of

short, simplistic sentences: I like cooking. I like eating. I don’t like washing dishes
afterward.

What Are Conjunctions?

Conjunctions are words that link other words, phrases, or clauses together.

I like cooking and eating, but I don’t like washing dishes afterward. Sophie is clearly exhausted,
yet she insists on dancing till dawn.
Conjunctions allow you to form complex, elegant sentences and avoid the choppiness
of multiple short sentences. Make sure that the phrases joined by conjunctions are
parallel (share the same structure.

I work quickly and am careful.

I work quickly and carefully.

Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions allow you to join words, phrases, and clauses of equal
grammatical rank in a sentence. The most common coordinating conjunctions are for,
and, nor, but, or, yet, and so; you can remember them by using the mnemonic device
FANBOYS.

I’d like pizza or a salad for lunch. We needed a place to concentrate, so we packed up our things
and went to the library. Jesse didn’t have much money, but she got by.

Notice the use of the comma when a coordinating conjunction is joining two
independent clauses.

Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions that work together. Some examples
are either/or, neither/nor, and not only/but also.

Not only am I finished studying for English, but I’m also finished writing my history essay. I am
finished with both my English essay and my history essay.
Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions join independent and dependent clauses. A subordinating

conjunction can signal a cause-and-effect relationship, a contrast, or some other kind
of relationship between the clauses. Common subordinating conjunctions are because,
since, as, although, though, while, and whereas. Sometimes an adverb, such as until,
after, or before can function as a conjunction.

I can stay out until the clock strikes twelve.

Here, the adverb until functions as a coordinating conjunction to connect two ideas: I
can stay out (the independent clause) and the clock strikes twelve (the dependent
clause). The independent clause could stand alone as a sentence; the dependent clause
depends on the independent clause to make sense.

The subordinating conjunction doesn’t need to go in the middle of the sentence. It has
to be part of the dependent clause, but the dependent clause can come before the
independent clause.

Before he leaves, make sure his room is clean.

If the dependent clause comes first, use a comma before the independent clause.

I drank a glass of water because I was thirsty. Because I was thirsty, I drank a glass of water.

Starting a Sentence with a Conjunction

Many of us were taught in school that it is an error to begin a sentence with a

conjunction, but that rule is a myth. As mentioned above, a subordinating conjunction
can begin a sentence if the dependent clause comes before the independent clause. It’s
also correct to begin a sentence with a coordinating conjunction. Often, it’s a good
way to add emphasis. Beginning too many sentences with conjunctions will cause the
device to lose its force, however, so use this technique sparingly.

Have a safe trip. And don’t forget to call when you get home. Gertie flung open the door. But
there was no one on the other side.

List of Conjunctions

Coordinating Conjunctions

for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

Correlative Conjunctions

both/and, either/or, neither/nor, not only/but, whether/or

Some Subordinating Conjunctions

after, although, as, as if, as long as, as much as, as soon as, as though, because, before,
by the time, even if, even though, if, in order that, in case, in the event that, lest , now
that, once, only, only if, provided that, since, so, supposing, that, than, though, till,
unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas, wherever, whether or not, while
 Transitive and Intransitive Verbs—
What’s the Difference?

Catherine Traffis
BASICS

A verb can be described as transitive or intransitive based on whether it requires

an object to express a complete thought or not. A transitive verb is one that only
makes sense if it exerts its action on an object. An intransitive verb will make sense
without one. Some verbs may be used both ways.

The word transitive often makes people think of transit, which leads to the mistaken
assumption that the terms transitive and intransitive are just fancy ways of describing
action and nonaction. But these terms have nothing to do with whether a verb is active
or not. A better word to associate when you see transitive is transfer. A transitive
verb needs to transfer its action to something or someone—an object. In essence,
transitive means “to affect something else.”

Once you have this concept committed to memory, spotting the difference between
transitive and intransitive verbs is quite easy.

How to Identify a Transitive Verb

Transitive verbs are not just verbs that can take an object; they demand objects.
Without an object to affect, the sentence that a transitive verb inhabits will not seem
complete.

Please bring coffee.

In this sentence, the verb bring is transitive; its object is coffee, the thing that is being
brought. Without an object of some kind, this verb cannot function.

Please bring.

Bring what, or who? The question begs itself because the meaning of bring demands
it.

Here are some more examples of transitive verbs and their objects.

The girls carry water to their village.

Juan threw the ball.

Could you phone the neighbors?

I caught a cold.

She loves rainbows.

Lila conveyed the message.

Each of the verbs in these sentences have objects that complete the verbs’ actions. If
the objects were taken out, the results would be illogical and questions would be
raised in the mind of the reader; for example, Lila conveyed. Conveyed what?

How to Identify an Intransitive Verb

An intransitive verb is the opposite of a transitive verb: it does not require an object
to act upon.

They jumped.
The dog ran.

She sang.

A light was shining.

None of these verbs require an object for the sentence to make sense, and all of them
can end a sentence. Some imperative forms of verbs can even make comprehensible
one-word sentences.

Run!
Sing!

A number of English verbs can only be intransitive; that is, they will never make
sense paired with an object. Two examples of intransitive-only verbs are arrive and
die. You can’t arrive something, and you certainly can’t die something; it is
impossible for an object to follow these verbs.

Transitive or Intransitive? Some Verbs Can Be Both

Many verbs can be classified as both transitive and intransitive depending on how
they are used in a sentence.

Urged by the others, she sang.

She sang the national anthem at the hockey game.

After he cleaned up, he left.

He left the gift on the table.

To decide whether the verb is being used transitively or intransitively, all you need to
do is determine whether the verb has an object. Does she sing something? Does he
leave something? The verb is only transitive when the answer is yes.

When in doubt, look it up. In the dictionary, verbs will be listed as transitive,
intransitive, or both right under the pronunciation key, and any possible differences in
meaning between the two uses will be given as well.

Phrasal Verbs and Transitivity

Phrasal verbs can also be classified as transitive or intransitive.

Cindy has decided to give up sweets while she diets.

I hope Cindy doesn’t give up.

Give up is just one of many phrasal verbs that can be transitive or intransitive.
Whether give up has an object or not will alter the meaning it conveys. The first sense
of give up means “to forgo something,” whereas the second sense means “to stop
trying.”

If we refuse to learn about transitivity, the Grammar Police will blow up our building.
When the Grammar Police confronted her about her verbs, she blew up.

The first sense of to blow up means to explode, whereas the second sense means “to
express rage.”
Transitive or intransitive is just one of the many classifications a verb can have.
Perhaps you will be inspired to read about more about the fascinating qualities of
verbs.

Verbs: Avoid the quiet and the copulative

It may sound sexy, but it isn't—not in a strong narrative, anyway.

The copulative verbs are linking verbs. That is, they link the subject
to the verb; therefore, they describe; therefore, they are static
rather than active. Strong narrative consists of strong sentences,
and a strong sentence is built on a strong verb, so use the
copulatives sparingly.

Copulative verbs that describe the subject with an adjective:

be: My suspicions were correct.

appear: The key appears to be missing.
feel: Roseanne feels sick.
look: That kid looks neglected.
prove: The task proved to be backbreaking.
seem: The cake seems to be done.
smell: And the cake smells fabulous.
sound: The music sounds so tinny.
taste: The sauce tastes salty.
become: Benjamin had become boring.
come: Mom came downstairs.
fall: She had fallen ill.
get: Later she got better.
go: And she went back upstairs.
grow: Frankie grew pale.
keep: Everyone must keep calm.
remain: The cat remained aloof.
stay: I just couldn’t stay away.
turn: Alanna’s face turned bright red.

Copulative verbs that describe the subject by declaring it to be

something:

be: Harry was a thin, uncertain man.

become: The controversy was becoming a nuisance.
remain: The results of the experiment remain a secret.
prove: That kid proved to be an angel.
seem: It seemed to be a hurricane.
constitute: The summit talks constituted a diplomatic breakthrough.
turn into: His fear turned into an obsession.
amount to: An autobiography amounts to a revelation of yourself.
What Are Articles?

Articles are words that define a noun as specific or unspecific. Consider the following
examples:

After the long day, the cup of tea tasted particularly good.

By using the article the, we’ve shown that it was one specific day that was long and
one specific cup of tea that tasted good.
After a long day, a cup of tea tastes particularly good.

By using the article a, we’ve created a general statement, implying that any cup of tea
would taste good after any long day.

English has two types of articles:

definite and indefinite. Let’s discuss them now in more detail.

The Definite Article

The definite article is the word the. It limits the meaning of a noun to one particular
thing. For example, your friend might ask, “Are you going to the party this
weekend?” The definite article tells you that your friend is referring to a specific party
that both of you know about. The definite article can be used with singular, plural, or
uncountable nouns. Below are some examples of the definite article the used in
context:

Please give me the hammer.

Please give me the red hammer; the blue one is too small.

Please give me the nail.

Please give me the large nail; it’s the only one strong enough to hold this painting.

Please give me the hammer and the nail.

The Indefinite Article

The indefinite article takes two forms. It’s the word a when it precedes a word that
begins with a consonant. It’s the word an when it precedes a word that begins with a
vowel. The indefinite article indicates that a noun refers to a general idea rather than a
particular thing. For example, you might ask your friend, “Should I bring a gift to the
party?” Your friend will understand that you are not asking about a specific type of
gift or a specific item. “I am going to bring an apple pie,” your friend tells you. Again,
the indefinite article indicates that she is not talking about a specific apple pie. Your
friend probably doesn’t even have any pie yet. The indefinite article only appears with
singular nouns. Consider the following examples of indefinite articles used in context:

Please hand me a book; any book will do.

Please hand me an autobiography; any autobiography will do.

Exceptions: Choosing A or An

There are a few exceptions to the general rule of using a before words that start with
consonants and an before words that begin with vowels. The first letter of the word
honor, for example, is a consonant, but it’s unpronounced. In spite of its spelling, the
word honor begins with a vowel sound. Therefore, we use an. Consider the example
sentence below for an illustration of this concept.

My mother is a honest woman.

My mother is an honest woman.

Similarly, when the first letter of a word is a vowel but is pronounced with a
consonant sound, use a, as in the sample sentence below:

She is an United States senator.

She is a United States senator.

This holds true with acronyms and initialisms, too: an LCD display, a UK-based
company, an HR department, a URL.

Article Before an Adjective

Sometimes an article modifies a noun that is also modified by an adjective. The usual
word order is article + adjective + noun. If the article is indefinite, choose a or an
based on the word that immediately follows it. Consider the following examples for
reference:

Eliza will bring a small gift to Sophie’s party.

I heard an interesting story yesterday.

Indefinite Articles with Uncountable Nouns

Uncountable nouns are nouns that are either difficult or impossible to count.
Uncountable nouns include intangible things (e.g., information, air), liquids (e.g.,
milk, wine), and things that are too large or numerous to count (e.g., equipment, sand,
wood). Because these things can’t be counted, you should never use a or an with them
—remember, the indefinite article is only for singular nouns. Uncountable nouns can
be modified by words like some, however. Consider the examples below for
reference:

Please give me a water.

Water is an uncountable noun and should not be used with the indefinite article.

Please give me some water.

However, if you describe the water in terms of countable units (like bottles), you can
use the indefinite article.

Please give me a bottle of water.

Please give me an ice.

Please give me an ice cube.

Please give me some ice .

Note that depending on the context, some nouns can be countable or uncountable
(e.g., hair, noise, time):

We need a light in this room.

We need some light in this room.

Using Articles with Pronouns

Possessive pronouns can help identify whether you’re talking about specific or
nonspecific items. As we’ve seen, articles also indicate specificity. But if you use both
a possessive pronoun and an article at the same time, readers will become confused.
Possessive pronouns are words like his, my, our, its, her, and their. Articles should not
be used with pronouns. Consider the examples below.

Why are you reading the my book?

The and my should not be used together since they are both meant to modify the same
noun. Instead, you should use one or the other, depending on the intended meaning:

Why are you reading the book?

Why are you reading my book?

Omission of Articles

Occasionally, articles are omitted altogether before certain nouns. In these cases, the
article is implied but not actually present. This implied article is sometimes called a
“zero article.” Often, the article is omitted before nouns that refer to abstract ideas.
Look at the following examples:

Let’s go out for a dinner tonight.

Let’s go out for dinner tonight.

The creativity is a valuable quality in children.

Creativity is a valuable quality in children.

Many languages and nationalities are not preceded by an article. Consider the
example below:

I studied the French in high school for four years.

I studied French in high school for four years.

Sports and academic subjects do not require articles. See the sentences below for
reference:

I like to play the baseball.

I like to play baseball .

My sister was always good at the math .

My sister was always good at math

Self Teaching Unit:

Subject - Verb Agreement
© 2000, 1978 Margaret L. Benner All rights reserved.

Although you are probably already familiar with basic subject-verb agreement, this
chapter begins with a quick review of basic agreement rules.

Subjects and verbs must AGREE with one another in number (singular or plural).
Thus, if a subject is singular, its verb must also be singular; if a subject is plural, its verb
must also be plural.

In the present tense, nouns and verbs form plurals in opposite ways: nouns ADD an s
to the singular form; verbs REMOVE the s from the singular form.
These agreement rules do not apply to verbs used in the simple past tense without any
helping verbs.

The agreement rules do, however, apply to the following helping verbs when they are
used with a main verb: is-are, was-were, has-have, does-do.
The agreement rules do not apply to has-have when used as the SECOND helping
verb in a pair.
They do NOT apply to any other helping verbs, such as can, could, shall, should, may,
might, will, would, must.

The subject-verb agreement rules apply to all personal pronouns except I and you,
which, although SINGULAR, require PLURAL forms of verbs.

Now click on the link below to do exercise 1.

 Link to Exercise 1

The remainder of this teaching unit deals with some more advanced subject-verb
agreement rules and with exceptions to the original subject-verb agreement rule

Compound Subject

The word “compound” means “made up of two or more parts.” Two or more words can
be compounded or linked by joining them with any of three words:

and, or, and nor

Here are some examples of compounding:

Compound nouns can function as a “compound subject.” In some instances, a

compound subject poses special problems for the subject-verb agreement rule (+s, -s).

However, instead of using two sentences (as above), we may choose to give the above
information in one sentence.
This sentence makes use of a compound subject (two subject nouns joined by and),
illustrating a new rule about subject-verb agreement.

Although each part of the compound subject is singular (ranger and camper), taken
together (joined by and), each one becomes a part of a plural structure and, therefore,
must take a plural verb (see) to agree in the sentence.

SUBJECT-VERB RULE #1 – Two or more singular (or plural) subjects joined by and
act as a plural compound subject and take a plural verb (singular + singular = plural).

You can check the verb by substituting the pronoun they for the compound subject.

Or and nor as joiners work somewhat differently from and. While the word and seems
to ADD things together, or and nor do not. They suggest a CHOICE.

Look at this sentence.

This sentence makes use of a compound subject (two subject nouns joined together
by or). Each part of the compound subject (ranger, camper) is singular. Even though
both words function together as subject (joined by or), the subject still remains
SINGULAR (ranger or camper) since a CHOICE is implied.

This compound subject, therefore, requires a singular verb to agree with it.

SUBJECT-VERB RULE #2 – Two or more SINGULAR subjects joined by or (or nor)

act as a singular compound subject and, therefore, take a singular verb to agree.

Note: Two or more plural subjects joined by or (or nor) would naturally take a plural
verb to agree.

However, or and nor can pose a more difficult problem.

Thus far we have been working with compound subjects whose individual parts are
both either singular or plural

What if one part of the compound subject is singular and the other part is plural?
What form of a verb should be used in this case? Should the verb be singular to agree
with one word? Or should the verb be plural to agree with the other?

Solution:

1. If the individual parts of the compound subject are joined by and, always use a
plural verb.

2. If the individual parts of the compound subject are joined by or or nor, use the verb
form (singular or plural) which will agree with the subject closer to the verb.
 Now click on the link below to do exercise 2.

Link to Exercise 2

Group Nouns

Some nouns which name groups can be either singular or plural depending upon their
meaning in individual sentences.

Because they can describe either the individuals in the group (more than one – plural),
or the group as a single entity (one only – singular), these nouns pose special problems.

However, there are some guidelines for deciding which verb form (singular or plural) to
use with one of these nouns as the subject in a sentence.

If we refer to the group as a whole and, therefore, as a single unit, we consider the
noun singular. In this case, we use a singular verb.
If, on the other hand, we are actually referring to the individuals within the group, then
we consider the noun plural. In this case, we use a plural verb.

Of course group nouns, like other nouns, can also appear in plural forms (with an s).

When used in the plural form, group nouns mean MORE THAN ONE GROUP. Thus, it
uses a plural verb.
Thus, there are three important subject – verb agreement rules to remember when a
group noun is used as the subject:

1. Group nouns can be considered as a single unit, and, thus, take a singular verb.

2. Group nouns can be considered as individual members within a single unit and,
thus, take a plural verb.

3. Group nouns can be given plural forms to mean two or more units and, thus, take
a plural verb.

Now click on the link below to do exercise 3.

Link to Exercise 3

Plural Form / Singular Meaning Nouns

Some nouns are regularly plural in form, but singular in meaning.

Even though these nouns APPEAR to be plural because they end in s, they actually
refer to only one thing made up of smaller, uncounted parts. Therefore, they are
considered singular.
You can see that substituting that pronoun it instead of they makes more sense here.

Another group of plural form nouns end in –ics.

Similarly, it is a more suitable substitute for any of these words than is they.

These nouns appear to be plural (end in s), but generally refer to only one thing and
are, therefore, generally considered singular.

NOTE: Occasionally, however, the –ics nouns can have a plural meaning: We can
speak about individual parts of these wholes. In this case, we apply the same rule as
applies to group nouns when we consider the individual members within the group (see
Section 3.3): We use a plural verb.

Note the difference in meaning and, therefore, in the verb chosen (singular or plural)
between the two uses of the –ics noun, statistics.
 Now click on the link below to do exercise 4.

Link to Exercise 4

Indefinite pronouns can pose special problems in subject – verb agreement.

The difficulty is that some indefinite pronouns sound plural when they are really
singular.

As subjects, the following indefinite pronouns ALWAYS take singular verbs. Look at
them closely.

These should be easy to remember.

However, the following indefinite pronouns ALWAYS take plural verbs.
EXCEPTIONS:

A third group of indefinite pronouns takes either a singular or plural verb depending on
the pronoun’s meaning in the sentence. Look at them closely.

(“SANAM”)

Now click on the link below to do exercise 5.

 Link to Exercise 5

So far we have considered subjects that can cause subject-verb agreement confusion:
compound subjects, group noun subjects, plural form – singular meaning subjects,
and indefinite subjects.

The remainder of this teaching unit examines subject – verb agreement problems that
can result from word placement in sentences. There are four main problems:
prepositional phrases, clauses beginning with who, that, or which, sentences
beginning with here or there, and questions.
Here is a list of frequently used prepositions:

A prepositional phrase may be placed between the subject and verb.

In the above example, the singular verb is agrees with the singular subject boy.

Sometimes, however, a prepositional phrase inserted between the subject and verb
makes agreement more difficult.

Car is the singular subject. Was is the singular helping verb which agrees with car. If
we aren’t careful, however, we may mistakenly label riders as the subject since it is
nearer to the verb than car is. If we choose the plural noun, riders, we will incorrectly
select the plural verb were.

Solution to the Prepositional Phrase Problem

1. Learn the major prepositions (see page 28).

2. Be alert for prepositional phrases placed between the subject and verb, and identify
the noun in the phrase immediately as the object of a preposition: An object of a
preposition can NEVER be a sentence subject.

3. Locate the true sentence subject and choose a verb which agrees with it.
4. Remember the indefinite pronoun EXCEPTIONS considered in Section 3.5, p.18:
Some, Any, None, All, and Most. The number of these subject words IS affected by
a prepositional phrase between the subject and verb.

Now click on the link below to do exercise 6.

Link to Exercise 6

A clause beginning with who, that, or which and coming BETWEEN the subject and
verb can cause agreement problems.

Like the prepositional phrase, the who / that / which clause never contains the subject.
TO AVOID SUBJECT – VERB AGREEMENT ERRORS . . .

1. Identify who / that / which clauses immediately.

2. Locate the true sentence subject and choose a verb that agrees with it.
 Now click on the link below to do exercise 7.

Link to Exercise 7

When a sentence begins with there is – there are / here is – here are, the subject and
verb are inverted. After all that you have learned already, you will undoubtedly find this
topic a relatively easy one!

The verb in such constructions is obviously is or are. The subject, however, does not
come BEFORE the verb.

Instead, the subject in this kind of sentence comes AFTER the verb, so you must look
for it AFTER the verb.

In this example, because the subject, book, is singular, the verb must also be singular.

If the subject is plural, however, then the verb must be plural.

In this example, because the subject, books, is plural, the verb is also plural.

Remember: In here is – here are / there is – there are constructions, look for the
subject AFTER the verb and choose a singular (is) or a plural (are) verb to agree with
the subject.

And finally, sometimes creating a question will cause the subject to follow the verb as
well. Here, identify the subject and then choose the verb that agrees with it (singular or
plural).
 Now click on the link below to do exercise 8.

SINGULAR AND PLURAL

NOUNS
REGULAR NOUNS
Most singular nouns form the plural by adding -s.

EXAMPLES
 Singular Plural

boat boats

house houses

cat cats

river rivers

A singular noun ending in s, x, z, ch, sh makes the plural by adding-es.

EXAMPLES

Singular Plural

bus buses

wish wishes

pitch pitches

box boxes

A singular noun ending in a consonant and then y makes the plural by dropping the y and adding-
ies.

EXAMPLES
 Singular Plural

penny pennies

spy spies

baby babies

city cities

daisy daisies

IRREGULAR NOUNS
There are some irregular noun plurals. The most common ones are listed below.

EXAMPLES

Singular Plural

woman women

man men

child children

tooth teeth

foot feet
Singular Plural

person people

leaf leaves

mouse mice

goose geese

half halves

knife knives

wife wives

life lives

elf elves

loaf loaves

potato potatoes

tomato tomatoes
Singular Plural

cactus cacti

focus foci

fungus fungi

nucleus nuclei

syllabus syllabi/syllabuses

analysis analyses

diagnosis diagnoses

oasis oases

thesis theses

crisis crises

phenomenon phenomena

criterion criteria

datum data
Some nouns have the same form in the singular and the plural.

EXAMPLES

Singular Plural

sheep sheep

fish fish

deer deer

species species

aircraft aircraft

IRREGULAR VERB/NOUN AGREEMENT

Some nouns have a plural form but take a singular verb.

Plural nouns used with a singular verb Sentence

news The news is at 6.30 p.m.

athletics Athletics is good for young people.

linguistics Linguistics is the study of language.

darts Darts is a popular game in England.

 Plural nouns used with a singular verb Sentence

billiards Billiards is played all over the world.

Some nouns have a fixed plural form and take a plural verb. They are not used in the singular, or
they have a different meaning in the singular. Nouns like this include: trousers, jeans, glasses, savings,
thanks, steps, stairs, customs, congratulations, tropics, wages, spectacles, outskirts, goods, wits

Plural noun with plural verb Sentence

trousers My trousers are too tight.

jeans Her jeans are black.

glasses Those glasses are his.

Subject-Verb Agreement
More Grammar Rules:

NOTE

We will use the standard of underlining subjects once and verbs twice.
Being able to find the right subject and verb will help you correct errors of subject-verb
agreement.

Basic Rule. A singular subject (she, Bill, car) takes a singular verb (is, goes, shines),
whereas a plural subject takes a plural verb.

Example: The list of items is/are on the desk.

If you know that list is the subject, then you will choose is for the verb.

Rule 1. A subject will come before a phrase beginning with of. This is a key rule for
understanding subjects. The word of is the culprit in many, perhaps most, subject-verb
mistakes.

Hasty writers, speakers, readers, and listeners might miss the all-too-common mistake
in the following sentence:

Incorrect: A bouquet of yellow roses lend color and fragrance to the room.

Correct: A bouquet of yellow roses lends . . . (bouquet lends, not roses lend)

Rule 2. Two singular subjects connected by or, either/or, or neither/nor require a

singular verb.

Examples:
My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today.
Neither Juan nor Carmen is available.
Either Kiana or Casey is helping today with stage decorations.

Rule 3. The verb in an or, either/or, or neither/nor sentence agrees with the noun or
pronoun closest to it.

Examples:
Neither the plates nor the serving bowl goes on that shelf.
Neither the serving bowl nor the plates go on that shelf.

This rule can lead to bumps in the road. For example, if I is one of two (or more)
subjects, it could lead to this odd sentence:

Awkward: Neither she, my friends, nor I am going to the festival.

If possible, it's best to reword such grammatically correct but awkward sentences.

Better:
Neither she, I, nor my friends are going to the festival.
OR
She, my friends, and I are not going to the festival.
Rule 4. As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more subjects when they are
connected by and.

Example: A car and a bike are my means of transportation.

But note these exceptions:

Exceptions:
Breaking and entering is against the law.
The bed and breakfast was charming.

In those sentences, breaking and entering and bed and breakfast are compound nouns.

Rule 5a. Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by such words as along
with, as well as, besides, not, etc. These words and phrases are not part of the subject.
Ignore them and use a singular verb when the subject is singular.

Examples:
The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly.
Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her shaking.

Rule 5b. Parentheses are not part of the subject.

Example: Joe (and his trusty mutt) was always welcome.

If this seems awkward, try rewriting the sentence.

Rule 6. In sentences beginning with here or there, the true subject follows the verb.

Examples:
There are four hurdles to jump.
There is a high hurdle to jump.
Here are the keys.

NOTE:

The word there's, a contraction of there is, leads to bad habits in informal sentences like
There's a lot of people here today, because it's easier to say "there's" than "there are."
Take care never to use there's with a plural subject.

Rule 7. Use a singular verb with distances, periods of time, sums of money, etc., when
considered as a unit.

Examples:
Three miles is too far to walk.
Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense.
 Ten dollars is a high price to pay.
BUT
Ten dollars (i.e., dollar bills) were scattered on the floor.

Rule 8. With words that indicate portions—e.g., a lot, a majority, some, all—Rule 1
given earlier in this section is reversed, and we are guided by the noun after of. If the
noun after of is singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb.

Examples:
A lot of the pie has disappeared.
A lot of the pies have disappeared.
A third of the city is unemployed.
A third of the people are unemployed.
All of the pie is gone.
All of the pies are gone.
Some of the pie is missing.
Some of the pies are missing.

NOTE

In recent years, the SAT testing service has considered none to be strictly singular.
However, according to Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage: "Clearly none
has been both singular and plural since Old English and still is. The notion that it is
singular only is a myth of unknown origin that appears to have arisen in the 19th
century. If in context it seems like a singular to you, use a singular verb; if it seems like
a plural, use a plural verb. Both are acceptable beyond serious criticism." When none is
clearly intended to mean "not one," it is followed by a singular verb.

Rule 9. With collective nouns such as group, jury, family, audience, population, the
verb might be singular or plural, depending on the writer's intent.

Examples:
All of my family has arrived OR have arrived.
Most of the jury is here OR are here.
A third of the population was not in favor OR were not in favor of the bill.

NOTE

Anyone who uses a plural verb with a collective noun must take care to be accurate—
and also consistent. It must not be done carelessly. The following is the sort of flawed
sentence one sees and hears a lot these days:

The staff is deciding how they want to vote.

Careful speakers and writers would avoid assigning the singular is and the plural they to
staff in the same sentence.
 Consistent: The staff are deciding how they want to vote.

Rewriting such sentences is recommended whenever possible. The preceding sentence

would read even better as:

The staff members are deciding how they want to vote.

Rule 10. The word were replaces was in sentences that express a wish or are contrary
to fact:

Example: If Joe were here, you'd be sorry.

Shouldn't Joe be followed by was, not were, given that Joe is singular? But Joe isn't
actually here, so we say were, not was. The sentence demonstrates the subjunctive
mood, which is used to express things that are hypothetical, wishful, imaginary, or
factually contradictory. The subjunctive mood pairs singular subjects with what we
usually think of as plural verbs.

Examples:
I wish it were Friday.
She requested that he raise his hand.

In the first example, a wishful statement, not a fact, is being expressed; therefore, were,
which we usually think of as a plural verb, is used with the singular it. (Technically, it is
the singular subject of the object clause in the subjunctive mood: it were Friday.)

Normally, he raise would sound terrible to us. However, in the second example, where a
request is being expressed, the subjunctive mood is correct.

Note: The subjunctive mood is losing ground in spoken English but should still be used
in formal speech and writing.

First, what’s a collective noun?

A collective noun refers to “a whole group as a single entity” but also to the
members of that group. A collective noun names “a group of individuals or
things with a singular form.”
For example, words like faculty, herd, and team are collective nouns—
they’re singular words but they represent a group. There are collective
nouns for people, animals, objects, and concepts.

So, do I use a singular or plural verb with a collective noun?

Generally, in American English, collective nouns take singular verbs. In
British English, collective nouns are more often treated as plurals that
take plural verbs.

However, the use of a singular or plural verb can depend on the context of
the sentence.

If you are referring to the whole group as a single entity, then the singular
verb is best.

For example, “the school board has called a special session,” or “the
faculty eats the donuts.” When a group noun is used with a singular
determiner (e.g., a/an, each, every, this, that), singular verbs and pronouns
are normal, like in this sentence: “The team is away this weekend; they
have a good chance of winning.”

There are other contexts where the plural verb is more natural: My family
are always fighting among themselves. When the individuals in the
collection or group receive the emphasis, the plural verb is acceptable.

PRONOUNS

Pronouns Definition
What is a pronoun?

A pronoun is a word which is used in place of a proper noun or a common noun. Generally,
a pronoun takes the place of a particular noun. The pronoun refers to its antecedent. A
pronoun helps us avoid unnecessary repetition in our writing and speech.

In other words, words that can be used instead of a noun are called pronouns. The word
“pronoun” means “for a noun”.

Let’s understand pronouns with the help of a these example sentences:

 Look at Mike. Mike is a good boy.

 Mike loves to study. Mike is good at skating.

Instead of Mike we can use ‘he‘.

Now read these sentences again:

 Look at Mike. He is a good boy.

 He loves to study. He is good at skating.

The word ‘he‘ takes the place of Mike and is called pronoun.

Types of Pronouns
 Personal Pronouns
 Reflexive Pronouns
 Emphatic Pronouns
 Relative Pronouns
 Interrogative Pronouns
 Indefinite Pronouns
 Demonstrative Pronouns
 Possessive Pronouns

Enjoy reading this humorous folk tale. The pronouns have been highlighted with
purple colour.

No Worries
The people of a beautiful town called Rye determined one day that there was no point in all
of them worrying about their various problems.
“Let us employ a Worry Man. He will have the liability to worry for all of us,” said the mayor.
Everyone hailed it as a good initiative. They selected a sweeper for the job. According to
them, he seemed to have a lot of time on his hands to worry all through the day. They
decided to go and meet him.

“How much will I be paid?” he wanted to know when they explained the nature of the work
to him.
“Hmmm… one penny a week,” said the mayor.
“It won’t work,” said the sweeper.
“Why not?” asked the mayor.
“Because if you give me one pound a week,” he explained, “I,ll have nothing to worry
about!”
(Adapted from a witty folk tale)

Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns are used to replace nouns or noun phrases.

Personal pronouns stand for three persons:

1. First Person
2. Second Person
3. Third Person

Personal pronoun of the first person stands for the person(s) speaking.
(I, we, me, us)

Example Sentences

1. This car belongs to us.

2. I won the award.
3. The matter is between Chris and me.
4. We shall stand by the truth.

Personal pronoun of the second person stands for the person(s) spoken to.
(You, thou, thee)

Example Sentences
1. Why are you crying?
2. It is to thee that I owe a debt of gratitude.
3. Only you are allowed to attend the party.
4. Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself.

Personal pronoun of the third person stands for the person(s) spoken of.
(He, she, it, they, them, him, her)

Example Sentences

1. I heard him telling them about the movie.

2. He agreed to look after the baby.
3. The headmistress likes her a lot.
4. She asked me to review it by this evening.
5. They went to the museum.
6. It is an endangered species now.
7. They were planning to hide it under the bed.

Personal pronouns for people: I, you, he, she, we, they, me, you, him, her, us, them
Personal pronouns for things and animals: it, they, them

Reflexive Pronouns
Reflexive pronouns are pronouns where the subject and the object are the same person(s),
i.e. when the action of the verb refers back to the doer. Reflexive pronouns are formed by
using ‘self’ in the singular and ‘selves’ in the plural.

Reflexive Pronouns List

 myself
 yourself
 himself
 herself
 itself
 yourselves
 themselves
 ourselves

Example Sentences
1. John reminded himself that he had to try harder.
2. You are old enough to dress yourself.
3. Suddenly, I found myself in a dark corner.
4. The dog covered itself with dirt.
5. She contradicted herself, unknowingly.
6. They were discussing amongst themselves.
7. The only people there were ourselves.

Emphatic Pronouns
Emphatic pronouns are pronouns used for highlighting, stressing or emphasizing the noun
or pronoun that comes before it. An emphatic pronoun can be omitted without changing the
sense of a sentence.

Emphatic Pronouns List

 myself
 himself
 herself
 itself
 yourself
 themselves
 ourselves

Example Sentences

1. Joseph himself went to check the gate.

2. He himself is responsible for those low grades.
3. Jane herself looks into the nitty-gritty of running the house.
4. They themselves admitted to their mistakes.
5. The book itself tells you all about pronouns.
6. I myself am a slow walker.
7. The children themselves made the plan.
8. The village itself is very small.
9. We ourselves will be completing the assignment.
10. Ruskin Bond himself is a great author.

Relative Pronouns
Relative pronouns are used to join sentences or clauses, and they refer back to the nouns
going before them.

Relative Pronouns List

 who
 whom
 which
 whose
 that

Example Sentences

1. This is the lady who helped me.

2. This is the book that my mother wrote.
3. There is the man whose horse won the race.
4. This is the house which belongs to my great-grandfather.
5. This is the person whom we met at the party.
6. This is the letter box that I was talking about.
7. A chair is a piece of furniture which we use for sitting.
8. I found the ring that I thought I had lost.
9. Jack is the boy whose sister is a famous tennis player.
10. This is the boy who scored the highest marks.

In relative pronouns we use the following pronoun words:

 For people: who, whom

 For animals and thing: which
 And to show possession: whose, that

Interrogative Pronouns
Interrogative pronouns ask questions. Compound interrogative pronouns (those ending in
‘ever’) are used to express surprise, confusion, irritation, etc.

Interrogative Pronoun List

 what
 which
 who
 whom
 whatever
 whichever
 whoever
 whomever

Example Sentences

1. Who is there at the door?

2. Which is your book?
3. Whatever are you doing?
4. Who is making noise?
5. Whom were you speaking to?
6. Whichever came first?
7. Whose is this dress?
8. What do you mean?
9. Whoever came to the shop?
10. Whomever should tom invite?

Indefinite Pronouns
An indefinite pronoun refers to an indefinite or general person or thing. These pronouns
refer to people in a vague and general meaning.

Indefinite Pronouns List

 all
 any
 each
 everyone
 few
 many
 neither
 none
 nothing
 several
 some
 somebody
 everything
 nobody
 anyone
 someone
 something

Example Sentences

1. Nobody attended the meeting.

2. Something is wrong there.
3. Everyone was smiling.
4. He never does favour to others.
5. Everything was told prior to the meeting.
6. Many of them were injured.

An indefinite pronoun can stand for singular, plural or at times for both. The following lists
some indefinite pronouns terms that are commonly used.

Singular

 anyone
 anything
 anybody
 each
 everybody
 everything
 either
 everyone
 little
 much
 nobody
 nothing
 neither
 no one
 one
 someone
 somebody
 something

Plural
 both
 few
 many
 others
 several

Singular or Plural

 all
 most
 none

Example Sentences

1. Every season one of the racers attempts to break Schumacher’s record. (Singular)
2. Both have paid homage to their great ancestors. (Plural)
3. All of the players we count on are out of form. (Plural)
4. Almost all the money in my bank account has been spent. (Singular)

Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns point out people or objects. There are four demonstrative
pronouns.

Demonstrative Pronouns List

 this
 that
 these
 those

Example Sentences

1. Those are my neighbour’s dogs.

2. This is my bicycle.
3. These are cakes and those are burgers.
4. That is my bag.
5. In those days, we were young and innocent.
6. This is a present from my uncle.
7. Those keen to attend the magic show may come along.
8. That is the sound of a factory siren.
9. Are those your classmates?
10. That is not the best thing to do.

When these words appear before nouns, they become demonstrative adjectives. For
example:

1. This car is better than that.

2. These animals are wilder than those.

In above sentences, ‘this’ and ‘these’ are demonstrative adjectives, and ‘that’ and ‘those’
are demonstrative adjectives, and ‘that’ and ‘those’ are demonstrative pronouns.

Possessive Pronouns
A possessive pronoun points towards the owner of something.

Possessive Pronouns List

 here
 his
 Mine
 ours
 theirs
 yours

Example Sentences

1. The blue hat is mine. Yours is on the upper shelf.

2. My aunt is a Graphic Designer. This computer is hers.

Often the words used as possessive pronouns are slight modifications of the words used as
possessive adjectives. So, we may get confused at times.

Remember, that there is a major distinction between them. While possessive pronouns are
used in place of nouns, possessive adjectives modify or describe nouns.

For Example:

 This dress is mine.

 This is my dress .
 That school is hers.
 This is her school.
 This house is theirs.
 This is their house.

In grammar, a pronoun is defined as a word or phrase that may be substituted for a noun or noun
phrase, which once replaced, is known as the pronoun’s antecedent. How is this possible? In a nutshell,
it’s because pronouns can do everything that nouns can do. A pronoun can act as a subject, direct
object, indirect object, object of the preposition, and more.

Types of Pronouns
Pronouns can be divided into numerous categories including:

 Indefinite pronouns – those referring to one or more unspecified objects, beings, or

places
 Personal pronouns – those associated with a certain person, thing, or group; all
except you have distinct forms that indicate singular or plural number
 Reflexive pronouns – those preceded by the adverb, adjective, pronoun, or noun to
which they refer, and ending in –self or –selves
 Demonstrative pronouns – those used to point to something specific within a
sentence
 Possessive pronouns – those designating possession or ownership
 Relative pronouns – those which refer to nouns mentioned previously, acting to
introduce an adjective (relative) clause
 Interrogative pronouns – those which introduce a question
 Reciprocal pronouns – those expressing mutual actions or relationship; i.e. one
another
 Intensive pronouns – those ending in –self or –selves and that serve to emphasize
their antecedents
Pronoun Rules
There are a few important rules for using pronouns. As you read through these rules
and the examples in the next section, notice how the pronoun rules are followed. Soon
you’ll see that pronouns are easy to work with.

 Subject pronouns may be used to begin sentences. For example: We did a great
job.
 Subject pronouns may also be used to rename the subject. For example: It was she
who decided we should go to Hawaii.
 Indefinite pronouns don’t have antecedents. They are capable of standing on their
own. For example: No one likes the sound of fingernails on a chalkboard.
 Object pronouns are used as direct objects, indirect objects, and objects of
prepositions. These include: you, me, him, her, us, them, and it. For example: David
talked to her about the mistake.
 Possessive pronouns show ownership. They do not need apostrophes. For example:
The cat washed its whiskers

Examples of Pronouns
In the following examples, the pronouns are italicized.

1. We are going on vacation.

2. Don’t tell me that you can’t go with us.
3. Anybody who says it won’t be fun has no clue what they are talking about.
4. These are terribly steep stairs.
5. We ran into each other at the mall.
6. I’m not sure which is worse: rain or snow.
7. It is one of the nicest Italian restaurants in town.
8. Richard stared at himself in the mirror.
9. The laundry isn’t going to do itself.
10. Someone spilled orange juice all over the countertop

Pronoun Exercises
The following exercises will help you gain greater understanding about how pronouns
work. Choose the best answer to complete each sentence.

1. This is __________ speaking.

A. John
B. He
C. He john
D. Am
2. Greg is as smart as __________ is.
A. I
B. me
C. she
D. we
3. The dog chewed on __________ favorite toy.
A. it’s
B. it is
C. its’
D. its
4. It could have been __________ .
A. Jerry
B. anyone
C. better
D. more difficult
5. Terry is taller than __________ am.
A. I
B. me
C. she
D. we

Answers

1. B. This is he speaking.
2. C. Greg is as smart as she is.
3. D. The dog chewed on its favorite toy.
4. B. It could have been anyone.
5. A. Terry is taller than I am.

List of Pronouns
As you read through this list of pronouns, remember that each one of these
pronouns is a word that can be used to take the place of a noun. Think about ways
to use the pronouns on this list in sentences, as this will increase your understanding.

We

Me

Us

You

She

He

Her

Him

They

Them

It

That

Which

Who

Whom

Whose

Whichever

Whoever

Whomever

This

These

That
Those

Anybody

Anyone

Anything

Each

Either

Everyone

Everybody

Everything

Nobody

Neither

No one

Nothing

Somebody

One

Someone

Something

Few

Many

Both

Several

Any

All

Some

Most
None

Myself

Yourself

Ourselves

Yourselves

Herself

Himself

Themselves

Itself

Who

What

Which

Whose

Whom

Adjectives
What is an adjective?
Adjectives are words that describe or modify other words, making your writing and
speaking much more specific, and a whole lot more interesting. Words like small, blue,
and sharp are descriptive, and they are all examples of adjectives. Because adjectives
are used to identify or quantify individual people and unique things, they are usually
positioned before the noun or pronoun that they modify. Some sentences contain
multiple adjectives.
Adjective Examples
In the following examples, the highlighted words are adjectives:

1. They live in a big, beautiful

2. Since it’s a hot day, Lisa is wearing a sleeveless
3. The mountaintops are covered in sparkling
4. On her birthday, Brenda received an antique vase filled with fragrant

Types of Adjectives
Remember that adjectives can modify as well as describe other words, and you’ll find it
much easier to identify different types of adjectives when you see them.

Articles
There are only three articles, and all of them are adjectives: a, an, and the. Because
they are used to discuss non-specific things and people, a and an are called indefinite
articles. For example:

 I’d like a
 Let’s go on an

Neither one of these sentences names a specific banana or a certain adventure.

Without more clarification, any banana or adventure will do.

The word the is called the definite article. It’s the only definite article, and it is used to
indicate very specific people or things:

 Please give me a banana. I’d like the one with the green stem.
 Let’s go on an adventure. The Grand Canyon mule ride sounds perfect!

Possessive Adjectives
As the name indicates, possessive adjectives are used to indicate possession. They
are:

 My
 Your
 His
 Her
 Its
 Our
 Their

Possessive adjectives also function as possessive pronouns.

Demonstrative Adjectives
Like the article the, demonstrative adjectives are used to indicate or demonstrate
specific people, animals, or things. These, those, this and that are demonstrative
adjectives.

 These books belong on that

 This movie is my favorite.
 Please put those cookies on the blue plate.

Coordinate Adjectives
Coordinate adjectives are separated with commas or the word and, and appear one after
another to modify the same noun. The adjectives in the phrase bright, sunny day and
long and dark night are coordinate adjectives. In phrases with more than two coordinate
adjectives, the word and always appears before the last one; for example: The sign had
big, bold, and bright letters.

Be careful, because some adjectives that appear in a series are not coordinate. In the
phrase green delivery truck, the words green and delivery are not separated by a
comma because green modifies the phrase delivery truck. To eliminate confusion when
determining whether a pair or group of adjectives is coordinate, just insert the word and
between them. If and works, then the adjectives are coordinate and need to be
separated with a comma.

Numbers Adjectives
When they’re used in sentences, numbers are almost always adjectives. You can tell
that a number is an adjective when it answers the question “How many?”

 The stagecoach was pulled by a team of six

 He ate 23 hotdogs during the contest, and was sick afterwards.
Interrogative Adjectives
There are three interrogative adjectives: which, what, and whose. Like all other types of
adjectives, interrogative adjectives modify nouns. As you probably know, all three of
these words are used to ask questions.

 Which option sounds best to you?

 What time should we go?
 Whose socks are those?

Indefinite Adjectives
Like the articles a and an, indefinite adjectives are used to discuss non-specific things.
You might recognize them, since they’re formed from indefinite pronouns. The most
common indefinite adjectives are any, many, no, several, and few.

 Do we have any peanut butter?

 Grandfather has been retired for many
 There are no bananas in the fruit bowl.
 I usually read the first few pages of a book before I buy it.
 We looked at several cars before deciding on the best one for our family.

Attributive Adjectives
Attributive adjectives talk about specific traits, qualities, or features – in other words,
they are used to discuss attributes. There are different kinds of attributive adjectives:

 Observation adjectives such as real, perfect, best, interesting, beautiful or cheapest

can indicate value or talk about subjective measures.
 Size and shape adjectives talk about measurable, objective qualities including
specific physical properties. Some examples include small, large, square, round,
poor, wealthy, slow and
 Age adjectives denote specific ages in numbers, as well as general ages. Examples
are old, young, new, five-year-old, and
 Color adjectives are exactly what they sound like – they’re adjectives that indicate
color. Examples include pink, yellow, blue, and
 Origin adjectives indicate the source of the noun, whether it’s a person, place,
animal or thing. Examples include American, Canadian, Mexican, French.
 Material adjectives denote what something is made of. Some examples include
cotton, gold, wool, and
 Qualifier adjectives are often regarded as part of a noun. They make nouns more
specific; examples include log cabin, luxury car, and pillow cover.

Adjective Exercises
Find the adjective or adjectives that fit in each of the blanks best.

1. We visited the museum, where we saw ____________ artifacts.

A. A lot of
B. Ancient
C. John’s
D. A room filled with
2. I received ______________ awards at the ceremony today.
A. The manager’s
B. Two
C. Information about
D. Motivation at the
3. Please get me a bag of ____________ apples.
A. Interesting
B. Ripe red
C. Oranges and
D. Real
4. The president sat in a _______________ chair.
A. Important
B. Barber’s
C. Funny
D. Leather
5. ________________ weather is the norm in San Francisco.
A. Blue
B. Big
C. Foggy
D. The best

Answer Key:

1. A – We visited the museum, where we saw ancient artifacts.

2. B – I received two awards at the ceremony today.
3. B – Please get me a bag of ripe red apples.
4. D – The president sat in a leather chair.
5. C – Foggy weather is the norm in San Francisco.
Comparing adjectives
Forming comparative adjectives
As well as serving as modifying words like beautiful and big, adjectives are also used for
indicating the position on a scale of comparison. The lowest point on the scale is known
as the absolute form, the middle point is known as the comparative form, and the
highest point is known as the superlative form. Here are some examples:

Absolute Comparative Superlative

This is the longest
This book is long. This book is longer than that book.
book.
The airport is farther than the train This is the farthest
The airport is far.
station. airport.
My mom is a good My mom is a better cook than your My mom is the best
cook. mom. cook.

The comparative form

When two objects or persons are being compared, the comparative form of the
adjective is used. The comparative adjective can be formed in two ways:

1. Adding –er to the absolute form of the adjective.

2. Adding the word more before the adjective.

For example:

1. My essay is longer than yours.

2. She is more beautiful than her sister.

Here are the rules for choosing and forming the right form:
Add When Example Forming and Exceptions
 Words ending with ‘e‘, add ‘r‘ to the end of
the word (e.g., lame → lamer).
 Words with one vowel and one consonant
at the end, double the consonant and add
Words of one This is a longer
–er –er to the end of the word (e.g., big →
syllable book. bigger).
 Words with more than one vowel or more
than one consonant at the end, add –er to
the end of the word (e.g., hard → harder).

Words of two
This doll is Change ‘y‘ to ‘i‘, and add –er to the end of the
–er syllables ending
prettier. word.
with ‘y‘
Words of two He is more
mor
syllables not charming than Insert more before the adjective
e
ending with ‘y‘ his friend.
mor Three syllable This is a more
Insert more before the adjective
e words or longer powerful cable.
When comparing two things, the word than is positioned between the adjective and the
thing being compared. For example:

1. Apples are tastier than oranges.

2. This painting is more interesting than that painting.

Superlatives
The superlative is used to say what thing or person has the most of a particular quality
within a group or of its kind. The superlative can be formed in two ways:

1. Adding –est to the absolute form of the adjective.

2. Adding the word most before the adjective.

For example:

1. This is the most beautiful dress I have ever seen.

2. The biggest table in the room.
Here are the rules for choosing and forming the right form:

Add When Example Forming and Exceptions

 Words ending with ‘e‘, add ‘st‘ to the end
of the word (e.g., large → largest).
 Words with one vowel and one consonant
at the end, double the consonant and add
Words of one This is the –est to the end of the word (e.g., big →
–est biggest).
syllable longest book.
 Words with more than one vowel or more
than one consonant at the end, add –est
to the end of the word (e.g., blue →
bluest).

Words of two
This doll is the Change ‘y‘ to ‘i‘, and add –est to the end of
–est syllables ending
prettiest. the word.
with ‘y‘
Words of two He is the most
mos
syllables not charming boy at Insert most before the adjective
t
ending with ‘y‘ school.
mos Three syllable This is the most
Insert most before the adjective
t words or longer powerful story.
Superlatives are usually preceded by the word the.

Positive form
The positive form is used in cases where there are no differences between the two
compared things or persons. To form the positive, we use the word as before and after
the absolute form of the adjective. For example:

1. Danny is as smart as Phillip.

2. She is as beautiful as her older sister.

This can also be applied in a negative context to indicate that the compared objects are
not similar:

1. Danny is not as smart as Phillip.

2. She is not as beautiful as her older sister.
Exceptions (irregular forms)
Certain adjectives have irregular forms in the comparative and superlative degrees:

Absolute Comparative Superlative

Good Better Best
Bad Worse Worst
Little Less Least
Much/many/
More Most
some

Examples of comparing adjectives

1. This house is bigger than that one.
2. This flower is more beautiful than that.
3. He is taller than Mr. Hulas.
4. He is more intelligent than this boy.
5. Jonathan is the most handsome man on campus.
6. This is the prettiest dress in the window.
7. I lost my most comfortable shoes.
8. My job is worse than yours.

Comparing adjective exercises

1. Choose the comparative adjective in each group of sentences:

A.
1. Her hair is short.
2. Her hair is shorter than it was before.
3. Her hair is the shortest it has ever been.
B.
1. We live nearer the train station than we used to.
2. Park in the lot nearest the train station.
3. I know the train station is somewhere near.
C.
1. My dog might be ugly, but he is nice.
2. That’s the ugliest dog I’ve ever seen!
3. Because he was uglier than the others, my dog won the ugly dog contest.
D.
 1. Your presentation was more informative than most.
2. She gave an informative talk on honeybees.
3. That’s the most informative speech I’ve ever heard Professor Brown give!

Answers: A: 2 – shorter B: 1 – nearer C: 3 – uglier D: 1: more informative

2. Which of the following sentences does not contain a comparing adjective?

A. I’d like to have more participation from each of you this time around.
B. If you’d have listened better, you wouldn’t be confused right now.
C. They live in the brick house on the corner.

Answer:C

3. Choose the superlative adjective in each group of sentences:

A.
1. That’s the best ice cream I’ve ever tasted!
2. You’re a lot nicer than your sister.
3. This is delicious cake.
B.
1. This presentation seems longer than usual.
2. Of all the hairstyles in the room, hers is most stylish.
3. I’m often trying to do better than others.
C.
1. Lake Silfra has some of the clearest water on the world.
2. This shop carries nicer things than it used to.
3. My cat has three adorable kittens.
D.
1. Be careful; that’s a fragile vase.
2. You’re more cheerful than you used to be.
3. This is the most exciting thing that has ever happened to me.

Answers: A – 1: best B – 2: most stylish C – 1: clearest D – 3: most exciting

4. Which of the following sentences contains a superlative adjective?

A. I can run further than before.

B. She has the pinkest cheeks I’ve ever seen!
C. Jimmy is a cute baby.

Answer: : B – pinkest
5. Choose the absolute adjective in each group of sentences:

A.
1. Your face is red.
2. You have the reddest face!
3. If you don’t wear sunscreen, your face will get redder.
B.
1. This is the best book I’ve ever read.
2. I like this book better than the last one I read.
3. That’s a good book.
C.
1. Most chocolate is sweet.
2. Milk chocolate is sweeter than dark chocolate.
3. I’m not sure which chocolate is sweetest.
D.
1. This is a charming house.
2. Our new home is so much more charming than our old one.
3. She’s the most charming person I’ve ever met.

Answers: A – 1: red B – 3: good C – 1: sweet D – charming

6. Choose the correct comparing adjective for each sentence:

A. My mother is a _____________ woman.

o Smart
o Smarter
o Smartest
B. The surgeon worked ____________ to stabilize the patient.
o Quickly
o Most quickly
o More quickly
C. We ran ______________ than we did last week.
o Fast
o Faster
o Fastest
D. After the party, the house was the _______________ it’s ever been.
o Messy
o Messier
o Messiest

Answers: A – smart B – quickly C – faster D – messiest

7. Name the type of comparing adjective in each sentence:

A. Jinx is a hairy dog.
B. She has the bluest eyes I’ve ever seen.
C. He made me madder than I’ve been in a long time.
D. We felt more excited than ever when we heard the news.

Answers: A – absolute B – superlative C – comparative D – comparative

8. Choose the sentence with the positive form comparing adjective:

A. This book is more interesting than that one.

B. The story we heard this week was as interesting as last week’s.
C. This is one of the most interesting stories I’ve ever heard.

Answer: B

9. Which of the following sentences contains a comparing adjective in the comparative

form?

A. We’ve had a run of bad luck lately.

B. This is the worst snowstorm we have had in ten years.
C. Your injury is worse than mine.

Answer: C – worse

10. Which of the following sentences contains a comparing adjective in the superlative
form?

A. She is not as mean as her older sister is.

B. This is the least exciting movie I’ve ever seen.
C. Mr. Brown is more boring than Mr. Philips.

Answer: B – least exciting

Order of adjectives
How to order adjectives in English
In many languages, adjectives denoting attributes usually occur in a specific order.
Generally, the adjective order in English is:

1. Quantity or number
2. Quality or opinion
3. Size
4. Age
5. Shape
6. Color
7. Proper adjective (often nationality, other place of origin, or material)
8. Purpose or qualifier

For example:

1. I love that really big old green antique car that always parked at the end of the
street.
2. My sister adopted a beautiful big white bulldog.

When there are two or more adjectives that are from the same group, the word and is
placed between the two adjectives:

1. The house is green and red.

2. The library has old and new books.

When there are three or more adjectives from the same adjective group, place a comma
between each of the coordinate adjectives:

1. We live in the big green, white and red house at the end of the street.
2. My friend lost a red, black and white watch.

A comma is not placed between an adjective and the noun.

Order of adjectives – examples

Determine Quantity or Quality or Proper Purpose or
Size Age Shape Color Noun
r number opinion adjective qualifier
A beautiful old Italian sports car
The three beautiful little gold plates
red
heart-
An amazing and sofa
shaped
white
More examples:

1. I love that really old big green antique car that always parked at the end of the
street. [quality – age – size – color – proper adjective]
2. My sister has a big, beautiful, tan and white, bulldog. [size – quality – color – color]
3. A wonderful old Italian clock. [opinion – age – origin]
4. A big square blue box. [dimension – shape – color]
5. A disgusting pink plastic ornament. [opinion – color – material]
6. Some slim new French trousers. [dimension – age – origin]
7. A wonderful old Italian clock. [opinion – age – origin]
8. I bought a pair of black leather shoes. [color – material]

Order of adjectives exercises

1. Choose the best answer for each sentence.

A. The house is __________________.

o large and white
o white and large
o large white
B. They live in a __________________ house.
o large and white
o white and large
o large white

Answers: A – large and white B – large white

2. Which sentence uses the correct order of adjectives?

A. We took a ride on a blue, old Chinese bus.

B. We took a ride on a Chinese, old, blue bus.
C. We took a ride on an old, blue Chinese bus.
Answer: C

3. Which sentence uses the correct order of adjectives?

A. I’d like three good reasons why you don’t like spinach.
B. I’d like a good three reasons why you don’t like spinach.
C. I’d like good reasons three why you don’t like spinach.

Answer: A

4. Which sentence uses the correct order of adjectives?

A. I like that really big red old antique tractor in the museum.
B. I like that really big old red antique tractor in the museum.
C. I like that old, red, really big antique tractor in the museum.

Answer: B

5. Which sentence uses the correct order of adjectives?

A. My brother rode a beautiful big black Friesian horse in the parade.

B. My brother rode a beautiful Friesian big black horse in the parade.
C. My brother rode a big, black, beautiful Friesian horse in the parade.

Answer: A

6. For each of the following sentences, choose the correct order of adjectives to fill in
the blank.

A. My grandmother lives in the ________________________ house on the corner

o little blue, green and white
o little blue and green and white
o little, blue, green, and white
B. The store carries an assortment of _____________________ objects.
o interesting new, old and antique
o new, old, interesting and antique
o interesting, old and new and antique
C. We went for a two-week cruise on a __________________________ ocean liner.
o incredible brand-new, huge Italian
o incredible, huge, brand-new Italian
o Italian incredible, brand-new, huge
Answers: A – little blue, green and white B – interesting new, old and antique C –
incredible, huge, brand-new Italian

7. For each of the following sentences, choose the correct order of adjectives to fill in
the blank.

A. I bought a pair of _________________ boots.

o new, nice, red rain
o nice new red rain
o red nice new rain
B. My dad was thrilled with his gift of ______________________ bowties for his clown
act.
o three squirting new nice big polka-dotted
o three polka-dotted nice new squirting
o three nice big new polka-dotted squirting
C. Please put the marbles into that ______________________ box.
o round little old red
o little old round red
o little old red round

Answers: A – nice new red rain B – three nice big new polka-dotted squirting C – little
old round red

8. For each of the following sentences, choose the correct order of adjectives to fill in
the blank:

A. I was surprised to receive a __________________ puppy for my birthday.

o little, cute, eight-week-old golden retriever
o cute eight-week-old little golden retriever
o cute little eight-week-old golden retriever
B. Our work uniform consists of black pants, black shoes, and a ________________
shirt.
o yellow baggy big polo
o big baggy yellow polo
o baggy yellow big polo
C. I’ve been spending a lot of time in antique shops looking for the perfect
_______________ clock.
o little silver Italian cuckoo
o little Italian silver cuckoo
o silver little Italian cuckoo
Answers: A – cute little eight-week-old golden retriever B – big baggy yellow polo C –
little silver Italian cuckoo

9. Which sentence uses the correct order of adjectives?

A. Our grandparents drive a motorhome with black and white stripes.

B. Our grandparents drive a motorhome with black with white stripes.
C. Our grandparents drive a motorhome with black, white stripes.

Answer: A

10. Which sentence uses the correct order of adjectives?

A. During my college years, I wore a red, white and black big hat to sporting events.
B. During my college years, I wore a big red, white and black hat to sporting events.
C. During my college years, I wore a big red white and black, hat to sporting events.

Answer: B

Forming adjectives
Typical adjective endings
Some adjectives can be identified by their endings. Typical adjective endings include:

1. -able/-ible understandable, capable, readable, incredible

2. -al mathematical, functional, influential, chemical
3. -ful beautiful, bashful, helpful, harmful
4. -ic artistic, manic, rustic, terrific
5. -ive submissive, intuitive, inventive, attractive
6. -less sleeveless, hopeless, groundless, restless
7. -ous gorgeous, dangerous, adventurous, fabulous

Sometimes when adding these endings changes have to be made. Here are some rules
for forming adjectives and their exceptions:
Add Exceptions Word Adjective
Nature Natural
-al If ending with an ‘e‘, drop it
Function Functional
Ice Icy
-y If ending with an ‘e‘, drop it
Oil Oily
If ending with a ‘y‘, replace with an Beauty Beautiful
-ful
‘i‘ Peace Peaceful
Mystery Mysterious
-ous/-ious If ending with a ‘y‘, drop it
Danger Dangerous
History Historic
-ic If ending with a ‘y‘, drop it
Rust Rustic

Forming adjectives from nouns and verbs

Adjectives can be formed from different words. They can be formed from nouns:

Noun Adjective
acciden
accidental
t
danger dangerous
length long
star starry
wind windy
From verbs:

Verb Adjective
enjo
enjoyable
y
help helpful
obey obedient
play playful
talk talkative
Or even from other adjectives:
Adjective Adjective
comic comical
correct corrective
elder elderly
red reddish
sick sickly

Examples of forming adjectives

1. Our house color is a kind of yellow. → We live in a yellowish house.
2. He often acts like a child. → He often acts in a childish way.
3. The event was a big success. → We enjoyed a successful event.
4. We enjoyed the sound of the drum’s rhythm. → We enjoyed the drum’s rhythmic
sound.
5. She adopted a dog without a home. → She adopted a homeless dog.
6. Look out, that plant is poison. → Look out for that poisonous plant.
7. It looks like it will rain today. → It looks like we’ll have rainy weather today.
8. She always acts with courtesy. → She always behaves in a courteous manner.
9. Her hair is pretty. → She has the prettiest hair.
10. We go for a walk each day. → We go for a daily walk.

Forming adjectives exercises

1. Choose the adjective from each of the following groups of words:

A. inventive, invent, invented

B. curiosity, curious, curiousive
C. proliferate, prolific, proud

Answers: A – inventive B – curious C – prolific

2. Form adjectives from the following nouns:

A. smell
B. chill
C. width

Answers: A – smelly B – chilly C – wide

3. Form adjectives from the following verbs:

A. interested
B. amazed
C. annoyed

Answers: A – interesting B – amazing C – annoying

4. Form adjectives from the following verbs. Some words may be formed into more than
one adjective:

A. escape
B. improve
C. damage

Answers: A – escaped, escaping B – improved, improving C – damaged, damaging

5. Form longer adjectives from the following adjectives. Some words may be formed
into more than one adjective:

A. funny
B. incorrect
C. blue

Answers: A – funnier, funniest B – incorrectly C – bluest, bluer, blueish

6. Form adjectives from the following nouns:

A. magic
B. fool
C. lady

Answers: A – magical B – foolish C – ladylike

7. Form two adjectives from each of the following nouns:

A. life
B. power
C. friend

Answers: A – lifelike, lifeless B – powerful, powerless C – friendly, friendless

8. Form adjectives from each of the following nouns:

A. cost
B. war
C. month

Answers: A – costly B – warlike C – monthly

9. Form adjectives from each of the following nouns:

A. poison
B. courtesy
C. mystery

Answers: A – poisonous B – courteous C – mysterious

10. Form adjectives from each of the following nouns:

A. athlete
B. photograph
C. science

Answers: A – athletic B – photographic C – scientific

Lists of adjectives
Common adjectives
 Good
 New
 First
 Last
 Long
 great
 little
 own
 other
 old
 right
 big
 high
 different
 small
 large
 next
 early
 young
 important
 few
 public
 bad
 same
 able

Appearance adjectives
 adorable
 beautiful
 clean
 drab
 elegant
 fancy
 glamorous
 handsome
 long
 magnificent
 old-fashioned
 plain
 quaint
 sparkling
 ugliest
 unsightly
 wide-eyed
Color adjectives
 red
 orange
 yellow
 green
 blue
 purple
 gray
 black
 white

Condition adjectives
 alive
 better
 careful
 clever
 dead
 easy
 famous
 gifted
 helpful
 important
 inexpensive
 mushy
 odd
 powerful
 rich
 shy
 tender
 uninterested
 vast
 wrong

Personality adjectives – Positive

 agreeable
 brave
 calm
 delightful
 eager
 faithful
 gentle
 happy
 jolly
 kind
 lively
 nice
 obedient
 proud
 relieved
 silly
 thankful
 victorious
 witty
 zealous

Personality adjectives – Negative

 angry
 bewildered
 clumsy
 defeated
 embarrassed
 fierce
 grumpy
 helpless
 itchy
 jealous
 lazy
 mysterious
 nervous
 obnoxious
 panicky
 repulsive
 scary
 thoughtless
 uptight
 worried
Shape adjectives
 broad
 chubby
 crooked
 curved
 deep
 flat
 high
 hollow
 low
 narrow
 round
 shallow
 skinny
 square
 steep
 straight
 wide

Size adjectives
 big
 colossal
 fat
 gigantic
 great
 huge
 immense
 large
 little
 mammoth
 massive
 miniature
 petite
 puny
 scrawny
 short
 small
 tall
 teeny
 teeny-tiny
 tiny

Sound adjectives
 cooing
 deafening
 faint
 hissing
 loud
 melodic
 noisy
 purring
 quiet
 raspy
 screeching
 thundering
 voiceless
 whispering

Time adjectives
 ancient
 brief
 early
 fast
 late
 long
 modern
 old
 old-fashioned
 quick
 rapid
 short
 slow
 swift
 young

Taste/touch adjectives
 bitter
 delicious
 fresh
 greasy
 juicy
 hot
 icy
 loose
 melted
 nutritious
 prickly
 rainy
 rotten
 salty
 sticky
 strong
 sweet
 tart
 tasteless
 uneven
 weak
 wet
 wooden
 yummy

Touch adjectives
 boiling
 breeze
 broken
 bumpy
 chilly
 cold
 cool
 creepy
 crooked
 cuddly
 curly
 damaged
 damp
 dirty
 dry
 dusty
 filthy
 flaky
 fluffy
 freezing
 hot
 warm
 wet

Quantity adjectives
 abundant
 empty
 few
 full
 heavy
 light
 many
 numerous
 sparse
 substantial

 A
 B
 C
 D
 E
 F
 G
 H
 I
 J
 K
 L
 M
 N
 O
 P
 Q
 R
 S
 T
 U
 V
 W
 X
 Y
 Z

 aback abaft abandoned abashed aberrant abhorrent abiding abject ablaze able
abnormal aboard aboriginal abortive abounding abrasive abrupt absent absorbed
absorbing abstracted absurd abundant abusive acceptable accessible accidental
accurate acid acidic acoustic acrid actually ad hoc adamant adaptable addicted
adhesive adjoining adorable adventurous afraid aggressive agonizing agreeable
ahead ajar alcoholic alert alike alive alleged alluring aloof amazing ambiguous
ambitious amuck amused amusing ancient angry animated annoyed annoying
anxious apathetic aquatic aromatic arrogant ashamed aspiring assorted astonishing
attractive auspicious automatic available average awake aware awesome awful
axiomatic

Examples of adjectives
Typical adjective endings
1. They live in a beautiful house.
2. Lisa is wearing a sleeveless shirt today. This soup is not edible.
3. She wore a beautiful dress.
4. He writes meaningless letters.
5. This shop is much nicer.
6. She wore a beautiful dress.
7. Ben is an adorable baby.
8. Linda’s hair is gorgeous.
9. This glass is breakable.
10. I met a homeless person in NY.
Denominal adjective examples
1. A mathematical puzzle.
2. A biological experiment.
3. A wooden boat.
4. I married an American woman.
5. The Jewish community in NY is very big.
6. Mary has a collection of expensive Russian dolls.
7. In the winter you must wear heavy woollen clothes.
8. The polar bear is listed as threatened.

Order of adjective examples

1. I love that really big old green antique car that is always parked at the end of the
street. [quality – size – age – color – qualifier]
2. My sister has a beautiful big white bulldog. [quality – size – color]
3. A wonderful old Italian clock. [opinion – age – origin]
4. A big square blue box. [size – shape – color]
5. A disgusting pink plastic ornament. [opinion – color – material]
6. Some new slim French trousers. [age – shape – origin]
7. My small new red sleeping bag. [size – age – color – purposee]
8. I bought a pair of black leather shoes. [color – material]

Comparing adjective examples

1. This house is bigger than that one.
2. This flower is more beautiful than that.
3. He is taller than Mr. Hulas.
4. He is more intelligent than this boy.
5. Jonathan is the most handsome man on campus.
6. This is the prettiest dress in the window.
7. I lost my most comfortable shoes.
8. My job is worse than yours.

Compound adjectives examples

1. This is a four-foot table.
2. Daniella is a part-time worker.
3. This is an all-too-common error.
4. Beware of the green-eyed monster.
5. He is a cold-blooded man.
6. We saw a man-eating shark!
7. Danny’s dog is well-behaved.
8. You have to be open-minded about things.

Adjectival phrase examples

1. Susan is really clever.
2. The doctor is very late.
3. My sister is fond of animals.
4. I am happy to meet you.
5. The kids are ready to go.
6. Don’t be afraid of the dark.
7. Tony lost his dark brown briefcase.
8. He’s an extraordinary looking man

Forming adjectives
Typical adjective endings
Some adjectives can be identified by their endings. Typical adjective endings include:

1. -able/-ible understandable, capable, readable, incredible

2. -al mathematical, functional, influential, chemical
3. -ful beautiful, bashful, helpful, harmful
4. -ic artistic, manic, rustic, terrific
5. -ive submissive, intuitive, inventive, attractive
6. -less sleeveless, hopeless, groundless, restless
7. -ous gorgeous, dangerous, adventurous, fabulous

Sometimes when adding these endings changes have to be made. Here are some rules
for forming adjectives and their exceptions:

Add Exceptions Word Adjective

-al If ending with an ‘e‘, drop it Nature Natural
Add Exceptions Word Adjective
Function Functional
Ice Icy
-y If ending with an ‘e‘, drop it
Oil Oily
If ending with a ‘y‘, replace with an Beauty Beautiful
-ful
‘i‘ Peace Peaceful
Mystery Mysterious
-ous/-ious If ending with a ‘y‘, drop it
Danger Dangerous
History Historic
-ic If ending with a ‘y‘, drop it
Rust Rustic

Forming adjectives from nouns and verbs

Adjectives can be formed from different words. They can be formed from nouns:

Noun Adjective
acciden
accidental
t
danger dangerous
length long
star starry
wind windy
From verbs:

Verb Adjective
enjo
enjoyable
y
help helpful
obey obedient
play playful
talk talkative
Or even from other adjectives:
Adjective Adjective
comic comical
correct corrective
elder elderly
red reddish
sick sickly

Examples of forming adjectives

1. Our house color is a kind of yellow. → We live in a yellowish house.
2. He often acts like a child. → He often acts in a childish way.
3. The event was a big success. → We enjoyed a successful event.
4. We enjoyed the sound of the drum’s rhythm. → We enjoyed the drum’s rhythmic
sound.
5. She adopted a dog without a home. → She adopted a homeless dog.
6. Look out, that plant is poison. → Look out for that poisonous plant.
7. It looks like it will rain today. → It looks like we’ll have rainy weather today.
8. She always acts with courtesy. → She always behaves in a courteous manner.
9. Her hair is pretty. → She has the prettiest hair.
10. We go for a walk each day. → We go for a daily walk.

Forming adjectives exercises

1. Choose the adjective from each of the following groups of words:

A. inventive, invent, invented

B. curiosity, curious, curiousive
C. proliferate, prolific, proud

Answers: A – inventive B – curious C – prolific

2. Form adjectives from the following nouns:

A. smell
B. chill
C. width

Answers: A – smelly B – chilly C – wide

3. Form adjectives from the following verbs:

A. interested
B. amazed
C. annoyed

Answers: A – interesting B – amazing C – annoying

4. Form adjectives from the following verbs. Some words may be formed into more than
one adjective:

A. escape
B. improve
C. damage

Answers: A – escaped, escaping B – improved, improving C – damaged, damaging

5. Form longer adjectives from the following adjectives. Some words may be formed
into more than one adjective:

A. funny
B. incorrect
C. blue

Answers: A – funnier, funniest B – incorrectly C – bluest, bluer, blueish

6. Form adjectives from the following nouns:

A. magic
B. fool
C. lady

Answers: A – magical B – foolish C – ladylike

7. Form two adjectives from each of the following nouns:

A. life
B. power
C. friend

Answers: A – lifelike, lifeless B – powerful, powerless C – friendly, friendless

8. Form adjectives from each of the following nouns:

A. cost
B. war
C. month

Answers: A – costly B – warlike C – monthly

9. Form adjectives from each of the following nouns:

A. poison
B. courtesy
C. mystery

Answers: A – poisonous B – courteous C – mysterious

10. Form adjectives from each of the following nouns:

A. athlete
B. photograph
C. science

Answers: A – athletic B – photographic C – scientific

Adverb
What is an Adverb?
An adverb is a word that is used to change or qualify the meaning of an adjective, a
verb, a clause, another adverb, or any other type of word or phrase with the exception of
determiners and adjectives that directly modify nouns.

Traditionally considered to be a single part of speech, adverbs perform a wide variety of

functions, which makes it difficult to treat them as a single, unified category. Adverbs
normally carry out these functions by answering questions such as:
 When? She always arrives early.
 How? He drives carefully.
 Where? They go everywhere together.
 In what way? She eats slowly.
 To what extent? It is terribly hot.

This is called adverbial function and may be accomplished by adverbial clauses and
adverbial phrases as well as by adverbs that stand alone.

There are many rules for using adverbs, and these rules often depend upon which type
of adverb you are using. Remember these basics, and using adverbs to make
sentences more meaningful will be easier for you.

 Adverbs can always be used to modify verbs. Notice that the second of these two
sentences is much more interesting simply because it contains an adverb:
o The dog ran. (You can picture a dog running, but you don’t really know much
more about the scene.)
o The dog ran excitedly. (You can picture a dog running, wagging its tail, panting
happily, and looking glad to see its owner. You can paint a much more
interesting picture in your head when you know how or why the dog is running.)
 Adverbs are often formed by adding the letters “-ly” to adjectives. This makes it very
easy to identify adverbs in sentences. There are many exceptions to this rule;
everywhere, nowhere, and upstairs are a few examples.
 An adverb can be used to modify an adjective and intensify the meaning it conveys.
For example:
o He plays tennis well. (He knows how to play tennis and sometimes he wins.)
o He plays tennis extremely well. (He knows how to play tennis so well that he
wins often.)

As you read the following adverb examples, you’ll notice how these useful words modify
other words and phrases by providing information about the place, time, manner,
certainty, frequency, or other circumstances of activity denoted by the verbs or verb
phrases in the sentences.

Examples of Adverbs
As you read each of the following adverb examples, note that the adverbs have been
italicized for easy identification. Consider how replacing the existing adverbs with
different ones would change the meaning of each sentence.

1. She was walking rapidly.

2. The kids love playing together in the sandbox.
3. Please come inside now.
4. His jokes are always very funny.
5. You don’t really care, do you?

Adverbs Exercises
The following exercises will help you gain greater understanding about how adverbs
work. Choose the best answer to complete each sentence.

1. The driver stopped the bus _______________.

A. Financially
B. Exactly
C. Abruptly
D. Now

Answer: C. The driver stopped the bus abruptly.

2. During autumn, colorful leaves can be seen falling ______________ from trees.
A. Everywhere
B. Very
C. Gently
D. Loudly

Answer: C. During autumn, colorful leaves can be seen falling gently from trees.

3. My grandmother always smiled _______________.

A. Cheerfully
B. Sadly
C. Never
D. Yesterday

Answer: A. My grandmother always smiled cheerfully.

4. After the party, confetti was strewn _________________.

A. Blandly
B. Everywhere
C. Later
D. Carefully

Answer: B. After the party, confetti was strewn everywhere.

5. It’s time to go ____________.
A. Before
B. Now
C. Yesterday
D. Lightly

Answer: B. It’s time to go now.

Adverbs List
There are many different words that function as adverbs. The following list is broken
down into segments which list adverbs by function. After reading, you will be able to
think of additional adverbs to add to your own list – after all, there are thousands.

Many adverbs end in “-ly”. This makes it very easy to spot the adverbs in most
sentences.

Abruptly

Boldly

Carefully

Deliberately

Excitedly

Financially

Horribly

Mildly

Naughtily

Openly

Poorly

Quickly

Sadly

Terribly

Willingly
Yearly

Some adverbs tell us where the action happened. These are known as adverbs of
place.

Everywhere

Here

Inside

There

Underground

Upstairs

Certain adverbs let us know when or how often the action happened. These are
known as adverbs of time and adverbs of frequency.

After

Always

Before

Later

Now

Today

Yesterday

Many adverbs tell us the extent of the action.

Almost

Enough

So

Too

Quite

Rather

Very
Some adverbs are used as intensifiers.

Absolutely

Certain

Completely

Heartily

Really

Certain adverbs called adverbs of manner tell us about the way in which
something was done.

Briskly

Cheerfully

Expectantly

Randomly

Willingly

Some groups of words serve the same functions as adverbs. These are known as
adverb clauses. Be sure to read the adverb clause section to learn new ways to make
your sentences even more interesting

Adverbs of Frequency
What are adverbs of frequency?
Adverbs that change or qualify the meaning of a sentence by telling us how often or
how frequently something happens are defined as adverbs of frequency.

An adverb of frequency is exactly what it sounds like – an adverb of time. Adverbs of

frequency always describe how often something occurs, either in definite or indefinite
terms. An adverb that describes definite frequency is one such as weekly, daily, or
yearly. An adverb describing indefinite frequency doesn’t specify an exact time frame;
examples are sometimes, often, and rarely.

Adverbs of Frequency Rules

These simple rules for adverbs of frequency will help you to use them correctly:

 Always use adverbs of frequency to discuss how often something happens.

 Adverbs of frequency are often used to indicate routine or repeated activities, so
they are often used with the present simple tense.
 If a sentence has only one verb, place the adverb of frequency in the middle of the
sentence so that it is positioned after the subject but before the verb. For example:
Tom never flies. He always takes the bus.
 When a sentence contains more than one verb, place the adverb of frequency
before the main verb. For example: They have often visited Europe.
 When using an adverb of frequency in the negative or in forming a question, place it
before the main verb. For example: Do you usually get up so late?

Examples of Adverbs of Frequency

Each sentence contains an example of an adverb of frequency; the examples are
italicized for easy identification.

1. The incubator turns each egg hourly.

2. We take a vacation at least once annually.
3. I usually shop for groceries on Saturday mornings.
4. He is often late for work.
5. We seldom see John.
6. My dentist told me I should floss twice daily.

Adverbs of Frequency Exercises

The following exercises will help you to gain better understanding about how adverbs of
frequency work. Choose the best answer to complete each sentence.

1. I ________________ late on Saturdays.

a. Get up usually

b. Get usually up
c. Usually get up

Answer: C. I usually get up late on Saturdays.

2. Jared ______________ late for work.

a. Never is

b. Is never

Answer: A. Jared is never late for work.

3. _______________ on weekends?

a. Often do you travel

b. Do you often travel

c. Often you do travel

Answer: B. Do you often travel on weekends?

4. Susan ________________ early for class.

a. Often is

b. Are often

c. Often are

d. Is often

Answer: D. Susan is often early for class.

5. When do you ____________ go on vacation each year?

a. Always

b. Never

c. Usually

d. Ever

Answer: When do you usually go on vacation each year?

Adverbs of Frequency List

This list of adverbs of frequency contains many of the most common; keep in mind
though that there are many other words which can serve in this capacity.

Always

Annually

Constantly

Daily

Eventually

Ever

Frequently

Generally

Hourly

Infrequently

Later

Monthly

Never

Next

Nightly

Normally

Now

Occasionally

Often

Quarterly

Rarely

Regularly

Sometimes

Soon
Then

Today

Tonight

Weekly

Yearly

Yesterday

Yet

Adverbs of Manner
What is an adverb of manner?
Adverbs of manner describe how something happens. For example, it is possible to
walk or run at different speeds. The words used to describe walking or running at
different speeds (quickly or slowly for example) are excellent examples of adverbs of
manner. They help the reader gain greater insight into the way a written scene is
playing out. Comparing the following sentences will help you to understand how these
adverbs change the overall meaning of the sentences they’re found in.

The boys ran. (There is no adverb of manner in this sentence, so we can only imagine
how fast the boys are running.)

The boys ran quickly. (The adverb of manner is quickly. It tells us that the boys are in a
hurry.)

The boys were tired, so they ran more slowly than before. (The adverb of manner is
slowly. It tells us that the boys are running, but they aren’t covering as much ground as
they were before.)

There are a few rules to remember regarding adverbs of manner:

 When using these adverbs, be careful not to place them between the object and the
verb. They often fit best after the sentence’s object or main verb.
 If there is a preposition before the object, the adverb of manner may be placed
either before the preposition or after the sentence’s object.
 Add emphasis by placing an adverb of manner before both the verb and object, and
when these adverbs are placed at the beginning of a sentence, they catch the
reader’s attention.

As you read the following examples of adverbs of manner, you will notice how the same
adverb can lend different meanings to sentences containing nearly the exact same set
of words.

Examples of Adverbs of Manner

The adverb of manner in each example has been italicized for easy identification.

He quickly agreed to go to the store for milk. (His agreement was quick)

He agreed to go to the store for milk quickly. (He would go to the store quickly)

She quietly asked me to leave the room. (Her request was quiet)

She asked me to leave the room quietly. (I am not going to make noise when I leave)

The doctor woke the gently sleeping patient. (The patient was sleeping gently)

The doctor gently woke the sleeping patient. (The doctor was gentle while waking the
patient)

Adverbs of Manner Exercises

The following exercises will help you gain greater understanding about how adverbs of
manner work. Choose the best answer to complete each sentence.

1. The excited baby pounded the table _______________.

a. Badly
b. Hungrily

c. Normally

d. Variously

Answer: B. The excited baby pounded the table hungrily.

2. Walk ______________ or you may miss the bus.

a. Quickly

b. Slowly

c. Personally

d. Happily

Answer: A. Walk quickly or you may miss the bus.

3. Reading ______________ helps you to understand concepts better.

a. Rapidly

b. Briefly

c. Carefully

d. Always

Answer: C. Reading carefully helps you to understand concepts better.

4. Playing music too _______________ can damage your hearing.

a. Slowly

b. Cheerfully

c. Carelessly

d. Loudly

Answer: D. Playing music too loudly can damage your hearing.

5. A tortoise walks _______________.

a. Mostly

b. Slowly
c. Happily

d. Eagerly

Answer: B. A tortoise walks slowly.

Adverbs of Manner List

The following list of adverbs of manner contains 125 single-word adverbs of manner;
this is just a sample, as adverbs of manner actually form the largest of all groups of
adverbs.

accidentally

angrily

anxiously

awkwardly

badly

beautifully

boldly

bravely

brightly

busily

calmly

carefully

cautiously

cheerfully

clearly

closely

correctly

courageously

cruelly
daringly

deliberately

doubtfully

eagerly

easily

elegantly

enormously

enthusiastically

equally

eventually

exactly

faithfully

fast

fatally

fiercely

fondly

foolishly

fortunately

frantically

generously

gently

gladly

gracefully

greedily

happily
hard

hastily

honestly

hungrily

hurriedly

inadequately

ingeniously

innocently

inquisitively

irritably

joyously

justly

kindly

lazily

loosely

loudly

madly

mortally

mysteriously

neatly

nervously

noisily

obediently

openly

painfully
patiently

perfectly

politely

poorly

powerfully

promptly

punctually

quickly

quietly

rapidly

rarely

really

recklessly

regularly

reluctantly

repeatedly

rightfully

roughly

rudely

sadly

safely

selfishly

sensibly

seriously

sharply
shyly

silently

sleepily

slowly

smoothly

so

softly

speedily

stealthily

sternly

straight

stupidly

successfully

suddenly

suspiciously

swiftly

tenderly

tensely

thoughtfully

tightly

truthfully

unexpectedly

victoriously

violently

vivaciously
warmly

weakly

wearily

well

wildly

wisely

Adverbs of Place
What is an adverb of place?
Adverbs that change or qualify the meaning of a sentence by telling us where things
happen are defined as adverbs of place. Some instructors refer to these words or
phrases as spatial adverbs. No matter what they are called, these adverbs always
answer one important question: Where?

These simple rules for adverbs of place will help you to use them the right way:

 An adverb of place always talks about the location where the action of the verb is
being carried out.
 Adverbs of place are normally placed after a sentence’s object or main verb.
 Adverbs of place can be directional. For example: Up, down, around, away, north,
southeast
 Adverbs of place can refer to distances. For example: Nearby, far away, miles apart
 An adverb of place can indicate an object’s position in relation to another object. For
example: Below, between, above, behind, through, around and so forth.
 Many adverbs of place indicate movement in a particular direction and end in the
letters “-ward or -wards”. For example: Toward, forward, backward, homeward,
westward, eastwards onwards

Examples of Adverbs of Place

Each sentence contains an example of an adverb of place; the examples are italicized
for easy identification. As you read these examples, you will notice that some of the
adverbs of place contain more than one word.
Put the cake there.

After a long day at work, we headed homewards.

Please bring that book here.

My grandfather’s house is nearby.

Adverbs of Place Exercises

The following exercises will help you to gain better understanding about how adverbs of
place work. Choose the best answer to complete each sentence.

1. Close the door when you go ___________.

1. Out
2. Westward
3. Lightly
4. Here

Answer: A. Close the door when you go out.

2. The cat is hiding _______________ the couch.

1. On
2. Underneath
3. Somewhere
4. There

Answer: B. The cat is hiding underneath the couch.

3. Will you be starting your plants ________________ or in a greenhouse?

1. Round
2. Home
3. Outside
4. Around

Answer: C. Will you be starting your plants outside or in a greenhouse?

4. The ship sailed ________________, encountering heavy weather along the way.
1. Up
2. Down
3. Northwards
 4. Backwards

Answer: C. The ship sailed northwards, encountering heavy weather along the way.

5. When she saw me waiting, she ran __________________ me.

1. Around
2. Towards
3. Through
4. Forward

Answer: B. When she saw me waiting, she ran towards me.

Adverbs of Place List

As you read through the examples this adverbs of place list contains, think about how
they denote location or movement. With some consideration, you are likely to come up
with some additional terms on your own.

Abroad

Across

Ahead

Back

Backwards

Beyond

Down

Downwards

Eastwards

Everywhere

Here

In

Indoors

Inside

Outside
Overseas

There

West

Yonder

Adverbs of Time
What is an adverb of time?
Adverbs that change or qualify the meaning of a sentence by telling us when things
happen are defined as adverbs of time.

An adverb of time is just what you might expect it to be – a word that describes when,
for how long, or how often a certain action happened. You will notice that many adverbs
of time are the same as adverbs of frequency. There is quite a bit of overlap between
these two types of adverbs – so much so that some instructors choose to mention one
or the other but not both.

These simple rules for adverbs of time will help you to use them the right way:

 Adverbs of time often work best when placed at the end of sentences. For example:
o Robin Hood swindled the Sheriff of Nottingham yesterday.
o I’m sick of living in chaos, so I’m going to clean my house tomorrow.
 You can change the position of an adverb of time to lend emphasis to a certain
aspect of a sentence. For example:
o Later Robin Hood stole the king’s crown. (The time is the most important element
here.)
o Robin Hood later stole the king’s crown. (This is a formal way to use the adverb
later. Notice how the statement sounds like it belongs in a police report.)
o Robin Hood stole the king’s crown later. (This is a neutral, standard way to use
the adverb later.)
 Adverbs of time describing for how long an action occurred usually work best at the
end of a sentence. For example:
o She stayed at her grandmother’s house all day.
o My father was up with heartburn for hours.
 Adverbs of time that express an exact number of times the action happens usually
work best at the end of a sentence. For example:
o The newspaper arrives daily.
o They go out to dinner weekly.
o Our family goes on an outing monthly.
 When using more than one adverb of time in a sentence, use them in the following
order:
o 1. How long
o 2. How often
o 3. When

For example:

o She volunteered at the hospital (1) for three days (2) every month (3) last year.

Examples of Adverbs of Time

Each sentence contains an example of an adverb of time; the examples are italicized for
easy identification.

Are you coming to work tomorrow?

I’d like to go to the movies later.

Jim was so sick he spent four weeks in the hospital.

Adverbs of Time Exercises

The following exercises will help you to gain better understanding about how adverbs of
time work. Choose the best answer to complete each sentence.

1. We go out for Japanese food ________________.

1. Willingly
2. Normally
3. Weekly
 4. Perfectly

Answer: C. We go out for Japanese food weekly. (This sentence talks about how often
we go out for Japanese food.)

1. Have you done your homework _____________?

1. Now
2. Then
3. Yet
4. Still

Answer: C. Have you done your homework yet? (This question inquires whether
homework has been done at the appointed time.)

1. Do you _______________ work at the bank?

1. Still
2. Never
3. Grudgingly
4. Happily

Answer: A. Do you still work at the bank? (This question asks whether the subject is
employed at the bank as they were in the past.)

1. Would you rather drive sometimes or take the train ______________?

1. Still
2. Never
3. Every day
4. To the beach

Answer: C. Would you rather drive sometimes or take the train every day? (This
question asks how often the subject would prefer to take the train instead of driving.)

1. The patient is ___________ waiting to see the doctor.

1. Still
2. Never
3. Every day
4. Sadly

Answer: A. The patient is still waiting to see the doctor. (This sentence expresses
continuity. The patient was waiting to see the doctor before and is still waiting.)
Adverbs of Time List
After reading this list of adverbs of time, you may be able to come up with several more
on your own. Remember that adverbs of time always tell us when, how long, and how
often something happens.

When:

Yesterday

Today

Tomorrow

Later

Last year

Now

How long:

All morning

For hours

Since last week

How often:

Frequently

Never

Sometimes

Often

Annually

Adverb of Degree
What is an adverb of degree?
An adverb of degree is used to discuss the degree or intensity of an adjective, an
action, or another adverb. There are so many adverbs of degree that it’s impossible to
list them all in one short guide. Some common examples of adverbs of degree follow.

 Almost
 Absolutely
 Barely
 Completely
 Deeply
 Enough
 Enormously
 Extremely
 Fairly
 Fully
 Greatly
 Hardly
 Incredibly
 Practically
 Quite
 Scarcely
 Somewhat
 Terribly
 Virtually

Adverbs of degree are important modifiers. As you will soon see, they are usually
placed before the word they are modifying.

Examples of Adverbs of Degree

Adverbs of degree allow you to be very specific when writing, no matter what the
purpose. In the following examples, the adverbs of degree have been italicized for ease
of identification.

They were almost finished.

This cake is absolutely wonderful.

The temperature was barely above freezing.

Our driveway is completely frozen.

We felt incredibly lucky after winning tickets to the World Series.

My teacher is terribly grumpy today.

Preposition
What is a preposition?
A preposition is a word used to link nouns, pronouns, or phrases to other words within a
sentence. Prepositions are usually short words, and they are normally placed directly in
front of nouns. In some cases, you’ll find prepositions in front of gerund verbs.

There are two very important rules to remember when using prepositions. Because they
are somewhat vague, learning about prepositions and using them correctly in sentences
takes practice. Because 1:1 translation is often impossible when dealing with
propositions, even the most advanced English students have some difficulty at first.

 The first rule is that certain propositions must be used to make the relationships
between words in a sentence clear. Most prepositions are interchangeable but only
to a certain extent.
 The second rule for using prepositions is that these words must be followed by
nouns.

There are more than 100 prepositions in the English language. In addition, there are
endless possibilities for creating prepositional phrases. In the following sections, you
will find examples of prepositions, types of prepositions, a comprehensive list of
prepositions, and some helpful preposition exercises.

As you read the examples and study the list, remember that prepositions usually convey
concepts such as comparison, direction, place, purpose, source possession, and time.

Examples of Prepositions
In the following sentences, examples of prepositions have been italicized. As you read,
consider how using different prepositions or even different types of prepositions in place
of the examples might change the relationship between the rest of the words in the
sentence.

I prefer to read in the library.

He climbed up the ladder to get into the attic.

Please sign your name on the dotted line after you read the contract.

Go down the stairs and through the door.

He swam across the pool.

Take your brother with you.

Types of Prepositions
There are three types of prepositions, including time prepositions, place prepositions,
and direction prepositions.
Time prepositions are those such as before, after, during, and until; place prepositions
are those indicating position, such as around, between, and against; and direction
prepositions are those indicative of direction, such as across, up, and down. Each type
of preposition is important.

Preposition Exercises
The following exercises will help you gain greater understanding about how prepositions
work. Choose the best answer to complete each sentence.

1. The bone was _______ the dog.

1. About
2. For
3. After
4. Considering

Answer: B. The bone was for the dog.

2. We are going on vacation _______ August.

1. On
2. At
3. In
4. Since
 Answer: C. We are going on vacation in August.

3. Please put the vase ________ the table.

1. In
2. On
3. For
4. Over

Answer: B. Please put the vase on the table.

4. I received a present ________ Janet.

1. From
2. Of
3. By
4. About

Answer: A. I received a present from Janet.

5. School begins ________ Monday.

1. In
2. On
3. From
4. Since

Answer: B. School begins on Monday.

List of Prepositions
While there are only about 150 prepositions in the English language, these words are
among the most important. Without them, the sentences we speak, read, and write
would be difficult to understand. The following list of prepositions is not a complete one,
however it is among the most comprehensive lists of prepositions available anywhere.

Aboard

About

Above

Absent

Across
After

Against

Along

Alongside

Amid

Among

Amongst

Anti

Around

As

At

Before

Behind

Below

Beneath

Beside

Besides

Between

Beyond

But

By

Circa

Concerning

Considering

Despite
Down

During

Except

Excepting

Excluding

Failing

Following

For

From

Given

In

Inside

Into

Like

Minus

Near

Of

Off

On

Onto

Opposite

Outside

Over

Past

Per
Plus

Regarding

Round

Save

Since

Than

Through

To

Toward

Towards

Under

Underneath

Unlike

Until

Up

Upon

Versus

Via

With

Within

Without

Worth
Preposition of Time
What is a preposition of time?
A preposition of time is a preposition that allows you to discuss a specific time period
such as a date on the calendar, one of the days of the week, or the actual time
something takes place. Prepositions of time are the same words as prepositions of
place, however they are used in a different way. You can easily distinguish these
prepositions, as they always discuss times rather than places.

 At – This preposition of time is used to discuss clock times, holidays and festivals,
and other very specific time frames including exceptions, such as “at night.”
 In – This preposition of time is used to discuss months, seasons, years, centuries,
general times of day, and longer periods of time such as “in the past.”
 On – This preposition of time is used to discuss certain days of the week or portions
of days of the week, specific dates, and special days such as “on New Year’s Day.”

Prepositions of time allow you to tell your readers when things are taking place. They
are vital parts of speech to use in stories, as well as when writing simple
communications, reports, and other items.

Examples of Prepositions of Time

There may only be three prepositions of time, but the ways in which you can use them
are almost endless. In the following examples, the prepositions of time have been
italicized for ease of identification.

My birthday falls in January.

Birds often migrate in spring and autumn.

My great-grandmother was born in 1906.

Breakfast is a meal which is generally eaten in the morning.

My parents grew up in the 1960s.

My vacation ends on Monday.

We’re going bowling on Friday night.

My brother John was born on September 3rd.

We always have a huge celebration on New Year’s Eve.

Meet me at 7:30.

The town is always well-decorated at Christmastime.

Now that my grandfather is older, he no longer drives at night.

Preposition of Place
What is a preposition of place?
A preposition of place is a preposition which is used to refer to a place where something
or someone is located. There are only three prepositions of place, however they can be
used to discuss an almost endless number of places.

 At – A preposition of place which is used to discuss a certain point

 In – A preposition of place which is used to discuss an enclosed space
 On – A preposition of time which is used to discuss a surface

Prepositions of place allow you to be very specific when talking about where action
takes place in stories or when discussing important details for communication purposes.

Examples of Prepositions of Place

Prepositions of place give you the ability to tell others where something is located. In the
following examples, the prepositions of place have been italicized for ease of
identification.

Jessie waited for Jim at the corner.

The mall is located at the intersection of Main Street and Third Avenue.

We spent a quiet evening at home.

I’m growing tomatoes in my garden.

Marie was born in Paris, France.

I was so tired that I took a nap in the car.

Please place the bouquet on the table.

I really wish you would stop throwing your dirty clothes on the floor.

What’s on the menu this evening?

Prepositional Phrases
What is a Prepositional Phrase?
Prepositional phrases are groups of words containing prepositions. Remember that
prepositions are words that indicate the relationships between various elements within a
sentence, and you’ll never have difficulty identifying prepositional phrases.

A prepositional phrase is a group of words that lacks either a verb or a subject, and that
functions as a unified part of speech. It normally consists of a preposition and a noun or
a preposition and a pronoun.

Remember the following rules for prepositional phrases and you will find that using them
becomes much easier.

 Prepositional phrases always consist of two basic parts at minimum: the object and
the preposition.
 In formal English, prepositions are almost always followed by objects.
 Adjectives can be placed between the prepositions and objects in prepositional
phrases.
 Prepositional phrases can act as adverbs or adjectives. When they are used as
adjectives, they modify nouns and pronouns in the same way single-word adjectives
do.
 When prepositional phrases are used as adverbs, they at the same way single-word
adverbs and adverb clauses do, modifying adjectives, verbs, and other adverbs.

Just like bread and cheese are the minimum ingredients for making a cheese sandwich,
a preposition and the object of a preposition are the minimum requirements for forming
a prepositional phrase. The object of a preposition is the name for the noun or pronoun
following the preposition.

Prepositional phrases don’t have to be plain. Just as adding more ingredients to a

sandwich dresses it up, adding more words such as adverbs or adjectives is a good
method for spicing up prepositional phrases. As you read the following examples of
prepositional phrases, you’ll notice that the first sentence in each set contains a basic
prepositional phrase, while the second one contains a more interesting one.

Examples of Prepositional Phrases

The following sentences contain examples of prepositional phrases; the prepositional
phrase in each sentence is italicized for easy identification.

The cupcake with sprinkles is yours.

The cupcake with colorful sprinkles is yours.

We climbed up the hill.

We climbed up the very steep hill.

The rabbits hopped through the garden.

The rabbits hopped through the perfectly manicured garden.

Prepositional Phrase Exercises

The following exercises will help you gain greater understanding about how
prepositional phrases work. Choose the best answer to complete each sentence.

1. There are lots of birds nesting _____________________.

1. Under the eaves
2. There
3. Now

Answer: A. There are lots of birds nesting under the eaves.

2. After school, the children played tag ________________.
1. At the park
2. Roughly
3. And baseball

Answer: A. After school, the children played tag at the park.

3. Come ___________________ with me.

1. Home
2. Over
3. Into the store

Answer: C. Come into the store with me.

4. __________________ the chair sat mouldering in the attic.

1. Sad to say,
2. For one hundred years
3. Incredibly

Answer: B. For one hundred years the chair sat mouldering in the attic.

5. I gave the children pizza ______________ pancakes for breakfast today.

1. Instead of
2. Because of
3. Any more

Answer: A. I gave the children pizza instead of pancakes for breakfast today.

List of Prepositional Phrases

The following is by no means a complete list of prepositional phrases. While there are
only about 150 prepositions in the English language, there are thousands of other words
that can make their way into prepositional phrases. Learn to create a colorful
prepositional phrase, and your writing will be wonderfully appealing.

Down the tree

Up the hill

Around the mulberry bush

Into the woods

With chopped nuts

Near a fast-flowing river

Within the book’s pages

Through the tunnel

In spite of

Instead of

Any more

On account of

To the fact that

Because of

Conjunctions
What is a conjunction?
A conjunction is a part of speech that is used to connect words, phrases, clauses, or
sentences. Conjunctions are considered to be invariable grammar particle, and they
may or may not stand between items they conjoin.

Types of Conjunctions
There are several different types of conjunctions that do various jobs within sentence
structures. These include:

 Subordinating conjunctions – Also known as subordinators, these conjunctions join

dependent clauses to independent clauses.
 Coordinating conjunction – Also known as coordinators, these conjunctions
coordinate or join two or more sentences, main clauses, words, or other parts of
speech which are of the same syntactic importance.
 Correlative conjunction – These conjunctions correlate, working in pairs to join
phrases or words that carry equal importance within a sentence.
 Conjunctive adverbs – While some instructors do not teach conjunctive adverbs
alongside conjunctions, these important parts of speech are worth a mention here.
These adverbs always connect one clause to another, and are used to show
sequence, contrast, cause and effect, and other relationships.

When people first learn to write, they usually begin with short, basic sentences like
these: “My name is Ted. I am a boy. I like dogs.” One of the most important jobs
conjunctions do is to connect these short sentences so they sound more like this: “I am
a boy named Ted, and I like dogs.”

Conjunction Rules
There are a few important rules for using conjunctions. Remember them and you will
find that your writing flows better:

 Conjunctions are for connecting thoughts, actions, and ideas as well as nouns,
clauses, and other parts of speech. For example: Mary went to the supermarket and
bought oranges.
 Conjunctions are useful for making lists. For example: We made pancakes, eggs,
and coffee for breakfast.
 When using conjunctions, make sure that all the parts of your sentences agree. For
example: “I work busily yet am careful” does not agree. “I work busily yet carefully”
shows agreement.

Conjunctions List
There are only a few common conjunctions, yet these words perform many functions:
They present explanations, ideas, exceptions, consequences, and contrasts. Here is a
list of conjunctions commonly used in American English:

 And
 As
 Because
 But
 For
 Just as
 Or
 Neither
 Nor
 Not only
 So
 Whether
 Yet

Examples of Conjunctions
In the following examples, the conjunctions are in bold for easy recognition:

o I tried to hit the nail but hit my thumb instead.

o I have two goldfish and a cat.
o I’d like a bike for commuting to work.
o You can have peach ice cream or a brownie sundae.
o Neither the black dress northe gray one looks right on me.
o My dad always worked hard so we could afford the things we wanted.
o I try very hard in school yet I am not receiving good grades.

Conjunction Exercises
The following exercises will help you gain greater understanding about how
conjunctions work. Choose the best answer to complete each sentence.

8. My brother loves animals. He just brought a puppy __________ a kitten home

with him.
1. But
2. Or
3. Yet
4. And

Answer: 4. My brother loves animals. He just brought a puppy and a kitten home
with him.

9. I’d like to thank you ______ the lovely gift.

1. Or
2. For
3. And
4. Yet
 Answer: 2. I’d like to thank you for the lovely gift.

10. I want to go for a hike _____ I have to go to work today.

1. But
2. Yet
3. Or
4. For

Answer: 1. I want to go for a hike but I have to go to work today.

11. They do not smoke, _____ do they play cards.

1. And
2. Or
3. Nor
4. Yet

Answer: 3. They do not smoke, nor do they play cards.

12. I’m getting good grades _________ I study every day.

1. Or
2. Yet
3. But
4. Because

Answer: 4. I’m getting good grades because I study every day.

Subordinating Conjunctions
What is a Subordinating Conjunction?
Subordinating conjunctions are parts of speech that join dependent clauses to
independent clauses. Sometimes referred to as subordinators or subordinate
conjunctions, these important words and phrases may also introduce adverb clauses.
Subordinating conjunctions are essential parts of complex sentences with include at
least two clauses, with one of the clauses being main (independent) and the other being
subordinate (dependent).

There is only one rule to remember about using subordinate conjunctions:

A subordinate conjunction performs two functions within a sentence. First, it illustrates

the importance of the independent clause. Second, it provides a transition between two
ideas in the same sentence. The transition always indicates a place, time, or cause and
effect relationship. For example: We looked in the metal canister, where Ginger often
hides her candy.

Examples of Subordinating Conjunctions

In the following examples, the subordinating conjunctions are in bold for easy
identification:

1. As Sherri blew out the candles atop her birthday cake, she caught her hair on fire.
2. Sara begins to sneeze whenever she opens the window to get a breath of fresh air.
3. When the doorbell rang, my dog Skeeter barked loudly.

Subordinating Conjunction Exercises

The following exercises will help you gain greater understanding about how
subordinating conjunctions work. Choose the best answer to complete each sentence.

1. _________ the basement flooded, we spent all day cleaning up.

1. After
2. Although
3. Before
4. Even if

Answer: 1. After the basement flooded, we spent all day cleaning up.

2. I don’t want to go to the movies _____________ I hate the smell of popcorn.

1. Although
2. Because
3. Whenever
4. So that
 Answer: 2. I don’t want to go to the movies because I hate the smell of popcorn.

3. I paid Larry, ___________ garden design work is top-notch.

1. Whenever
2. Whose
3. After
4. If

Answer: 2. I paid Larry, whose garden design work is top-notch.

4. ___________ spring arrives, we have to be prepared for more snow.

1. Because
2. Until
3. Although
4. Now that

Answer: 2. Until spring arrives, we have to be prepared for more snow.

5. _____________ the alarm goes off, I hit the snooze button.

1. As soon as
2. Because
3. Before
4. Now that

Answer: As soon as the alarm goes off, I hit the snooze button.

Subordinating Conjunctions List

There are many subordinating conjunctions. This list contains 25 of those most
commonly used.

After

Although

As

As soon as

Because

Before

By the time
Even if

Even though

Every time

If

In case

Now that

Once

Since

So that

Than

The first time

Unless

Until

When

Whenever

Whether or not

While

Why

Correlative Conjunctions
What is a correlative conjunction?
As suggested by their name, correlative conjunctions correlate, working in pairs to join
phrases or words that carry equal importance within a sentence. Like many of the most
interesting parts of speech, correlative conjunctions are fun to use. At the same time,
there are some important rules to remember for using them correctly.

 When using correlative conjunctions, ensure verbs agree so your sentences make
sense. For example: Every night, either loud music or fighting neighbors wake John
from his sleep.
 When you use a correlative conjunction, you must be sure that pronouns agree. For
example: Neither Debra nor Sally expressed her annoyance when the cat broke the
antique lamp.
 When using correlative conjunctions, be sure to keep parallel structure intact. Equal
grammatical units need to be incorporated into the entire sentence. For example:
Not only did Mary grill burgers for Michael, but she also fixed a steak for her dog,
Vinny.

Examples of Correlative Conjunctions

In the following examples, the correlative conjunctions have been italicized for easy
identification.

1. She is both intelligent and beautiful.

2. I will either go for a hike or stay home and watch TV.
3. Jerry is neither rich nor famous.
4. He is not only intelligent, but also very funny.
5. Would you rather go shopping or spend the day at the beach?

Correlative Conjunctions Exercises

The following exercises will help you gain greater understanding about how correlative
conjunctions work. Choose the best answer to complete each sentence.

1. She is neither polite _______ funny.

1. Or
2. Nor
3. Not
4. Yet

Answer: B. She is neither polite nor funny.

2. _______ that is the case, _______ I’m not surprised about what’s happening.

1. If / then
 2. No sooner / than
3. Scarcely / when
4. Whether / or

Answer: A. If that is the case, then I’m not surprised about what’s happening.

3. Have you made a decision about _______ to go to the movies _______ not?

1. If / then
2. Either / or
3. Whether / or
4. What with / and

Answer: C. Have you made a decision about whether to go to the movies or not?

4. _______ had I put my umbrella away, _______ it started raining.

1. No sooner / than
2. If / then
3. What with / and
4. Neither / nor

Answer: A. No sooner had I put my umbrella away, than it started raining.

5. This salad is _______ delicious _______ healthy.

1. Whether / or
2. Both / and
3. Scarcely / when
4. Rather / than

Answer: B. This salad is both delicious and healthy.

Correlative Conjunctions List

There are many pairs of correlative conjunctions. This list contains many of the most
commonly used pairs.

As / as

Both / and

Either / or

Hardly / when
If / then

Just as / so

Neither / nor

Not only / but also

No sooner / than

Not / but

Rather / than

Scarcely / when

What with / and

Whether / or

Correlative Conjunctions Exercises

1. I like __________ to sing opera, _______________ to spend my spare time
practicing ballroom dances.
A. not only / but also
B. whether / or
C. neither / nor
D. not / but

2. The test was ____________ very short __________ quite easy.

A. not / but
B. both / and
C. whether / or
D. scarcely / when

3. ______________ Joe _______ his sisters could understand what their parents were
saying when they spoke French.
A. Whether / or
B. No sooner / than
C. Rather / than
D. Neither / nor
Answer Key:
1 – A. I like not only to sing opera, but also to spend my spare time practicing ballroom
dances.
2 – B. The test was both very short and quite easy.
3 – D. Neither Joe nor his sisters could understand what their parents were saying when
they spoke French.

Coordinating Conjunction Rules

As there are only seven of these words, there are just a few rules for using coordinating
conjunctions correctly:

1. It’s a good idea to use the mnemonic “FANBOYS” to memorize coordinating

conjunctions so you’ll never forget them. They are:
o F = for
o A = and
o N = nor
o B = but
o O = or
o Y = yet
o S = so
2. Coordinating conjunctions always connect phrases, words, and clauses. For
example: This batch of mushroom stew is savory and delicious.
3. Some instructors warn that starting a sentence with a coordinating conjunction is
incorrect. Mostly, this is because they are attempting to help prevent you from
writing fragments rather than complete sentences; sometimes though, it’s just a
personal preference. The fact is, you can begin sentences with coordinating
conjunctions as long as you follow these three rules for doing so:
o Ensure that the coordinating conjunction is immediately followed by a main
clause
o Don’t use coordinating conjunctions to begin all of your sentences. Do so only
when it makes your writing more effective.
o Although commas typically follow coordinating conjunctions used in areas other
than the beginning of a sentence, they should not be used after coordinating
conjunctions used to open sentences unless an interrupter immediately follows.
Examples of Coordinating Conjunctions
In the following examples, the coordinating conjunctions have been italicized for easy
identification.

1. You can eat your cake with a spoon or fork.

2. My dog enjoys being bathed but hates getting his nails trimmed.
3. Bill refuses to eat peas, nor will he touch carrots.
4. I hate to waste a drop of gas, for it is very expensive these days.

Coordinating Conjunctions Exercises

The following exercises will help you gain greater understanding about how coordinating
conjunctions work. Choose the best answer to complete each sentence.

1. Would you rather have cheese _____ bologna on your sandwich?

1. For
2. Nor
3. Or
4. So

Answer: 3. Would you rather have cheese or bologna on your sandwich?

2. His two favorite sports are football ______ tennis.

1. Or
2. And
3. Nor
4. For

Answer: 2. His two favorite sports are football and tennis.

3. I wanted to go to the beach, _______ Mary refused.

1. But
2. Or
3. So
4. For

Answer: 1. I wanted to go to the beach, but Mary refused.

4. I am allergic to cats, ______ I have three of them.

1. Or
 2. For
3. Yet
4. So

Answer: 3. I am allergic to cats, yet I have three of them.

5. I am a vegetarian, _______ I don’t eat any meat.

1. So
2. Yet
3. Nor
4. But

Answer: 1. I am a vegetarian, so I don’t eat any meat.

Coordinating Conjunctions List

Remember, there are only seven coordinating conjunctions. This list contains all of
them.

 For
 And
 Nor
 But
 Or
 Yet
 So

Coordinating Conjunctions Exercises

1. Thomas will be late to work, _____ he has a dental appointment.
A. but
B. or
C. for
D. nor

2. Jennifer does not like to swim, ____ does she enjoy cycling.
A. and
B. or
C. but
D. nor
3. Jackson wanted to eat another piece of cake, ____ he was on a diet.
A. for
B. but
C. yet
D. so

Answer Key:
1 – C. Thomas will be late to work, for he has a dental appointment
2 – D. Jennifer does not like to swim, nor does she enjoy cycling.
3 – B. Jackson wanted to eat another piece of cake, but he was on a diet.

Conjunctive adverbs
What is a conjunctive adverb?
Conjunctive adverbs are parts of speech that are used to connect one clause to
another. They are also used to show sequence, contrast, cause and effect, and other
relationships.

Like other adverbs, conjunctive adverbs may be moved around in the sentence or
clause in which they appear. This is just one of the things you’ll need to remember;
additional rules for using conjunctive adverbs follow:

 Always use a period or semicolon before the conjunctive adverb when separating two
independent clauses. Conjunctive adverbs are not strong enough to join
independent clauses without supporting punctuation.
 Use a comma if a conjunction such as and, but, or, or so appears between the
conjunctive adverb and the first clause.
 Use a comma behind conjunctive adverbs when they appear at the beginning of a
sentence’s second clause. The only exception to this rule is that no comma is
necessary if the adverb is a single syllable.
 If a conjunctive adverb appears in the middle of a clause, it should be enclosed in
commas most of the time. This is not an absolute rule and does not normally apply to
short clauses.
Examples of Conjunctive adverbs
The conjunctive adverbs in the following examples are in bold for easy identification.

1. Jeremy kept talking in class; therefore, he got in trouble.

2. She went into the store; however, she didn’t find anything she wanted to buy.
3. I like you a lot; in fact, I think we should be best friends.
4. Your dog got into my yard; in addition, he dug up my petunias.
5. You’re my friend; nonetheless, I feel like you’re taking advantage of me.
6. My car payments are high; on the other hand, I really enjoy driving such a nice
vehicle.

Conjunctive Adverb Exercise

The following exercises will help you gain greater understanding about how conjunctive
adverbs work. Choose the best answer to complete each sentence.

1. You need to put more effort into your work; ________________, you won’t get a
passing grade.
1. Moreover
2. Otherwise
3. Unless
4. Instead

Answer: 2. You need to put more effort into your work; otherwise, you won’t get a
passing grade.

2. We wanted to spend the day at the beach; ______________________, it rained so

we stayed home.
1. Moreover
2. Unless
3. However
4. Additionally

Answer: 3. We wanted to spend the day at the beach; however, it rained so we

stayed home.

3. She is a very smart girl; __________________, it’s not at all surprising that she gets
such good grades.
1. Again
2. Besides
 3. Contrarily
4. Therefore

Answer: 4. She is a very smart girl; therefore, it’s not at all surprising that she gets
such good grades.

4. Jared is a millionaire; __________________, his brother Jeremy is always flat

broke.
1. In contrast
2. Accordingly
3. Again
4. Likewise

Answer: 1. Jared is a millionaire; in contrast, his brother Jeremy is always flat broke.

5. He felt he couldn’t tell the truth about what happened; ___________________, he

lied.
1. In contrast
2. Likewise
3. Undoubtedly
4. Instead

Answer: 4. He felt he couldn’t tell the truth about what happened; instead, he lied.

Conjunctive adverbs List

There are many conjunctive adverbs – in fact, there are many more of these than there
are common conjunctions. Here is a comprehensive list of conjunctive adverbs.

Would you like to learn more? Click here to learn how to use colons correctlyin a
sentence

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o Additionally
o Again
o Almost
o Anyway
o As a result
o In addition

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o Besides
o Certainly
o Comparatively
o Consequently
o Contrarily
o Comparatively

o Consequently
o Conversely
o Elsewhere
o Equally
o Eventually
o Finally

o Further
o Furthermore
o Elsewhere
o Hence
o Henceforth
o However

Exercises Part 2
You need to put more effort into your work; ________________, you won’t get a
passing grade.

1. I love to eat toffees; _____________, people often give them to me at holidays.

A. nevertheless B. accordingly C. however D. also
2. The tree has developed a large crack over the years; ____________, it will have to
be cut down for safety’s sake.
A. for example B. however C. eventually D. likewise
3. It would be nice to spend our vacation on the beach in Jamaica:
________________, it would be fun to hike the Swiss alps.
A. on the other hand B. as a result C. indeed D. therefore
4. Instead

Answer Key:
1 – B. I love to eat toffees; accordingly, people often give them to me at holidays.
2 – C. The tree has developed a large crack over the years; eventually, it will have to be
cut down for safety’s sake.
3 – x. It would be nice to spend our vacation on the beach in Jamaica;on the other
hand, it would be fun to hike the Swiss alps.

Conjunction Exercises
Subordinating Conjunction Exercises
Complete each sentence using the subordinating conjunction from the parenthesis:

1. I visit the Grand Canyon _________ I go to Arizona. (once, whenever, wherever)

2. This is the place _________ we stayed last time we visited. (where, when, how)
3. _________ you win first place, you will receive a prize. (wherever, if, unless)
4. You won’t pass the test _________ you study. (when, if, unless)
5. I could not get a seat, _________ I came early. (as, though, when)
6. We are leaving Wednesday _________ or not it rains. (if, whether, though)
7. Pay attention to your work _________ you will not make mistakes. (so that, unless,
or)
8. The musicians delivered a rousing performance _________ they had rehearsed
often. (though, as, once)
9. She’s honest _________ everyone trusts her. (if, so, when)
10. Write this down _________ you forget. (or, when, lest)

Answers: 1 – whenever, 2 – where, 3 – if, 4 – unless, 5 – though, 6 – whether, 7- so

that, 8 – as, 9 – so, 10 – lest

Correlative Conjunction Exercises

Complete each sentence using the correct correlative conjunction pair from the
parenthesis:

1. I plan to take my vacation _________ in June _________ in July. (whether / or,

either / or, as / if)
2. _________ I’m feeling happy _________ sad, I try to keep a positive attitude. (either
/ or, whether / or, when / I’m)
3. _________ had I taken my shoes off _________ I found out we had to leave again.
(no sooner / than, rather / than, whether / or)
4. _________ only is dark chocolate delicious, _________ it can be healthy. (whether /
or, not / but, just as / so)
5. _________ I have salad for dinner, _____________________I can have ice cream
for dessert. (if /then, when / than, whether / or)
6. _________ flowers _________ trees grow _________ during warm weather. (not
only / or, both / and, not / but)
7. _________ do we enjoy summer vacation, _________ we _________ enjoy winter
break. (whether / or, not only / but also, either / or)
8. Calculus is _________ easy _________ difficult _________ (not / but, both / and,
either / or)
9. It’s _________ going to rain _________ snow tonight. (as / if, either / or, as / as)
10. Savory flavors are _________ sweet _________ sour. (often / and, neither / nor,
both / and)

Answers: 1 – either / or, 2 – whether / or, 3 – no sooner / than, 4 – not / but, 5 – if

/then, 6 – both / and, 7 – not only / but also, 8 – not / but, 9 – either / or, 10 –
neither / nor

Coordinating Conjunction Exercises

Complete each sentence using the correct coordinating conjunction from the parenthesis:

1. My car has a radio _________ a CD player. (but, or, and)

2. Sharon hates to listen to rap music, _________ will she tolerate heavy metal. (but,
nor, or)
3. Carol wanted to drive to Colorado, _________ Bill insisted that they fly. (and, or, but)
4. I’m afraid of heights, _________ I appreciate the view from the top of this building.
(and, yet, nor)
5. I have to be on time, _________ my boss will be annoyed if I’m late. (and, nor, for)
6. Do you like chocolate _________ vanilla ice cream better? (or, nor, and)
7. I have to go to work at six, _________ I’m waking up at four. (but, so, yet)
8. I was on time, _________ everyone else was late. (so, but, for)
9. Nadia doesn’t like to drive, _________ she takes the bus everywhere. (but, yet, so)
10. Our trip to the museum was interesting, _________ there were several new artifacts
on display. (but, for, yet)

Answers: 1 – and, 2 – nor, 3 – but, 4 – yet, 5 – for, 6 – or, 7- so, 8 – but, 9 – so, 10 –
for

Conjunctive Adverb Exercises

Complete each sentence using the correct coordinating conjunctive adverb from the
parenthesis:

1. Bianca wore her rain boots; _________, her feet stayed dry during the storm.
(however, therefore, on the other hand)
2. I love the color red; _________, this shade seems a little too bright. (therefore,
nonetheless, in fact)
3. You have to be on time; _________, you’ll miss the train. (nonetheless, however,
otherwise)
4. Teresa likes to read; _________, her sister Julia prefers to watch TV. (however, in
contrast, again)
5. She really wanted to eat ice cream; _________, she had a salad. (however,
likewise, instead)
6. We were working hard; _________, Jill and Jerry were lounging by the pool.
(meanwhile, instead, therefore)
7. He is a weak leader; _________, he has plenty of supporters. (otherwise, moreover,
nevertheless)
8. She has an incredible voice; _________, she will go far in her music career.
(otherwise, undoubtedly, similarly)
9. Natalie wanted to make pie but didn’t have apples; _________, she decided to bake
a cake. (therefore, namely, in contrast)
10. We had hoped to go to Spain; _________, we ended up in France. (otherwise,
instead, again)

Answers: 1 – therefore, 2 – nonetheless, 3 – otherwise, 4 – contrast, 5 – instead, 6

– meanwhile, 7- nevertheless, 8 – undoubtedly, 9 – therefore, 10 – instead

Nouns
What is a Noun?
Of all the parts of speech, nouns are perhaps the most important. A noun is a word that
identifies a person, animal, place, thing, or idea. Here, we’ll take a closer look at what
makes a noun a noun, and we’ll provide some noun examples, along with some advice
for using nouns in your sentences.
Identifying a Noun
A noun is a part of speech that denotes a person, animal, place, thing, or idea. The
English word noun has its roots in the Latin word nomen, which means “name.” Every
language has words that are nouns. As you read the following explanations, think about
some words that might fit into each category.

 Person – A term for a person, whether proper name, gender, title, or class, is a
noun.
 Animal – A term for an animal, whether proper name, species, gender, or class is a
noun.
 Place – A term for a place, whether proper name, physical location, or general
locale is a noun.
 Thing – A term for a thing, whether it exists now, will exist, or existed in the past is a
noun.
 Idea – A term for an idea, be it a real, workable idea or a fantasy that might never
come to fruition is a noun.

Noun Examples
When we first start to learn the parts of speech, trying to identify different words can
seem like a challenge. This process gets easier with practice. Here are some noun
examples to help you get started. The nouns in each sentence have been italicized.

 Person – He is the person to see.

 Person – John started to run.
 Person – Plato was an influential Greek philosopher.
 Person – Sharon admires her grandfather.
 Person – My mother looks a lot like my grandmother, and I look very much like
them.

 Animal – The dog barked at the cat.

 Animal – Elephants never forget.
 Animal – Sophie is my favorite horse.
 Place – The restaurant is open.
 Place – Let’s go to the beach.
 Place – Look over there.
 Place – Come here.
 Place – Harvard and Yale are two famous universities.
 Place – Look! There’s the Eiffel Tower.

 Thing – Throw the ball.

 Thing – Please close the door and lock it.
 Thing – Use words properly to be understood.
 Thing – The lamp sits on a table next to the sofa.
 Thing – Money doesn’t grow on trees.

 Idea – Follow the rules.

 Idea – The theory of relativity is an important concept.
 Idea – Love is a wonderful emotion.

How Nouns Function

Nouns have several important functions. While it’s impossible to list them all here, we’ll
go over the most important jobs nouns are tasked with.

 Nouns are subjects. Every sentence has a subject, which is a noun that tells us
what that sentence is all about. John swung the baseball bat.
 Nouns are direct objects. These nouns receive action from verbs. John swung the
baseball bat.
 Nouns are indirect objects. These nouns receive the direct object. Brad threw
John the ball.
 Nouns are objects of prepositions. These nouns follow the prepositions in
prepositional phrases. John swung the baseball bat at Greg.
 Nouns are predicate nominatives. These nouns follow linking verbs and rename
the subject. John is a baseball player.
 Nouns are object complements. These nouns complete the direct object. They
named their dog Max.

This is just the beginning. Be sure to dig deeper and explore more for additional
information about nouns and even more noun examples
Types of Nouns
There are several different types of nouns used to name people, animals, places, things,
and ideas. Here, we’ll take a quick look at various types of nouns so you can recognize
them when you see them and use them appropriately in sentences.

Types of Nouns in English

Nouns are among the most important words in the English language – without them,
we’d have a difficult time speaking and writing about anything. This guide to noun types
is intended as a basic overview. Every type of noun comes with its own rules, so be
sure to read more in our pages about specific types of nouns.

Abstract Nouns
Abstract nouns are those referring to ideas, concepts, emotions, and other “things” you
can’t physically interact with. You can’t see, taste, touch, smell, or hear something
named with an abstract noun. Some abstract noun examples are included in the
following sentences.

Success seems to come easily to certain people.

His hatred of people smoking indoors is legendary.

She has an incredible love for nature.

This is of great importance.

He received an award for his bravery.

Collective Nouns
When talking about types of noun, it’s important to remember collective nouns. A
collective noun is a word that refers to a group. It can be either singular or plural, but is
usually used in the singular. Some collective noun examples are included in the
following sentences.

Our team is enjoying an unbroken winning streak.

There’s a pack of hyenas outside.

Watch out for that swarm of bees.

You haven’t lived until you’ve seen a herd of wild horses.

Our class graduates two years from now.

Common Nouns
Common nouns are used to refer to general things rather than specific examples.
Common nouns are not normally capitalized unless they are used as part of a proper
name or are placed at the beginning of a sentence. Some common noun examples are
included in the following sentences.

Be sure to pick a top university.

Stack those boxes carefully.

Would you like a cookie with your coffee?

People are strange.

My dog won’t stop barking.

Concrete Nouns
Concrete nouns are words used for actual things you can touch, see, taste, feel, and
hear – things you interact with every day. Notice that concrete nouns can also be
countable, uncountable, common, proper, and collective nouns. Some concrete noun
examples are included in the following sentences.
Please remember to buy oranges.

Have a seat in that chair.

Countable and Uncountable Nouns

In English grammar, countable nouns are individual people, animals, places, things, or
ideas which can be counted. Uncountable nouns are not individual objects, so they
cannot be counted. Here, we’ll take a look at countable and uncountable nouns and
provide both countable noun examples and uncountable noun examples. Although the
concept may seem challenging, you’ll soon discover that these two different noun types
are very easy to use.

Countable Noun Examples

Anything that can be counted, whether singular – a dog, a house, a friend, etc. or plural
– a few books, lots of oranges, etc. is a countable noun. The following countable noun
examples will help you to see the difference between countable and uncountable nouns.
Notice that singular verbs are used with singular countable nouns, while plural verbs are
used with plural countable nouns.

1. There are at least twenty Italian restaurants in Little Italy.

2. Megan took a lot of photographs when she went to the Grand Canyon.
3. Your book is on the kitchen table.
4. How many candles are on that birthday cake?
5. You have several paintings to study in art appreciation class.
6. There’s a big brown dog running around the neighborhood.

Uncountable Noun Examples

Anything that cannot be counted is an uncountable noun. Even though uncountable
nouns are not individual objects, they are always singular and one must always use
singular verbs in conjunction with uncountable nouns. The following uncountable noun
examples will help you to gain even more understanding of how countable and
uncountable nouns differ from one another. Notice that singular verbs are always used
with uncountable nouns.

1. There is no more water in the pond.

2. Please help yourself to some cheese.
3. I need to find information about Pulitzer Prize winners.
4. You seem to have a high level of intelligence.
5. Please take good care of your equipment.
6. Let’s get rid of the garbage.

Uncountable nouns can be paired with words expressing plural concept. Using these
words can make your writing more specific. Here are some examples of how to format
interesting sentences with uncountable nouns.

• Garbage – There are nine bags of garbage on the curb.

• Water – Try to drink at least eight glasses of water each day.

• Advice – She gave me a useful piece of advice.

• Bread – Please buy a loaf of bread.

• Furniture – A couch is a piece of furniture.

• Equipment – A backhoe is an expensive piece of equipment.

• Cheese – Please bag ten slices of cheese for me.

Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Exercises
Is the underlined noun countable or uncountable?

1. The children fell asleep quickly after a busy day of fun.

2. Be careful! The water is deep.
3. The parade included fire trucks and police cars.
4. We like the large bottles of mineral water.
5. My mother uses real butter in the cakes she bakes.
6. How many politicians does it take to pass a simple law?
7. Most kids like milk, but Joey hates it.
8. Most pottery is made of clay.
9. Michael can play several different musical instruments.
10. I was feeling so stressed that I ate an entire box of cookies.
Answers: 1 – countable, 2 – uncountable, 3 – countable, 4 – countable, 5 –
uncountable, 6 – countable, 7 – uncountable, 8 – uncountable, 9 – countable, 10 –
countable

Gerund Phrase
What is a gerund phrase?
Though the term might sound a bit intimidating, it really is simple. Here, we’ll take a
close look at gerund phrases and provide several examples so you can easily recognize
them and use them to create interesting sentences.

Decoding the Gerund Phrase

Time for a quick refresher: A gerund is a noun formed with a verb ending in ing. Words
like swimming, tying, dreaming, eating, fishing, and drinking can all be used as gerunds.

Now that we’ve refreshed your memory, let’s take a look at the gerund phrase. A gerund
phrase always follows these rules:

 Gerund phrases always start with gerunds

 Gerund phrases always include modifiers and often include other objects
 A gerund phrase always functions as a noun
 Gerund phrases are always subjects, objects, or subject complements in sentences.

Gerund Phrase Examples

In the following gerund phrase examples, the gerund is highlighted in bold and the
entire gerund phrase is underlined. A brief explanation of the function of the gerund
phrase follows each example.

 Blowing bubbles on a windy day is a fun activity for children.

Blowing bubbles on a windy day is the subject of the verb is.

 Piling too much laundry into a washing machine will cause it to malfunction.
Piling too much laundry into a washing machine is the subject of the verb will cause.

 Ethan narrowly avoided driving off the cliff.

Driving off the cliff is the direct object of the verb avoided.

 Eating ice cream on a hot day can be a good way to cool off.

Eating ice cream on a hot day is the subject of the verb can be.

 Jessica really enjoys bothering the neighbors with loud music.

Bothering the neighbors with loud music is the direct object of the verb enjoys.

Gerund Phrase Exercises

Identify the gerund phrase in each of the following sentences:

1. Eating strawberries without washing them might make you sick.

A – might make you sick, B – eating strawberries C – Eating strawberries without
washing them
2. They were painting their house when it started to rain.
A – painting their house, B – they were painting, C – when it started to rain
3. I’ve been thinking about going shopping on Saturday.
A – I’ve been thinking, B – about going shopping, C- going shopping on Saturday
4. Jennifer is always baking something in the kitchen.
A – baking something, B – Baking something in the kitchen, C – Jennifer is always
baking something
5. Thanks for taking off your shoes before coming in the house.
A – taking off your shoes, B – coming in the house, C- Both A and B
6. Jill is playing the violin with the bow Jerry bought her when they went to Italy.
A – playing the violin, B – playing the violin with the bow Jerry bought her, C – Jill is
playing the violin
7. The kids were excited about eating birthday cake.
A – the kids were excited, B – about eating, C – eating birthday cake
8. He was taking a picture when lightning struck.
A – he was taking a picture, B – lightning struck, C – taking a picture
9. Please stop texting; you’re going to cause an accident.
A – you’re going to cause, B – please stop texting, C – going to cause an accident

Answer Key: 1: C, 2: A, 3: C, 4: B, 5: C, 6: B, 7: C, 8: C, 9: C, 10: A

Common Noun
At some point, everyone has the same question: What is a common noun? Here, we’ll
take a look at common nouns and provide some common noun examples so you can
easily recognize common nouns when you see them. Don’t worry, this will be painless.

What is a Common Noun

A noun is a word that names a person, animal, place, thing, or idea. All nouns can be
further classified as proper or common. Common nouns are words used to name
general items rather than specific ones. Go into your living room. What do you see?
Lamp, chair, couch, TV, window, painting, pillow, candle – all of these items are named
using common nouns.

Common nouns are everywhere, and you use them all the time, even if you don’t realize
it. Wherever you go, you’ll find at least one common noun. Street, closet, bathroom,
school, mall, gas station; all of these places are named using common nouns.

People in general are named using common nouns, though their official titles or given
names are proper nouns. When we refer to people using common nouns, we use words
like teacher, clerk, police officer, preacher, delivery driver, boyfriend, girlfriend,
grandma, cousin, and barista.

The takeaway is this: common nouns are general names and unless they are part of a
title like Postmaster General or begin a sentence, they’re not usually capitalized.

Common Noun Examples

The following common noun examples will help you to recognize common nouns. In the
sentences that follow, common noun examples are italicized. Notice that the examples
providing proper nouns name specific versions of the same type of person, animal,
place, thing, or idea.

1. Common Noun: You broke my favorite mug.Proper Noun: I can’t believe you
broke my Snoopy mug.
2. Common Noun: I really want a new pair of jeans.Proper Noun: I really want to buy
a new pair of Levis.
3. Common Noun: I wish I could remember the name of that painter.Proper Noun: I
really love art by Van Gogh.
4. Common Noun: They’re all waiting for us at the restaurant.Proper Noun:
Everyone else is at Bill’s Burgers.
5. Common Noun: I really want to live in a big city someday.Proper Noun: Of all the
places I’ve lived, Denver was best.
6. Common Noun: Let’s go to watch a live game at the stadium.Proper Noun: Let’s
try to get good seats at Wrigley Field.

Common Noun Exercises

Choose the common noun or the phrase containing the common noun to fill in each
blank.

1. I’d really like some ____________ after lunch.

A. Entenmann’s chocolate cake
B. Vanilla pudding with coconut
C. Marie Callender’s peach pie
D. Breyer’s ice cream
2. I received ______________ from my grandmother today.
A. A copy of War and Peace
B. A photo of Abraham Lincoln
C. A handmade sweater
D. A pack of Trident gum
3. Please call ____________.
A. Jennifer
B. The police
C. Aunt Sally
D. Smith’s department store
4. _______________ brought our drinks promptly.
A. Simon
B. Rinaldi
C. The waiter
D. A flight attendant named Sarah
5. I heard that ________________ is going to San Francisco in May.
A. My cousin
B. Bernard
C. Wilson
D. The whole Nuggets baseball team
Answer Key:

1. B – I’d really like some vanilla pudding with coconut after lunch.
2. C – I received a handmade sweater from my grandmother today.
3. B – Please call the police.
4. C – The waiter brought our drinks promptly.
5. A – I heard that my cousin is going to San Francisco in May.

More
Common Noun Exercises
Identify the common noun in each sentence:

1. Sarah finally got her degree

A – Sarah, B –her, C – degree
2. Jennifer and her brother are going to Disneyland next
month.
A – Jennifer, B – brother, C – Disneyland
3. I told Donald that I prefer vegetarian food.
A – told, B – Donald, C – food
4. Harry went to the park with his friend Keisha.
A – Harry, B – park, C – Keisha
Answer Key: 1: C, 2: B, 3: C, 4: B

Is the highlighted noun a common noun or a proper noun?

1. Karen loves to eat at the restaurant on the corner.

2. I went to the dentist for a root canal.
3. We’re going to have fish for dinner.
4. His favorite car is a Porsche.
Answer Key: 1: Proper noun, 2: Common noun, 3: Common noun, 4: Proper
noun

Identify the common noun in each sentence:

1. This calendar covers January through December.
A – calendar, B – January, C – December
2. Jethro named his boat the Karen II.
A – Jethro, B – boat, C – Karen II
3. North America and Asia are continents.
A – North America, B – Asia, C – continents
4. This book was co-written by doctors Smith and
Klein.
A – book, B – Smith, C – Klein
5. Nick and Terry got into a fight with Dennis.
A – Nick and Terry, B – fight, C – Dennis
Answer Key: 1: A, 2: B, 3: C, 4: A, 5: B

Fill in the blank with the common noun that fits best:

6. I’m going to see the _____________ about my

tooth.
A – Dr. Ling, B – dentist, C – cardiologist
7. The ________________ sank during the storm.
A – Karen II, B – bridge, C – sailboat
8. Of all animals, _____________ are my favorite.
A – dog, B – dogs, C – pretzels 4
9. The ___________ were named Nick and Jerry.
A – kitchen, B – library, C – spa
10. The __________________ is full of books,
including classics by everyone from Shakespeare to
Tolkien.
A – Nick and Terry, B – fight, C – Dennis
Answer Key: 1: B, 2: C, 3: B, 4: A, 5: B
Plural Nouns
Plural nouns are words used to indicate that there is more than one person, animal,
place, thing, or idea. The difference between singular and plural nouns is simple once
you know what to look for. Here, we take a look at singular and plural nouns, providing
both singular nouns examples and plural noun examples to help you recognize plural
nouns when you see them.

What is a Plural Noun

The answer is a relatively easy one, as grammar goes. A plural noun is a word that
indicates that there is more than one person, animal place, thing, or idea. When you talk
about more than one of anything, you’re using plural nouns. When you write about more
than one of anything, you usually use the same word, simply adding an s, es, or ies to
the end. There are a few exceptions to this rule, but not many – one of the best is that a
single moose is a moose, and a group of moose are still moose.

Singular and Plural Nouns

The difference between singular and plural nouns is easy to spot. When a noun
indicates one only, it is a singular noun. When a noun indicates more than one, it is
plural.

Singular Noun Examples

The following sentences contain singular nouns examples.

1. The boy had a baseball in his hand.

2. My horse prefers to wear an English saddle.
3. That cat never seems to tire of jumping in and out of the box.
4. You stole my idea and didn’t give me any credit.
5. Your mom is going to be upset about that broken lamp.
6. It’s not difficult to grow a tree as long as you give it plenty of water.
7. I can’t believe you let your dog stick his head out the window while you drive.
Plural Noun Examples
The following sentences contain plural noun examples.

1. The boys were throwing baseballs back and forth between bases.
2. Our horses are much happier wearing lightweight English saddles.
3. Those cats never seem to tire of chasing one another in and out of those boxes.
4. You stole my ideas and didn’t give me any credit.
5. Our moms are going to be upset that we stayed out all night going to parties.
6. It’s not too difficult to grow trees as long as you provide them with plenty of water.
7. I can’t believe you allow your dogs to climb all over the seats while you are driving.

Singular – Plural Nouns Exercises

Transform each of the following words into plurals:

1. Day
2. Tax
3. Taxi
4. Lady
5. Mountain

Answers 1-5:

1. Days
2. Taxes
3. Taxis
4. Ladies
5. Mountains

Choose the correct plural for each of the words that follows:

1. Choice
a. Choices b. Choices c. Choiceies
2. Box
a.Boxs b. Boxies c. Boxes
3. Thief
a.Thiefies a. Thiefs c. Thieves
4. Army
a.Armys b. Armies c. Army
5. Owl
a.Owls b. Owlies c. Owelds

Answers:
1. –a
2. –c
3. –c
4. –b
5. –a

Choose the best word to fit into each of the following sentences:

1. The men sharpened their _____________ before throwing them at the targets.
A – knife B – knifes C – knives
2. Please eat the rest of your _____________.
A – pease B – Peas C – Peies
3. I’d like you to stop leaving your ________________ on the floor.
A – Socks B – Sockses C – Sox
4. We saw a lot of _________________ at the park.
A – Deers B – Deeries C – Deer
5. This recipe calls for a lot of _____________.
A – Tomatos B – Tomatoes C – Tomaties

Answers:
1. –C
2. –B
3. –A
4. –C
5. –B

What are gerunds?

Although the term might sound foreign, the gerund is a common part of speech that
most of us use every day, whether we know it or not. Here, we’ll take an in-depth look at
gerunds and provide you with several examples of gerunds so you’ll feel comfortable
using them in your writing, and so that you will be able to recognize them when you see
them.

Gerunds: The Basics

Gerunds are words that are formed with verbs but act as nouns. They’re very easy to
spot, since every gerund is a verb with ing tacked to its tail. There are no exceptions to
this rule.

Like all things grammar, gerunds do take a tiny bit of detective work to spot. The
problem here is that present participles also end with the letters ing. Besides being able
to spot gerunds, you should be able to tell the difference between a gerund and a
present participle.

Let’s go back to the definition of a gerund for a moment. Remember that gerunds are
words that are formed with verbs but act as nouns. Present participles do not act as
nouns. Instead, they act as modifiers or complete progressive verbs. To find gerunds in
sentences, just look for a verb + ing that is used as a noun. It’s that simple.

Examples of Gerunds
As you read these examples of gerunds, notice the verbs they contain, and notice that
every single one of them ends in ing. By the end of this quick lesson, you’ll have no
problem recognizing gerunds when you see them.

1. Swimming in the ocean has been Sharon’s passion since she was five years old.
2. Let’s go dancing at the club tonight.
3. I delayed telling Jerry the bad news.
4. Holly decided that flying above the clouds was the most incredible experience she’d
ever had.
5. Bill avoided doing his math assignment because the World Series was on.
Compound Nouns
What are compound nouns? Here, we’ll take an up-close look at compound nouns so
you can recognize them when you see them, plus we’ll provide you with some
compound noun examples that will help you use them effectively.

What is a Compound Noun

Compound nouns are words for people, animals, places, things, or ideas, made up of
two or more words. Most compound nouns are made with nouns that have been
modified by adjectives or other nouns.

In many compound nouns, the first word describes or modifies the second word, giving
us insight into what kind of thing an item is, or providing us with clues about the item’s
purpose. The second word usually identifies the item.

Compound nouns are sometimes one word, like toothpaste, haircut, or bedroom. These
are often referred to as closed or solid compound nouns.

Sometimes compound nouns are connected with a hyphen: dry-cleaning, daughter-in-

law, and well-being are some examples of hyphenated compound nouns.

Sometimes compound nouns appear as two separate words: full moon, Christmas tree,
and swimming pool are some examples of compound nouns that are formed with two
separate words. These are often referred to as open or spaced compound nouns.

Compound Noun Examples

The more you read and write, the more compound noun examples you’ll encounter. The
following sentences are just a few examples of compound nouns. Compound noun
examples have been italicized for easy identification.

Compound nouns can be made with two nouns:

Let’s just wait at this bus stop.

I love watching fireflies on warm summer nights.

While you’re at the store, please pick up some toothpaste, a six-pack of ginger ale, and
some egg rolls.
Compound nouns can be made with an adjective and a noun:

Let’s watch the full moon come up over the mountain.

Please erase the blackboard for me.

Compound nouns can be made with a verb and a noun:

Be sure to add bleach to the washing machine.

Let’s be sure to stay somewhere with a swimming pool.

Compound nouns can be made with a noun and a verb:

He always gets up before sunrise.

I really could use an updated hairstyle.

Compound nouns can be made with a verb and a preposition:

Checkout is at noon.

Please remember to schedule your dog’s annual check-up.

Compound nouns can be made with a noun and a prepositional phrase:

My mother-in-law is the kindest person I know.

Compound nouns can be made with a preposition and a noun:

Do you believe in past lives?

This city is vibrant, so it’s hard to believe it has a thriving criminal underworld.

Compound nouns can be made with a noun and an adjective:

We need a truckful of mulch for the garden.

Compound Nouns Exercises

Choose the word that makes each of these nouns into a compound noun.

1. Fund __________ (A – driver, B – seat, C – raiser)

2. News __________ (A– paper, B – story, C – travels)
3. Sun ____________ (A– day, B – glasses, C – heat)
4. Child ___________ (A – hood, B – ren, C – play)
5. Door ___________ (A– frame, B – handle, C – way)

Answer Key: 1 – C, 2 – A, 3 – B, 4 – A, 5 – C

Fill in the blanks to complete each compound noun, or with the one-word compound
noun that fits best.

6. Prevent a heart _________ by eating properly and getting enough exercise. (A –

stroke, B –attack, C – murmur)
7. Do you prefer peppermint or cinnamon flavored _____________? (A– cookies, B –
toothpaste, C – applesauce)
8. The full ___________ looked enormous as it rose over the horizon. (A – moon, B –
sun, C –sunset)
9. I’m going to the barber for a _____________. (A – trim, B – new style, C – haircut)
10. They’re digging a new swimming ____________ in the park. (A – suit, B – pool, C –
game)
11. I’d love to learn to pilot an ____________(A–boat, B – airplane, C – submarine)
12. One reason donuts are fattening is that they’re fried in cooking _____. (A – oil, B –
sugar, C –pans)
13. Sherrie is upset because she lost an ______________. (A – input, B – earring, C –
friendship)
14. We put a ____________ in the garden to chase birds away.(A – runway, B –
sunshade, C –scarecrow)
15. 15.I’ve got to pick up a package at the post ___________. (A – man, B – office, C –
book)

Answer Key: 6 – B, 7 – B, 8 – A, 9 – C, 10 – B, 11 – B, 12 – A, 13 – B, 14 – C, 15 – B

Collective Nouns
Collective nouns are names for a collection or a number of people or things. Words like
group, herd, and array are collective noun examples. Here, we’ll take a closer look at
collective nouns, and provide even more examples, placing them in context so you can
gain a greater understanding of how they work.

What is a Collective Noun

You might not know it, but you encounter collective nouns in everyday speech.
Collective nouns are words for single things that are made up of more than one person,
animal, place, thing, or idea. You can’t have a team without individual members; even
so, we discuss a team as a single entity.

Collective Noun Examples

Remember that nouns are words naming people, animals, places, and things. Collective
nouns are in a class all their own. Once you’ve read these examples, you’ll find it much
easier to recognize collective nouns when you see them.

 Our class took a field trip to the natural history museum.

 The herd of bison ran across the prairie, leaving a massive dust cloud in its wake.
 We waited anxiously for the jury to come to a verdict.
 This year’s basketball team includes three players who are over six feet tall.
 Napoleon’s army was finally defeated at Waterloo.
 The town council has approved plans to create a new park.
 He comes from a huge family: he’s the oldest of eleven kids.
 The rock group has been on tour for months.
 Everyone in the audience applauded loudly when Elvis appeared on stage.

List of Common Collective Nouns

This list of common collective nouns contains words that describe groups of animals,
people, or things. These words are sometimes interchangeable, and English writers and
speakers often use them to describe different things. For example, the word swarm is
usually used to discuss a group of insects such as ants, flies or bees, but many writers
use it to talk about a very busy crowd of people. Once you are familiar with these words,
you’ll notice that they are used in a variety of situations.

 Herd– A group of herbivore animals

 Pack– A group of canine animals such as wolves or dogs; also used to describe
playing cards and packages containing multiple objects
 Flock– A group of birds; also used to discuss small hooved animals such as sheep
or goats
 Swarm– A group of insects
 Shoal– A group of fish
 Group – A very general term used to describe people, places, things, and animals
 Crowd – Usually used to describe a group of people
 Gang – Usually used to describe a group of criminals; also used to describe a group
of workers, particularly sailors or dock workers
 Mob – Normally used to describe an angry or unruly group of people; also used to
describe a group of kangaroos
 Staff – A group of people who work in the same place
 Crew – Usually used to denote a group of workers; also used to describe aircraft
and ships personnel
 Choir – A large, organized group of singers
 Orchestra – A large, organized group of instrumentalists, led by a conductor
 Panel – A group of experts
 Board – A group of people, usually professionals, who take on an advisory role
 Troupe – A group of actors or acrobats; also used to describe a group of monkeys
 Bunch – Usually a group of smallish objects such as grapes, flowers, keys, or
bananas
 Pile – An untidy collection of items such as rubbish
 Heap – A mounded collection of items; used interchangeably with “pile”
 Set – A tidy group of matched objects such as dishes; also used to describe rules or
a social group of people
 Stack – A group of items neatly laid one on top of another; i.e., a stack of books
 Series – Used to discuss movies, books, or events that follow one after another, i.e.
Star Trek or Harry Potter
 Shower – Usually used to describe rain, although it can be used to describe gifts or
compliments
 Fall – Often used to discuss weather, such as rain, snow or hail

What happens if you can’t decide whether a collective

noun is singular or plural?
You can use different words to compose your sentence to be sure there is no
agreement error. For example, you can insert the word “members” after a collective
noun or use a different word such as “players” instead of “team” or “zebras” instead of
“herd” or “students” instead of “class.” Reread what you have written to be sure it
sounds natural, and give yourself some time to practice. Soon enough you’ll be able to
use plural verbs without worrying whether you have made mistakes.

How to Use Collective Nouns

People who are new to writing often encounter some trouble with sentence agreement
when using collective nouns. This is understandable, because a collective noun can be
singular or plural, depending on a sentence’s context. How do you know if a collective
noun is singular? How can you tell if it’s plural? What pronouns and verbs are best for
pairing with the collective noun you’ve chosen?

Here’s a simple trick you can use to decide how to use collective nouns in sentences:
Imagine a herd of zebras grazing peacefully on the savanna. Suddenly, a lion jumps out
of a clump of tall grass. What do the zebras do? They run away as a single unit as they
attempt to make a getaway, galloping across the savanna in the same direction.

Often, people behave in the same way, engaging in a single activity in unison with
everyone else in their group. When individuals are in a team, a choir, a committee, or
part of any other collective noun, that noun is singular and is paired with singular
pronouns and singular verbs. As you read the examples that follow, notice that each
individual who is part of the collective noun is doing the same action at the same time
as others who are part of that collective noun.

 Every morning, the herd follows its leader to the watering hole for a drink.

→ Herd is a singular collective noun. Follows is a singular verb, and the word its is a
singular pronoun. All the animals in the herd arrive at the watering hole at the same
time.

 Today, Ms. Kennedy’s class takes its SOL test.

→ Class is a singular collective noun. Takes is a singular verb, and the word its is a
singular pronoun. All the students in Ms. Kennedy’s class are taking the same test at
the same time.

 The committee agrees that people are misusing their cell phones, so its verdict is
that phones must not be used during working hours.

→ Committee is a singular collective noun. Agrees is a singular verb, and the word
its is a singular pronoun. All the members of the committee are thinking alike.

Now imagine three teenagers in the living room. Are they all doing the same thing at
once? Not likely! One is watching TV intently. Another is reading a book and listening to
music. The third has one eye on the TV and the other on his computer. There is a single
group of teenagers, but the members of the group are doing different things.

Members of collective nouns can act the same way, as individuals doing their own thing.
When members of a collective noun act as individuals, that collective noun is plural and
must be paired with plural pronouns and plural verbs. As you read the following
examples, you’ll notice that members of the collective noun are not functioning in
unison.

 After eight hours sitting in the stuffy courtroom, the jury stretch, look at their
watches, and head to their cars for the commute home.

→ Jury is a plural collective noun in this instance. Stretch, look, and head are plural
verbs, and their is a plural pronoun. The members of the jury are stretching and
looking at their individual watches before they head to different cars to go to their
own homes.

 After taking a test, the class start their papers on Shakespeare’s sonnets.

→ Class is a plural collective noun in this instance. Start is a plural verb, and their is
a plural pronoun. Although the students are in the same class, they are beginning
their own papers on different sonnets written by Shakespeare.

Collective Noun Exercises

Each of these sentences contains a collective noun. Select the correct answer from the
options that follow the sentence:

1. Keys, marbles, and rubber bands were just a few of the things in the pile of objects
in his drawer.
A – marbles, B – things, C – pile
2. The boys decided to join the navy after graduation.
A – boys, B – navy, C – graduation
3. After the performance, all the actors joined hands and bowed toward the audience.
A – performance, B – actors, C – audience
4. The team celebrated heartily after scoring a winning goal.
A – team, B – winning, C – goal
5. Most of the students on the council are also on the honor roll.
A – students, B – council, C, – honor roll
6. The boat’s crew worked all night to stop the leak.
A – boat’s, B – crew, C – leak
7. The talent show featured several individual performers, along with three bands.
A – show, B – performers, C – bands
8. Our extended family includes great-grandparents and second cousins.
A – family, B – great-grandparents, C – cousins
9. All of the students are attending a school assembly on Friday.
A – students, B – school, C – assembly
10. The senate will be voting on three education funding bills tomorrow.
A – senate, B – bills, C – tomorrow
11. The teachers and administrators held a meeting in the faculty office.
A – teachers, B – administrators, C – faculty
12. The sheep clustered in a tight flock to ward off the cold weather.
A – sheep, B – flock, C – weather

Answer key: 1 – C, 2 – B, 3 – C, 4 – A, 5 – B, 6 – B, 7 – C, 8 – A, 9 – C, 10 – A, 11
– C, 12 –B

Abstract Nouns
What are abstract nouns? You probably can recall that nouns are words that name
people, animals, places, things, and ideas. Here, we’ll define abstract nouns, provide
abstract noun examples, and give you the information you need for using an abstract
noun to write interesting sentences.

What are Abstract Nouns

Abstract nouns are words that name things that are not concrete. Your five physical
senses cannot detect an abstract noun – you can’t see it, smell it, taste it, hear it, or
touch it. In essence, an abstract noun is a quality, a concept, an idea, or maybe even an
event.

Abstract nouns and concrete nouns are usually defined in terms of one another.
Something that is abstract exists only in the mind, while something that is concrete can
be interacted with in a physical way. Qualities, relationships, theories, conditions, and
states of being are some examples of the types of things abstract nouns define.

Types of Abstract Nouns

It’s not always easy to determine if a noun is abstract or concrete. Many grammar
experts argue over whether certain terms, making things even worse. The line
separating abstract nouns from concrete nouns is often quite blurry. For example, many
abstract noun lists include the word laughter, but others leave it out, as it’s something
that can be heard, seen, and physically felt.

Abstract Noun Examples

The following lists contain different types of abstract nouns. Certain abstract nouns,
especially the ones describing feelings and emotions, easily fit into multiple categories,
as they can be used in different ways. Get to know them, and it’ll be easier for you to
spot an abstract noun when you see one.

Feelings States Emotions Qualities Concepts Ideas Events

Adventur
Anxiety Being Anger Beauty Charity SBeliefs
e
SCommunicatio
Confusion Chaos Despair Beauty Comfort Birthday
n
Fear Freedom Happiness Brilliance Culture Curiosity Career
Childhoo
Pain Liberty Hate Courage Deceit Democracy
d
Indifferenc
Pleasure Luxury Dedication Energy Friendship Death
e
Satisfactio Determinatio
Misery Joy Failure Interest Future
n n
Nervousnes
Sensitivity Grief Generosity Faith Knowledge Holiday
s
Stress Openness Love Honesty Motivation Thought Life
Sympathy Peace Sadness Patience Opportunity Sacrifice Marriage
Perseveranc
Warmth Pessimism Sorrow Trust Wisdom Past
e

More Examples
Although you may not realize it, you experience abstract nouns every day and in many
different types of situations. Once you’ve read these abstract noun examples, you’ll
probably find it very easy to come up with some abstract nouns of your own.

• Love, fear, anger, joy, excitement, and other emotions are abstract nouns.

• Courage, bravery, cowardice, and other such states are abstract nouns.

• Desire, creativity, uncertainty, and other innate feelings are abstract nouns.

These are just a few examples of non-concrete words that are sensed. The following
sentences contain abstract noun examples which have been italicized for easy
identification. Notice that although the ideas expressed are real, they are things you
can’t see, touch, taste, smell, or hear.

• I want to see justice served.

• I’d like the freedom to travel all over the world.

• Joe felt a nagging sense of doom.

• Love is a kind of irresistible desire; it’s hard to define.

• When Sarah jumped into the lake to rescue a drowning cat, her bravery astonished
onlookers.

Abstract Nouns Exercises

Many abstract nouns are formed from adjectives, though some are formed from verbs
or nouns. You’ll find one of these words in parenthesis at the end of each sentence. Use
it to form an abstract noun to fill in the blank.

1. _______________ is something almost everyone appreciates. (kind)

2. The wrestlers exhibited immense ___________________. (strong)
3. As the sun dipped below the horizon, _______________ came over the city. (dark)
4. It is my _______________ to welcome the mayor. (please)
5. Our ________________ will last forever. (friend)

Answer Key: 1 – Peace 2 – Pilgrimage 3 – Scarcity 4 – Power 5 – Tact

Gerunds and Infinitives
What’s the difference between gerunds and infinitives? Here, we take a closer look at
how these elements differ from one another. Gerund and infinitive rules are reviewed,
so you can recognize both and use them effectively.

Gerund and Infinitive: What’s the Difference?

Knowing the difference between gerund and infinitive can save you from making costly
grammar mistakes when writing. In a nutshell, a word formed from a verb acting as a
noun and ending in ing is a gerund. Infinitive phrases – normally referred to as infinitives
– are formed with the word to in front of a verb. Both gerunds and infinitives can be
subjects in sentences, and both gerunds and infinitives can serve as the object of a
verb.

Now that you know how these two elements can work in similar ways, it’s time to note
an important difference in the gerund/infinitive equation: A gerund can be the object of a
preposition; an infinitive cannot.

Gerund & Infinitive Examples

Examples of gerunds
Gerunds are formed with the letters “ing”. For example:

• Thinking

• Acting

• Walking

• Talking

• Fishing

• Caring

• Writing

• Listening
Examples of infinitives
Infinitives are prefaced with the word “to”. For example:

• To think

• To act

• To walk

• To talk

• To fish

• To care

• To write

• To listen

Both Gerunds and Infinitives can act as the subject of a sentence:

Thinking is something that comes naturally.

To think is something that comes naturally.

You can use a gerund or an infinitive as the object of a verb:

I like fishing.

I like to fish.

Only a gerund can be the object of a preposition. An infinitive cannot:

We are thinking about walking in the woods.

Gerund & Infinitive Usage

At first glance, it may seem difficult to know when to use an infinitive and when to use a
gerund. You will find the following guidelines for gerund/infinitive usage helpful.
Gerunds
Gerunds are best for use in sentences about actions that are real or complete, or that
have been completed.

• I stopped worrying about the future.

In this example, the worrying was real and it happened until I stopped.

• We really enjoy climbing mountains.

In this example, the climbing is real and it’s something we like to do.

Infinitives
Infinitives are best for use in sentences about actions that are unreal or abstract, or that
will occur in the future.

• I’d like you to think about something.

In this example, I’m asking you to think about something, but the thinking hasn’t
happened yet.

• Can we take a walk without you stopping to smoke?

In this example, we’re talking about taking a walk and the smoking hasn’t happened yet.

Verbs
What is a verb?
A verb is one of the main parts of a sentence or question in English.
In fact, you can’t have a sentence or a question without a verb! That’s how important
these “action” parts of speech are.
The verb signals an action, an occurrence, or a state of being. Whether mental,
physical, or mechanical, verbs always express activity.

Physical Verbs – Definition and Examples

Physical verbs are action verbs. They describe specific physical actions. If you can
create a motion with your body or use a tool to complete an action, the word you use to
describe it is most likely a physical verb.

Physical Verb Examples

The physical verb examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy
identification.

 Let’s run to the corner and back.

 I hear the train coming.
 Call me when you’re finished with class.

Mental Verbs – Definition and Examples

Mental verbs have meanings that are related to concepts such as discovering,
understanding, thinking, or planning. In general, a mental verb refers to a cognitive
state.

Mental Verb Examples

The mental verb examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.

 I know the answer.

 She recognized me from across the room.
 Do you believe everything people tell you?

States of Being Verbs – Definition and Examples

Also known as linking verbs, state of being verbs describe conditions or situations that
exist. State of being verbs are inactive since no action is being performed. These verbs
are usually complemented by adjectives.

States of Being Verb Examples

The state of being verbs in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.

 I am a student.
 We are circus performers.
 Please is quiet.

Types of Verbs
How many types of verbs are there? In addition to the main categories of physical
verbs, mental verbs, and state of being verbs, there are several other types of verbs. In
fact, there are more than ten different types of verbs that are grouped by function.

List of all Verb Types

Action Verbs

Action verbs express specific actions, and are used any time you want to show action or
discuss someone doing something.

Transitive Verbs

Transitive verbs are action verbs that always express doable activities. These verbs
always have direct objects, meaning someone or something receives the action of the
verb.

Intransitive Verbs

Intransitive verbs are action verbs that always express doable activities. No direct object
follows an intransitive verb.

Auxiliary Verbs

Auxiliary verbs are also known as helping verbs, and are used together with a main verb
to show the verb’s tense or to form a question or negative.

Stative Verbs

Stative verbs can be recognized because they express a state rather than an action.
They typically relate to thoughts, emotions, relationships, senses, states of being, and
measurements.

Modal Verbs
Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that are used to express abilities, possibilities,
permissions, and obligations.

Phrasal Verbs

Phrasal verbs aren’t single words; instead, they are combinations of words that are
used together to take on a different meaning to that of the original verb.

Irregular Verbs

Irregular verbs are those that don’t take on the regular spelling patterns of past simple
and past participle verbs.

Action Verbs
Action Verbs are verbs that express action. Ex: run, walk, do, drive.

I’ll do my homework when I get home.

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

Most action verbs are defined as transitive or intransitive. This means that some are
used with a direct object (the person or thing that receives the action of the subject) and
others don’t need a direct object. Some verbs can be both transitive and intransitive
depending on their meaning.

1. Transitive Verb – Joe will send the price quote as soon as he can.
2. Intransitive Verb – Many of the students are not well. They coughed throughout the
lesson.

Transitive Verbs
Transitive verbs always receive a direct object:
1. Richard annoys his boss so much that he’ll never get a promotion.
(His boss is the direct object of annoys and a promotion is the direct object of get)
2. Jenna brings Mrs. Smith lunch every day.
(Mrs. Smith is the direct object of brings. Jenna is the subject.

Here’s a list of some common transitive verbs that must be followed by a direct object:

 bring
 send
 owe
 contain
 buy
 show
 take
 tell
 verify
 check
 get
 wash
 finalize
 annoy
 lay
 lend
 offer
 edit
 make
 phone

Intransitive Verbs
Intransitive verbs do not need a direct object in order to complete their meaning. Many
are followed by an adjective, adverb, preposition or verb complement (gerund or
infinitive).

Here is a list of common intransitive verbs:

 come
 explode
 laugh
 sit
 rise
 excel
 respond
 run
 cough
 swim
 emigrate
 smile
 act
 cry
 immigrate
 lie
 arrive
 continue
 die
 go

1. If Cathy continues to be late for work, the boss will fire her.
(Continues is followed by an infinitive (to be), with no direct object.)
2. The bomb exploded in the city center.
(Exploded is followed by a preposition of place with no direct object.)

Many verbs can be both transitive and intransitive depending on their meanings.

Examples
1. Jamie set the documents down on the CEO’s desk.
(Transitive: The documents are the direct object to the verb: set.)
2. The sun set low over the Pacific Ocean.
(Intransitive: Low is an adverb. Set doesn’t need a direct object.)
3. Ms. Tyson manages the accounting department.
(Transitive: The accounting department is the direct object to the verb: manage.)
4. John has had difficulty managing since his wife’s death.
(Intransitive: Since is a preposition of time. Managing doesn’t need a direct object)

Note: Transitive and intransitive verbs can appear in any tense.

Here is a list of several verbs that can be both transitive and intransitive depending on
their meanings:

 set
 leave
 give
 study
 sit
 grow
 smell
 dance
 sing
 write
 teach
 burn
 eat
 paint
 drive
 manage
 stop
 climb
 run
 check
 cost
 go
 pay
 improve

Exercises – Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

Decide whether the following verbs are transitive, intransitive or both:

1. The workmen have been painting for hours.

2. When they call from the charity, Mrs. Alpert always gives generously.
3. Before you send the proposal, make sure you edit it carefully.
4. That perfume smells nice.
5. My new car cost me a small fortune.
6. Jim owed his landlord $450.
7. Pete emigrated from Australia in 1998.
8. The customer was tired of waiting, so he got up and left.
9. Are you sure you want to paint the ceiling too?
10. Please take the documents over to Mrs. Samuels’ office.

Answers:

1. intransitive
2. intransitive
3. transitive
4. intransitive
5. transitive
6. transitive
7. intransitive
8. intransitive
9. transitive
10. transitive

Auxiliary (or Helping) Verbs

Auxiliary (or Helping) verbs are used together with a main verb to show the verb’s tense
or to form a negative or question. The most common auxiliary verbs are have, be, and
do.

1. Does Sam write all his own reports?

2. The secretaries haven’t written all the letters yet.
3. Terry is writing an e-mail to a client at the moment.

Auxiliary verbs, also known as helping verbs, add functional or grammatical meaning to
the clauses in which they appear. They perform their functions in several different ways:

 By expressing tense ( providing a time reference, i.e. past, present, or future)

 Grammatical aspect (expresses how verb relates to the flow of time)
 Modality (quantifies verbs)
 Voice (describes the relationship between the action expressed by the verb and the
participants identified by the verb’s subject, object, etc.)
 Adds emphasis to a sentence

Auxiliary verbs almost always appear together with a main verb, and though there are
only a few of them, they are among the most frequently occurring verbs in the English
language.

How to Identify an Auxiliary Verb

You probably know that every sentence has at least one verb in it. There are two main
types of verbs. Action verbs are used to depict activities that are doable, and linking
verbs are used to describe conditions. Both action verbs and linking verbs can
accompany auxiliary verbs including the three main ones: do, be, and have.

Sometimes actions or conditions occur only one time and then they’re over. It’s at times
like these that some of the same verbs that are used as auxiliary verbs are instead used
as action or linking verbs. In this example, we see the word “is”. This is one of the most
common auxiliary verbs, but because it stands alone here, it is not functioning as an
auxiliary verb.

Jerry slammed the car door on his thumb. He is in horrible pain.

“Is” is a linking verb in this sentence. Because it stands alone, it is not an auxiliary verb.

At other times, an action or condition is ongoing, happening predictably, or occurring in

relationship to another event or set of events. In these cases, single-word verbs like is
are not accurately capable of describing what happened, so phrases that include
auxiliary verbs are used instead. These can be made up of anywhere from two to four
words.

A main verb, also known as a base verb, indicates the kind of action or condition taking
place. An auxiliary or helping verb accompanies the main verb and conveys other
nuances that help the reader gain specific insight into the event that is taking place.

Read the following sentences and explanations to gain greater insight into how auxiliary
verbs work.

1. Jerry caught his thumb in the car door as coffee spilled from his cup onto his
favorite shirt.
2. Jerry is always spilling things.
3. Since Jerry is also accident prone, he should have been drinking coffee from a
mug with a lid, which would not have spilled on his favorite shirt.

In sentence one, caught and spilled, single-word verbs, describe quick, one-time
actions of both Jerry and his messy coffee. This sentence does not contain an auxiliary
verb.

Since Jerry often has unfortunate accidents, is spilling communicates the frequency of
his clumsy actions in sentence two. In sentence three, the auxiliary verbs that make up
should have been drinking and would have stained express time relationships as
well as an evaluation of Jerry’s actions.
Three Common Auxiliary Verbs
There are just three common auxiliary verbs:

 Have
 Do
 Be

In this section, we’ll take a closer look at how these common verbs work, plus you’ll see
some examples.

Have
“Have” is a very important verb that can stand alone in all its tenses, including has,
have, having, had, and hadn’t or had not. It is usually used to denote ownership, and
it can also be used to discuss ability or describe appearance. “Have” is also a very
popular substitute for the verbs “eat” and “drink.” For example: “Let’s have dinner.”

When used as an auxiliary verb, have is always teamed up with another verb to create
a complete verb phrase, making it easy to differentiate between uses. You can see the
difference in the sentences below:

 Jerry has a large coffee stain on his shirt. → Has = action verb
 Jerry has bought a new shirt to replace the one that was ruined earlier. → Has =
auxiliary verb; bought is a past participle that competes the verb phrase.
 Jerry should have been more careful! → Have = auxiliary verb; phrase “should
have been” expresses time and evaluates Jerry’s actions.

Do
“Do” can be used as an action verb that stands alone in all its tenses, including to do,
do, does, done, did and didn’t, doesn’t or did not .

When used as an auxiliary verb, do is always paired up with another verb to create a
complete verb phrase. In some cases, it is used to add emphasis: “I did put the garbage
out!” Do is often used to form questions and negated clauses. It is also used in elliptical
sentences, where the main verb is understood and is omitted as a result. For example:
“He plays piano well, doesn’t he?” or “They all had dinner, but I didn’t.”
 Because he spills things so often, Jerry does more laundry than most people. 
Does = action verb
 Jerry didn’t put his coffee in a cup with a lid.  Didn’t = auxiliary verb
 Jerry doesn’t always spill things, but it happens a lot.  Doesn’t = auxiliary verb

Be
“Be” or “to be” is an important verb that has a multitude of uses in English. It can be
used as an action verb that stands alone in all its tenses including be, to be, been, am,
are, is, was, were, wasn’t, was not aren’t, are not, weren’t and were not.

When used as an auxiliary verb, be is always paired with another verb to create a
complete verb phrase. It can be singular or plural, present or past. Negative sentences
are formed by adding the word “not”.

 Jerry is messy.  Is = action verb

 Although he is always complaining about his accidents, Jerry fails to pay attention. 
is = auxiliary verb
 Jerry is going to be doing extra laundry for the rest of his life.  to be = auxiliary verb

Modal Auxiliary Verbs

In addition to the three main auxiliary verbs, have, do, and be, there are additional
auxiliary verbs. These are called modal auxiliary verbs, and they never change form. A
complete list of modal auxiliary verbs follows:

 Can
 Could
 May
 Might
 Must
 Ought to
 Shall
 Should
 Will
 Would

Auxiliary Verb Examples

Here are some examples of auxiliary verbs and verb phrases. In the examples below,
the verb phrase is italicized and the auxiliary verb is in bold.

1. Jessica is taking John to the airport.

2. If he doesn’t arrive on time, he’ll have to take a later flight.
3. Unfortunately, our dinner has been eaten by the dog.
4. I have purchased a new pair of shoes to replace the ones that were lost in my
luggage.
5. We hope you don’t have an accident on your way to school.
6. She was baking a pie for dessert.
7. Dad has been working hard all day.
8. The bed was made as soon as I got up.
9. Sarah doesn’t ski or roller skate.
10. Did Matthew bring coffee?

Auxiliary Verb Exercises

Fill in the blank with the correct auxiliary verb from the choices presented:

1. What ________________ the kids doing when you last saw them? (was, were, are,
did, been)
2. Carla ________________ always wanted to try skydiving. (was, doesn’t, has, is,
have)
3. Where __________________ you go on your summer vacation? (were, been, are,
did, does)
4. Why do you think she __________ call you like she said she would? (didn’t, is,
hasn’t, has been, have)
5. Mary _____________ going to be upset when she hears what happened. (will, don’t,
is, didn’t, has)
6. Jeremy _____________ want to go to the movies; he wants to stay home instead.
(doesn’t, isn’t, wasn’t, hasn’t, was not)
7. I _________________ appreciate his jokes. They weren’t funny. (did, have, been,
didn’t, haven’t)
8. I really like fish but I _______________ care for meat. (weren’t, been, don’t, is, was)
9. Where _____________ you going when I saw you last night? (were, was, is, do, did)
10. Tara ________________ called yet; she’s late as usual. (are, were, has, hasn’t,
wouldn’t)

Answers: 1 – were, 2 – has, 3 – did, 4 – didn’t, 5 – is, 6 – doesn’t, 7 – didn’t, 8 –

don’t, 9 – were, 10 – hasn’t
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