HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

Elizabeth’s Nemesis
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OF

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OFTheSMUGGLING
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 C NTENTS ISSUE 134

ALL ABOUT…
12
Key Events
History of computers

Inside History
14
The NASA project Gemini computer room

Anatomy
16
A Bletchley Park codebreaker

Historical Treasures
17
A Kenbak-1

Hall Of Fame
18
Pioneers of computing

Q&A
20
John Croucher discusses women in computing
12
Places To Explore
22
Computer museums around the world

FEATURES
26 Gods of Egypt
How the deities influenced life in this ancient civilisation

36 What’s in a Name?
20 strange royal nicknames and where they came from

40 Golden Age of Smuggling

When the coasts of Britain were awash with loot

46 Visions of the Future

How many of these past predictions have come true?

52 Elizabeth’s Nemesis
Discover Bess of Hardwick’s feud with the Tudor queen

58
58 History of Blindness
Selina Mills discusses changing attitudes to visual impairment

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26

OF
Discover how ancient Egyptians explained the mysteries of the world
 Defining
Moments

6
 9 September 1956
ELVIS ON TV
At the age of 21, Elvis Presley
made his first appearance
on America’s popular variety
TV programme The Ed
Sullivan Show. 60 million
viewers tuned in to watch
his performance. Ed Sullivan
had previously not wanted
Presley on the show due to
his risqué performances, but
eventually signed him for
three appearances after he
had proved popular on other
shows. In his third appearance
on the show, Presley was only
shown from the waist up in
order to censor his famous
© Alamy

gyrating hips.

7
 Defining
Moments

22 September 1994
FRIENDS FIRST AIRED
One of the most successful
and loved TV series of all
time, Friends made its debut
on NBC in September 1994.
The sitcom followed the lives
of six 20-somethings living
in New York City and was
created by David Crane and
Marta Kauffman. Launching the
careers of stars like Jennifer
Aniston and Matt LeBlanc, the
pilot episode was watched by
around 22 million people. The
show continued to run for ten
series and became a global
sensation. It has been credited
with helping people from all
over the world learn how to
© Alamy

speak English.

8
9
EXPLORE THE WORLD’S STRANGEST
PLACES, PEOPLE AND EVENTS
From incomprehensible undersea objects to inexplicable disappearances,
earth mysteries to ESP and state-sponsored precognition, discover some of
the weirdest events, people and experiments the world has ever seen.

ON SALE
NOW

Ordering is easy. Go online at:

Or get it from selected supermarkets & newsagents

 Discover how our modern technological age was gradually
formed from the earliest computing tools to AI

14 16 18 20
Main image: © Getty Images

INSIDE THE NASA PROJECT ANATOMY OF A BLETCHLEY PIONEERS WOMEN IN

GEMINI COMPUTER ROOM PARK CODEBREAKER OF COMPUTING COMPUTING
Written by Callum McKelvie, Jonathan Gordon, Jackson van Uden
11
 Key Events The storage
capacity of the
Analytical Engine
was larger than any
computer built
before 1960.

1821 DIFFERENCE ENGINE

Frustrated by the inaccuracy
of printed calculation tables used in 1936 THE TURING MACHINE
mathematics, statistics and more, Charles Alan Turing lays out his idea for a computing
Babbage conceives of a mechanical device capable of being programmed for any
calculating engine that would be infallible. mathematical problem. The intention is to be able to
This develops into the bigger concept of a tackle mathematics’ most complex or undecidable
general purpose Analytical Engine in 1834. problems. This hypothetical machine inspires the
Neither is actually built in his time. computing designs that follow.

THE ANTIKYTHERA THE FIRST PROGRAM 1843 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYZER

MECHANISM c.100 BCE Translating a paper on Charles 1931
Babbage’s work by Luigi Menabrea, Electrical engineer Vannevar Bush and
Designed to display details of
Ada Lovelace includes extensive colleagues at the Massachusetts Institute
astronomical phenomena through
notes on how to program the of Technology (MIT) create a machine
a series of gears, this ancient Greek
Analytical Engine, writing the first for solving differential equations called
device is thought to be the earliest
computer program. the Differential Analyzer.
known example of a basic ‘computer’.

1821 1936 1943

A WORD IS BORN 1613 SPEED AND EFFICIENCY 1890 LOST TO WAR 1941
Author and poet Richard With the previous census having The first automatic computer,
Braithwaite uses the word taken seven years to collate, the US running on telephone relays and
computer in his book The Yong government turns to Herman Hollerith’s controlled by programs, is revealed
Mans Gleanings. This is the electronic tabulator. He completes the in Berlin by Konrad Zuse. It is
first recorded use of the word, tabulation before the end of the year, destroyed during Allied bombing
describing a mathematician. saving taxpayers $5 million. in 1943.

1969 NETWORKED COMMUNICATION

1943 THE COLOSSUS The Advanced Research Projects Agency
Considered to be the Network (ARPANET) is developed by the US
first semi-programmable digital Department of Defence for cross-departmental
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images, © Shutterstock

computer in the world, the collaboration and

Mark I Colossus is delivered communication.
to Bletchley Park to assist in Its cross-national
cracking the German Lorenz network of
By the end of
cipher. Unlike Enigma, Lorenz computers is a
WWII the Colossus
was used to encrypt much longer machines had precursor for
messages discussing longer-term helped to decrypt 63 the worldwide
million characters of internet to come.
plans and intentions. high-level German
communications.

12
 COMPUTERS
1990 THE INTERNET
While working at the
European Organization for
Nuclear Research (CERN),
British scientist Tim Berners-
Lee develops the concept for
an automated information-
sharing system. Working
with systems engineer Robert
Cailliau, they lay out the basis
for the World Wide Web, the
beginning of the internet.

The original
intent of
Berners-Lee’s work
was to facilitate
communication
between scientific
laboratories.

BUSINESS MACHINE 1954 NEW INTERFACE 1968 MICROSOFT BEGINS

The new IBM 650 Magnetic American inventor Douglas 1975
Drum Calculator is released for Engelbart presents his prototype Childhood friends Paul Allen
accounting and computation, for a modern computer, featuring and Bill Gates begin translating
becoming the most popular a mouse and graphical user BASIC for the kit computer
computer of the 1950s, selling interface, at the Fall Joint Computer Altair, and start their own
around 2,000 units. Conference in San Francisco. company, Microsoft.

1969 1977 1985 1990

NEW LANGUAGE 1959 GAMING CONSOLE 1972 CHECKMATE 1997

The COBOL (Common Business- Ralph Baer releases the Magnavox IBM’s Deep Blue computer
Oriented Language) is developed by Odyssey, the first home gaming defeats Russian grandmaster
a team including Rear Admiral Grace console. The machine uses Garry Kasparov at chess in 37
Hopper, based on her own design, cartridges so that games can moves. This is the first computer
to create a common programming be swapped out and dial-based win against a world champion
language for computers. control devices. under tournament rules.

APPLE COMPUTERS 1985 OPENING

1977 WINDOWS
The Apple II is presented
by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak The first GUI from
at the West Coast Computer Faire, Microsoft is built on top
beginning a boom in personal of MS-DOS, the computer
computer (PC) sales. They follow interface that Microsoft
it up in 1983 with the Apple had pioneered for personal
Lisa, one of the first PCs computers. It makes
to have a graphical user Despite specific use of mouse
the influential controls, which is still not
interface (GUI), including design innovations
features like drop-down of the Apple a universal feature of PCs
menus and icons. Lisa, it was not a at the time, and features a
commercial game called Reversi.
success.

13
 Inside History
MISSILE DEFENCE
NASA was not the only government agency to see

NASA PROJECT GEMINI

the potential of the 7094 and they were also used
by the United States Air Force for missile defence.
According to FedTech magazine, these replaced the
earlier 7090 models and were used as part of the
Ballistic Missile Early Warning System. Created

COMPUTER ROOM
during the ongoing tensions of the Cold War, it was
designed to detect enemy missiles. They remained
part of the Early Warning System until the 1980s.

Goddard,
Washington REEL TO REEL TAPE MACHINE
Previously computer data would be stored on punch
cards that were then inputted into the machine. Later
1965-1966 paper tape was used, but during the 1960s magnetic
tapes quickly replaced both these methods. The
tapes allowed for far more data storage and they were
easier to handle and store than punch cards.

F ollowing Project Mercury, Project Gemini

was NASA’s second series of manned
spaceflight missions and took place
between 1965 and 1966. They bridged the gap
between the Mercury missions and the more
technically elaborate Apollo moon missions.
The goals for the Gemini missions were more
complex than their predecessors. One was
to attempt the first rendezvous between two
spacecraft. Another was to create a capsule that
could change the orbit it was in as, previously,
the Mercury capsules could only change direction
and not the orbits themselves. As a result, Gemini
would be the first mission to use onboard flight
computers with ground computers needed
to update these. According to NASA’s History
Division, the computing power required for Project
Gemini resulted in “one of the largest computer
programs in history.”
Previously, for the Mercury project NASA had
used a number of IBM 7090 computers, but for
Gemini something more powerful was needed.
IBM introduced the 7094 in 1962, making several
improvements upon the earlier 7090. For the
time, the 7094 was exceptionally powerful
and, according to IBM, could complete 500,000
logical decisions, 250,000 additions, 100,000
multiplications or 62,500 divisions all in a single
second. The NASA computer system for the
CLIMATE CONTROL DATA CHANNEL
The installation at Goddard
Gemini missions was not housed at the Kennedy would have had its own air AND CONTROLLER
The data channels of the 7094
Space Center but instead at the Space Flight Center conditioning system, keeping
the 7094 cool. According to were described by the United
at Goddard just outside Washington. States National Information
historian Paul E Ceruzzi, to
According to Paul E Ceruzzi in his work, A allow greater air circulation, the Center as small-purpose
History Of Modern Computing: “It is regarded as machines would also be raised computers and allowed
the classic mainframe because of its combination off the floor. This provided direct interface with the core
handy space for the huge processor. The controller
of architecture, performance and financial success: allowed a human operator to
masses of cables to be kept out
hundreds of machines were installed at a price of of the way. He also states that interact with the data channel,
around $2 million each.” The 7094 was not just the installations were highly although some sources state
used by NASA for space flight operations but also secure, as it was the machines that these devices were not
themselves rather than the used that often.
by the US Air Force in missile defence. A 7090
software that could be subject to
is shown serving in a similar capacity in Stanley
sabotage or theft.
Kubrick’s 1964 film, Dr Strangelove.

14
 COMPUTERS
COST EFFECTIVE LARGE CORE STORAGE
According to one of NASA’s own
According to NASA’s History Division, histories of the Gemini space
due to the excessive costs of the Gemini programme, IBM were aware of the
project, NASA informed potential bidders
that they must only use ready-made
immense requirements of the 7094 SURPLUS TO REQUIREMENTS
and quickly realised that the usual According to NASA’s History Division, as
equipment. IBM suggested three of their amount of memory would not be preparations for the Apollo moon missions
7094 machines, which had been released sufficient. As such, they added Large began, the 7094 was quickly deemed to lack the
in 1962: one would run mission control Core Storage banks that allowed tapes required computing power. As such the more
software, the other simulate it, and the to be loaded and then transferred to powerful IBM 360 was introduced instead,
third would run simulation software the primary core as and when they having been designed primarily as a competitor
purely to test the prior two. Unfortunately, were required. for CDC’s 6600. However, one 7094 remained
three machines were not sufficient and in operation as it was required to run flight
two more were added. planning software that had not been placed
onto the new machines.

IBM 711
The punched card reader
was used to transfer the
information from punch
cards onto the IBM computer
itself. According to IBM’s
own archive site, the device
contained two brushes that
I’M SORRY DAVE, I’M ‘read’ the holes on the cards

AFRAID I CAN’T DO THAT

Stanley Kubrick’s connection to IBM’s
and inputted this information
into the computer. Although
it was withdrawn in 1956,
7090 and 7094 computers does not end
the 7090 and 7094 still
with Dr Strangelove. In fact, the most
used this model of reader.
terrifying AI ever put to screen was
However, punched cards
inspired by a 7094 computer. When
were mostly used only for the
visiting a friend, the renowned science
fiction author Arthur C Clarke was PUNCH CARDS initial loading of software as
magnetic tape was faster.
shown a tape of an IBM 7094 singing Punch cards were paper cards with a series
of holes in them. The holes represented
Illustration by: Adrian Mann

Daisy Bell. This inspired the malevolent

computer HAL in his novel 2001: A Space either information to be inputted into
Odyssey, which was adapted by Kubrick the computer or instructions for various
into the film of the same name. tasks. The punch card reader would read
the series of holes and convert this into
information to input into the computer.

15
 Anatomy WHAT WAS COLOSSUS?
The Colossus was created to crack the Lorenz code. This

BLETCHLEY PARK
remarkable machine was also the world’s first electrical
computer. It was the creation of Thomas Flowers
who then supervised the construction of the second,
superior model, the Colossus Mark II – shown here. The
Lorenz code was important as it was used by Hitler to

CODE BREAKER
communicate with his generals.

United Kingdom
1943-1945

WREN
According to Bletchley Park, 75 per cent of its
staff were women, with six out of ten being
in uniform. The majority of the uniformed
codebreakers were in the Women’s Royal
Naval Service, known as Wrens. Few of the
female codebreakers were older than 24 and
six worked on the Colossus computer.

VACUUM TUBES
TOP SECRET The invention of the transistor
Due to the highly secretive in 1947 revolutionised
nature of the Bletchley not only the electronics
Park codebreaking industry but also developing
operations, the Colossus computers. Prior to this,
nearly missed out on its machines such as the
title of the first electronic Colossus used vacuum tubes.
computer. Built in Developed by John Ambrose
1945, ENIAC was often Fleming in 1904, they were
considered the first. glass tubes that allowed for
Eventually all information controlled electron flow. Also
regarding Colossus was known as valves, there were
declassified in 2003. some 1,700 tubes in each
Colossus machine.

THE BEDSTEAD
This device read paper
A TRUE ‘COLOSSUS’ tape that was used
Shown here is just a small portion of the to input data into the
Colossus and it would have occupied an entire machine, and was
room at Bletchley Park. The machine was constructed out of a
separated into ‘racks’ of equipment going
left to right and described by Tony Sale (who
metal frame on which
a series of tape pulleys
D-DAY
were then placed. One of the key victories scored
rebuilt a Colossus between 1993 and 2008) as
According to the Crypto by the Colossus machine was
being 90 inches high and varying in width.
Museum, the tape could in providing the knowledge
be read at the speed of to the Allies that deception
5,000 characters per operations, suggesting the
second. The wheels D-Day landings would occur at
were important because Calais rather than Normandy,
the tape tension had to had worked. The messages
be controlled, in case it deciphered by Colossus
ripped apart. revealed a complete lack of
Illustration by: Kevin McGivern

preparedness by the Germany

army for an Allied invasion.
Inset: © Getty Images

16
 COMPUTERS
Historical Treasures

KENBAK-1
Widely considered to be the world’s first personal computer!
USA, 1971

D esigned and built in 1971 by John

Blankenbaker in his garage, the
Kenbak-1 is considered to be the
world’s first personal computer. Blankenbaker
only ever built 50 Kenbak-1s, of which only 14
instead. Inside the Kenbak-1 there was also a
state machine that initiated internal steps of
loading and executing, which controlled 29
states, as well as an Arithmetic Unit and Serial
Adder that helped process answers. All of this
a private girls’ school in Hawaii. However, the
Kenbak-1 was expensive, it cost $750 ($5,500
in 2022) which turned off potential private
buyers, and despite Blankenbaker marketing
the computer well, many schools decided
are known today. The Kenbak-1 was created amounted to the Kenbak-1 being able to execute to continue using terminal time-shares to
and marketed as a fun personal computer for 480 instructions per second. The Kenbak-1 also teach computer languages. In 1973, after
people to learn about computer concepts and had 256 bytes of memory, a far cry from the slowing sales and realising he had chosen
how to program machine code. It had eight hundreds of gigabytes we carry in our pockets the wrong marketing strategy, Blankenbaker
input switches with eight output lights and was today, but a difficult feat in the 1970s. Having eventually closed Kenbak Corporation down
reportedly easy to program due to the rich and this much memory was achieved by using two and sold everything to CTI Educational. CTI
easy-to-follow instructions that were included Intel 1024-bit-shift registers, and it operated at a then upped the price to $1,035 and rebranded
with the computer. speed of one megahertz (MHz). the Kenbak-1 as the CTI Model 5050 Trainer,
The Kenbak-1 was designed and built before Due to it being designed as a fun education and after struggling to make sales CTI went
the first microprocessors, so it used a system tool, the Kenbak-1 was sold mainly to schools bankrupt leaving the Kenbak-1 to the annals of
of 131 small-scale integration (SSI) logic chips and colleges, with the first two being sold to computing history.

BINARY CODE
LIGHTS The white buttons on the left CONTROL BUTTONS
The lights on the left would were for adding binary code, or The buttons on the right were
light up as numbers were numbers. You would have to add used to control the Kenbak-1,
inputted into the code, the numbers together on the committing code to memory,
and the lights on the right white buttons to get the number clearing the memory, and
indicated that a command had that you wanted for a program. starting programs. The switch at
been inputted. the far end of the panel turned it
on and off.

TENS AND HUNDREDS

The black buttons on the far left of the Kenbak-1
© Getty Images

were used to add tens and hundreds to the numbers

you were inputting on the white buttons. The
maximum number you could program was 377.

17
 Hall of Fame

PIONEERS OF COMPUTING
The men and women whose invention and
innovation helped to shape the modern world

TIM BERNERS-LEE
ENGLISH, 1955 – PRESENT Alan Turing
Born to parents already working in computing, Berners-Lee
took to the industry quickly, writing software after graduating
English, 1912 – 1954
university in 1976 before joining CERN as a software
A number of important
engineering consultant in 1980. While there he developed Turing
milestones in computing
hypertext for containing links between files he was working also worked
can be attributed to on the concept of
on. Returning to CERN in 1984 he developed the concept of a
Alan Turing. While artificial intelligence,

KONRAD ZUSE
global hypertext document system using HyperText Markup
war records had been developing the
Language (HTML) and a Uniform Resource Locator (URL), the
kept secret for some Turing Test to judge
building blocks of the web.
time, he is now best a machine’s GERMAN, 1910 – 1995
abilities. If not for having developed his ideas
remembered for his
contribution to the Bletchley in Germany during WWII, Zuse
Park code-breaking efforts during might well have been a much more
WWII. His mathematical insight helped famous name in the world today.
to design the cipher machines needed to He developed the Z3 in 1941, the
break the German encryption first functional program-controlled
of classified intelligence. computer. However, it wasn’t widely
Prior to this, Turing had adopted and was destroyed in a
conceived of the Turing bombing raid in 1943. Zuse founded
machine, a theoretical his own computer business and
computer, which he built the Z4, beaten to market
later developed into the only by the UNIVAC I in 1951 as a
Automatic Computing commercial computer.
Engine from 1945. The

DOUGLAS ENGELBART
design was deemed
too complex to
attempt, but lit
the way for future
AMERICAN, 1925 – 2013
Two of the most important
innovations.
innovations for how we use
computers today are the graphical
user interface (GUI) and mouse used
to interact with it, and we have

Along with
Charles Babbage Engelbart, in part, to thank for both.
In 1963 he received partial funding
his computing English, 1791 – 1871 for his research into computer
inventions, Babbage interfaces and in 1968 he presented
A mathematical visionary, Babbage was self-taught
also created the a collaborative computer system
locomotive in algebra and influenced by the mathematics being
using mouse and keyboard. The
cowcatcher. discussed on the continent. Following university he
presentation
became a fellow of the Royal Society in 1816 and helped
of the work of
found the Astronomical Society in 1820, from which his
the Stanford
interest in mechanical calculation began. He invented
Research
the Difference Engine for making mathematical tables in
Institute (SRI)
1821 and then the Analytical Engine for more complex
also included
mathematical equations, storing up to 1,000 50-digit
editing shared
numbers. Technology of the time couldn’t build a lasting
documents.
Difference Engine and the Analytical Engine wasn’t
It became
completed, but they set the template for computer
known as ‘the
technology to come.
mother of all
demos’.

18
 COMPUTERS

ADELE GOLDBERG
AMERICAN, 1945 – PRESENT
Grace Hopper
Helping to further advance the way we American,
interact with computers, Goldberg’s work
with Xerox PARC (Palo Alto Research
1906 – 1992
Center) resulted in Smalltalk-80, which
You might not imagine someone
led to a graphical user interface (GUI)
could be made a rear admiral in the
that included many things we take for
US Navy as a mathematician, but
granted today. This included windows,
that’s exactly what Grace Hopper
icons, menus and a pointer for selecting
achieved. She joined the Navy as a
them. Smalltalk-80 was demonstrated
reservist while teaching at Vassar
to Steve Jobs in 1979 and is believed to
College in 1943 and was called
have inspired the user interface later
up for duty, working on the Mark
Apple computers employed.
I from 1944, the first large-scale
automatic calculator. From here
she began her trailblazing journey
in computer languages. One of her
key contributions was in creating Hopper was
the first compiler that translated originally rejected
by the War Office as
mathematical code into machine
a reservist due to
binary, the first steps to a universal being too short.
language for writing programs.

Steve Wozniak Ada Lovelace

American, English, 1815 – 1852
“The Analytical Engine weaves algebraic patterns
1950 – Present Since 2009,
just as the Jacquard loom weaves flowers and leaves,”
the second
Tuesday in October wrote Lovelace in 1843. She met Babbage in 1833 and
Known affectionately around the world
is Ada Lovelace Day, came to translate a paper on his Analytical Engine by
by tech aficionados as ‘Woz’, Steve
celebrating women Italian engineer Luigi Menabrea in which she praised
Wozniak was the co-founder of Apple in STEM. his creation. It was in the notes to this translation
Computer with Steve Jobs in 1976. The
that Lovelace wrote the first ever example of a
pair had been members of a homebrew
program for such a device, making it the first
computer club and having had his
computer program ever written. But, as
design for a new microcomputer
her quote above suggests, she saw the
rejected by his employer Hewlett-
broader creative possibilities of such
Packard, Wozniak teamed up with
technology as well as how it would be
Jobs to sell it themselves as a kit
limited by our own knowledge.
computer. It was so successful that
they subsequently designed the Apple
II, released in 1977, which became one

JOHN VINCENT
of the very first successful personal
computers for the mass market.

ATANASOFF
Computing was now accessible
to all like never before.
AMERICAN, 1903 – 1995
In 1973, Atanasoff saw his
Atanasoff-Berry Computer,
developed between 1937 and 1942
with his graduate student Clifford
Berry, successfully recognised in
court as the first electronic digital
computer. Atanasoff’s work had
begun when he found current
analog machines for calculation
too limited for his differential
All images: © Getty Images

equation work. The device he

created could hold data through
capacitors and used logic circuits
for performing basic functions.

19
 Q&A

WOMEN IN
COMPUTING
From Ada Lovelace to the codebreakers of WWII, John
Croucher discusses the role of women in computing
What are some of the earliest than simply perform basic operations. women, including those termed ‘human
examples of women in computing? John Croucher is a Her name is honoured in the Lovelace computers’, doing manual calculations of
Professor of Actuarial
Have they been there since the Studies and Business
Medal, awarded since 1998 by the British things such as firing tables for guns and
beginning? Analytics at Macquarie Computer Society, and since 2008 in an ballistic missile trajectories. This was
Even in what might be viewed as the Business School, annual competition for women students. typified by the amazing code-breakers
beginnings of computing, women are Sydney. His books Ada Lovelace is now widely regarded at Bletchley Park, a British government
include Mistress Of
involved. One of the earliest was Nicole- as being the world’s first computer cryptological establishment. Two of
Science: The Story Of
Reine Étable de la Brière (1723-1788), born The Remarkable Janet programmer and her method as the first those involved were Mavis Batey and
in France, an expert in astronomy and Taylor, Pioneer Of Sea computer program. Ann Mitchell.
advanced mathematics. For her amazing Navigation (2016) and The ENIAC was the first all-electronic
achievements, the asteroid 7720 Lepaute Women Of Science: Why, historically, was computing a programmable computer, and in 1945
100 Inspirational Lives
and the lunar crater Lepaute are named (2018).
field open to women as opposed to six outstanding women – Jean Bartik,
in her honour. Ada Lovelace (1815-1852) other fields of science? Marlyn Meltzer, Ruth Teitelbaum, Betty
was the first person to see the enormous During World War II, women comprised Holberton, Frances Spence, and Kay
potential of Charles Babbage’s device, the vast majority of computer Antonelli – revolutionised computer
sensing that his Analytical Engine had programmers in the US and UK. The programming. Their efforts helped lead
the capacity to be programmed rather war opened up the field for a number of the world into the computer age in the
Headshot photo courtesy of: John Croucher

20
 COMPUTERS

IT GIRLS
IS OUT 15 SEPTEMBER
FROM AMBERLEY
PUBLISHING

ABOVE 1970s and early 1980s and, in the mid- computing, autonomous systems by the Institute of Electrical and
Computer scientist Joy
80s, about 40 per cent of computer technology, and intelligent weapons Electronics Engineers (IEEE).
Buolamwini researches
the social implications science graduates were women. technology. Conway’s other contributions The extraordinary Grace Hopper
of AI technology to the development of computing became one of the first programmers
In IT Girls you show that historically included the invention of dimensionless, in computing history, believing that
computing could be an incredibly scalable design rules that greatly programming languages should be
diverse field. How important is simplified chip design and design tools. as easily understood as English.
diversity to computing history? Consequently, she was highly influential
In the evolution of computing diversity is Are there any women featured in on the development of one of the
very important. These pioneering women the book whose stories you find first programming languages, COBOL
come from many different countries and particularly inspiring? (COmmon Business-Oriented Language),
a variety of backgrounds. One example Among the many outstanding women which became one of the most
is the Austro-Hungarian actress Hedy who could be singled out, there are widespread languages in business.
Lamarr, who was not only renowned several who come to mind. One is Erna
for her contributions to the motion Hoover whose revolutionary switching IT Girls: Pioneer Women In
picture industry, but was posthumously system was the first reliable device to Computing is a comprehensive guide
inducted into the National Inventors Hall use a computer, including transistor to many of these figures. What led
of Fame, for her pioneering work in the circuits and memory-stored control. you to write it?
field of wireless technology. She reportedly developed the initial In 2016, I published, along with my
Kateryna Yushchenko became the design while she was in hospital around wife Rosalind, a biography of one of my
first woman in the USSR to become a the birth of her second child. ancestors, Janet Taylor, who lived during
Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Other inspiring women include Mary the 19th century. It was called Mistress
Sciences in programming and, in 1965, Lou Jepsen, who founded Openwater, Of Science: The Story Of The Remarkable
Catholic Sister Mary Keller was the first a startup company that explored MRI- Janet Taylor. The publisher, Amberley in
woman in the US to be awarded a PhD in type body imaging using holographic the UK, then asked me to write a book
computer science. Ghanaian-American- and infrared techniques. Another is the with the brief biographies of 100 women
Canadian Joy Buolamwini has conducted consultant engineer Radia Perlman, who who had contributed to important
outstanding research into AI inaccuracies developed a child-friendly version of scientific discoveries. This volume,
in face recognition while Israeli- the educational robotics language LOGO Women Of Science: 100 Inspirational
American Shafi Goldwasser won the that she named TORTIS (Toddler’s Own Lives, was published in 2018, and was
equivalent of a Nobel in the computing Recursive Turtle Interpreter System). so successful that I was then asked by
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images

FAR-LEFT
French astronomer and
world, the AM Turing Award from the She also devised a network protocol the same publisher to author a similar
mathematician Nicole- Association for Computing Machinery. so that bridges within the LAN book, this time named IT Girls. These
Reine Lepaute Trans woman Lynn Conway was a key communicated with one another, the three works highlight the outstanding
LEFT architect of the US Defense Department’s algorithm allowing the bridges to achievements of women in all branches
Computer operators
programming the Strategic Computing Initiative, a research designate one root bridge in the network. of science and computing, spanning
groundbreaking ENIAC program studying high-performance The protocol was standardised as 802.1d several centuries and multiple countries.

21
 Places to Explore

COMPUTER MUSEUMS
Delve deeper into the history of 4
calculation, robotics and the internet
1 COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM
MOUNTAIN VIEW, CALIFORNIA, USA
What came to be known as Silicon Valley in Northern 3 5
California was one of the places where the computer
2
revolution first took root, and now that journey is
chronicled in the Computer History Museum. Located
1
just northwest of central San Jose, the museum charts
the earliest incarnations and development of the
computer right up to the modern age with the latest
innovations demonstrated. Here you’ll find examples
of early technology, code books, business plans and
various home computers from over the decades. They
also chronicle the history of Silicon Valley itself and
why so many businesses flocked to Northern California.
The CHM features interactive exhibitions and insight
that should make it accessible to people of all ages, but

© Getty Images
it also functions as a location for important talks and
demonstrations for industry luminaries. If you have
an interest in both the past and future of computing,

AMERICAN COMPUTER
this museum right in the heart of the industry is an
excellent place to visit. 2
Open Weds to Sun, 10am to 5pm. $19.50 general admission. & ROBOTICS MUSEUM
Exhibits include
classic examples
BOZEMAN, MONTANA, USA One of the permanent
exhibitions from the museum
of technology

While it may not have the square footage

of other museums around the world, the
American Computer & Robotics museum
can boast a number of impressive
qualifications that make it the equal of
many. For a start, it’s been operating
continuously since 1990, which actually
makes it the longest running computer
museum in the world. It also has exhibits
that chart 4,000 years of human history,
from cuneiform tablets all the way up
to quantum computers and artificial
intelligence. Founded by George Keremedjiev who started collecting artefacts
and wanted a location to share them, the modern museum features examples of
old technology, but also plenty of sci-fi items as well.
As it happens, only about six per cent of the overall collection is believed to
be on display at any given time as the museum keeps an extensive archive of
technology for preservation purposes. Some key highlights include a replica
of the Gutenberg printing press and an Apollo 1 computer. They also include
exhibits celebrating important people in the history of computing. This relatively
unassuming little museum near Montana State University has even been called
“Inch for inch, the best museum in the world” by a Harvard scientist.

The Computer History Open Tuesday to Sunday from 10am to 4pm. $10 adult admission.
Museum is located right in
the heart of Silicon Valley

22
Former Wrens
attending a talk
COMPUTERS
on the Colossus
computer

5 HEINZ NIXDORF
MUSEUMSFORUM
The museum is located
PADERBORN, GERMANY
where codebreakers
worked during WWII The collection of over 2,000 objects on
display at this museum began with one
man, Heinz Nixdorf. Born in Paderborn,
he began working in computers in the
early 1950s and started his own company
in 1952 in his hometown. Computers of
his own design followed in the 1960s
with Nixdorf Computer AG becoming a
market leader in Germany and making
Paderborn a technology centre for the

3 THE NATIONAL MUSEUM OF COMPUTING country. In 1977, marking 25 years of the

company, he was gifted some historic

BLETCHLEY PARK, MILTON KEYNES, UK computer devices and the idea for a
museum began to sprout.
Opened in 1996, the Heinz Nixdorf
Museumsforum (HNF) today claims to
It’s a special kind of museum that can tell the the largest collections of working historical
be the largest computer museum in the
story of a historical event right in the place computers in the world. There are examples of
world. Building on those original items,
where it happened, and that’s what you get at first-generation computers from the 1950s, the
it now has artefacts dating back to the
the National Museum of Computing. Located in room-sized computers that powered innovation
earliest use of numbers and letters in
Bletchley Park’s Block H, which was built in 1944 through the 1960s, all the way up to the
Mesopotamia up to recent innovations in
to house six Colossus codebreaking computers, software and internet age. The pre-technology

All images: © Getty Images, © Shutterstock

information technology. Its mission is to
it was pivotal in Allied codebreaking operations age isn’t ignored either as there’s also exhibits
promote the industry and to that end the
during WWII. Visitors to the site can take a look on the tools used by human computers to
HNF complex also holds symposiums.
at these incredible machines and attend two- make accurate calculations before the digital
hour guided tours of the exhibits for further age was in full swing. As a historic location that
Open Tuesday to Friday from 9am to
insight into their operations and impact on the also offers in-depth analysis of the history of
6pm, and Saturday to Sunday from
history of computing. computing, the National Museum of Computing
10am to 6pm.
But that’s not the only thing that the museum is an ideal spot to check out.
has to offer. While it’s located at Bletchley Park, it
A ball-style mouse
doesn’t contain itself to that topic. The National Open from 10:30am to 5pm, dates vary.
being held by its
Museum of Computing actually holds one of £10 adult admission. creator, Rainer
Mallebrein, at HNF

Jeju Island, where the museum is

located, is accessible by plane or ferry 4 NEXON COMPUTER MUSEUM
JEJU-DO, SOUTH KOREA
Opened in 2013 on Jeju Island, off the southwest coast of
South Korea, the Nexon Computer Museum displays the rich
history of computer technology as well as its major software
developments. Nexon is itself a videogame publisher, but the
museum is not dedicated to its own work in
this field. Instead it looks to highlight a wide
array of innovations in both home computing and videogames from around the
world. Included in its collections are items like the Apple I computer, the Engelbart
Mouse prototype and a copy of Pong. It’s estimated that there are around 400 pieces
of hardware on display and 2,000 examples of software, so it’s got plenty to share.
The museum has also undertaken a digital archiving project, hoping to preserve
examples of software and games that are no longer in production or compatible
with modern devices. One example is Nexon restoring an early version of one
of its own games, Nexus: The Kingdom Of The Winds from 1996. The museum is
also involved in educational programs for children and more advanced students
who might be interested in pursuing a career in information technology.
The spacious museum
offers exhibitions for
Open Tuesday to Sunday, 10am to 6pm. Roughly £5 adult admission. all ages

23
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 EXPERT BIO
GARRY J SHAW
Garry Shaw is the author of
Egyptian Mythology: A Traveller’s
© Garry Shaw

Guide From Aswan To Alexandria

and The Egyptian Myths: A Guide
To The Ancient Gods And Legends.
His latest book is The Story Of Tutankhamun: An
Intimate Life Of The Boy Who Became King.
Follow him on Twitter @GarryShawEgypt and
Instagram @garryjshaw

26
 OF

Discover how ancient Egyptians

explained the mysteries of the world
Written by Garry Shaw

he goddess Isis had poisoned the sun god Re. She

watched as various deities approached the ailing
divinity, each desperately trying to heal him, but
none could find a cure to his suffering. One second
the god was burning up. The next, he was freezing.
He shook. His heart was on fire. The situation was getting
desperate, but the gods had little information to go on.
All they knew was that he’d been bitten by a snake and
poisoned by its venom. Isis could help, but she held back
for now. After all, this poisoning was all part of her plan to
learn the sun god’s secret name, a key to his power, hidden
deep in his belly – and he wouldn’t give it up easily. Illustration by: Joe Cummings

27
 ABOVE Carnelian
scarab depicting the
revered goddess Isis
and her son Horus
LEFT Interior View
Of An Egyptian
Temple, by Jean-
François Thomas de
Thomon, 1803

Earlier that day, Isis had collected some there was no reason to prolong the god’s power, but it also provides comfort. From
of Re’s drool while he slept, and mixed it suffering. Using her magic, Isis cured our ultimate origins, to the reasons
with soil in the shape of a snake. Because Re. Pleased that his illness had lifted for the moon’s phases and the sun’s
all divine fluids had creative power – even – and apparently in a surprisingly destination at night, the ancient
Re’s drool – the creature burst into life. forgiving mood – the sun god told Egyptians asked questions about
She placed the snake on a path where Isis that she could pass his secret everything. Their explanations –
Re walked each day, and just as she’d name to her son, Horus. their answers to the universe’s
planned, when he strolled by, it bit him. This myth, known from big questions – are what we
The poison flooded through his body. various copies written in today regard as myths.
From that moment, Re had writhed in around 1200 BCE, serves as
pain. Eventually, the gods summoned Isis the introduction to a spell MYTHS OF CREATION
for help. As a goddess of magic, perhaps meant to relieve the suffering All civilisations develop
she could find a solution? She approached brought on by snake venom. It explanations for our origins – it’s
Re and immediately asked him for his was a guarantee of efficacy to the impossible to avoid pondering the
secret name – only this could save him, ancient reader: the spell had worked start of the universe or where we
she said. But the stubborn sun god refused for Isis in the mythological past, so it all came from. The ancient Egyptians
to answer truthfully. He told her many of would work again. But the myth also were no different, except in the sheer
his names, none his secret one. Only when had a wider significance – it explained variety of their conclusions. Because
the pain worsened, and no relief was in something. Thanks to Isis’ scheme, each province had its own major divinity,
sight, did Re finally relent. He whispered she gained access to the most powerful each at the centre of that region’s
his secret name to Isis, passing its power magic in the cosmos and the freedom mythology, there were many variations
into her body. Her plan had worked, so to pass it on to Horus. And because each on how creation occurred. In fact, there

“THANKS TO ISIS’ SCHEME,

pharaoh was an incarnation of Horus, this was no single explanation for most things
myth served to explain the king’s special in Egyptian religion; different, often

SHE GAINED ACCESS TO THE

position in society. contradictory, ideas existed simultaneously
Egyptian myths were often used in this without causing anyone headaches.

MOST POWERFUL MAGIC IN

way. They explained the mysteries and Take the priests of Hermopolis in
complexities of nature and society, and Middle Egypt for example. For them, the

THE COSMOS”
in doing so, brought a little more control Ogdoad were responsible for creation.
over the chaos all around us. Knowledge is These eight gods – four frog-headed

28
 Gods of Egypt

THE END OF THE WORLD

When the cosmos collapses, the
ingredients for a new beginning remain

According to the Book Of The Dead, at the end of time,

chaos will overturn balance in the cosmos. All that exists
will vanish, to be replaced by the infinite waters of Nun
– the universal flood that surrounds creation. Atum, the
oldest manifestation of the sun god, will decide when
this happens. Yet, even in this bleak time, when all life
is extinguished, hope remains. When creation has been
upturned, there will be two snakes in the endless ocean.
One will be Osiris, who represents the force of regeneration,
and the other will be Atum, a god that holds all physical
creation within himself. The ingredients for a new beginning
will continue to exist. To the ancient Egyptians, in chaos,
there was always the potential for order, and because time
was cyclical, the end of the world would eventually give way
to a new era, just as the sun always rises again at dawn.

males and four snake-headed females

– represented different aspects of the pre-
creation universe. In pairs, they embodied
darkness, the endless inert water, by gods cutting canals. At Memphis,
hiddenness, and infinity. At the beginning which stood just south of modern Cairo,
of time, they stood on a mound of earth Ptah was the ultimate creator. This god of
where a lotus grew, and there, watched craftsmen and the creative spark conceived
as the sun god emerged from its flower. of creation in his heart – the source of
Meanwhile, at Edfu in southern Egypt, thought in Egyptian belief, rather than the
things were a bit different. There, the god brain – and through his tongue, announced
Horus created all things, and Edfu’s temple all beings into creation.
stood on the first mound to emerge from The priests of Heliopolis, a city that
a destructive flood, brought under control now lies beneath Cairo, developed what

LEFT A statuette of the creator BELOW The pharaohs of RIGHT Bronze head
god Ptah, who is typically shown ancient Egypt were considered of the sun god Re,
tightly wrapped in a cloak and as divine mediators between a central deity in
wearing a skull cap the gods and men ancient Egypt
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images, © Met Museum

29
 THE SUN GOD’S
JOURNEY
Explaining the movement of the sun was is perhaps the best known of Egypt’s Some would go on to serve as the first
an important part of Egyptian mythology creation myths. In the beginning, the kings of Egypt.
universe was a still, dark, and endless
The sun god took different forms as he crossed the sky. He ocean, represented by the god Nun. Lost THE HEAVENLY COW
was Khepri when young in the morning, Re at his strongest within this ocean was a seed, the god After creation, the sun god Re reigned
at midday, and Atum when old in the evening. At night, Atum, who gained self-awareness. Atum as king of Egypt. When he became old,
he travelled through the afterlife realm, where he faced separated himself from the endless ocean, he heard that humans were planning an
challenges, but was re-energized in the middle of the night expanding like a bubble or balloon to uprising against him, so he summoned
thanks to the power of Osiris. He was then reborn as a create a space in the waters – the first land. an assembly of the gods to decide on a
baby at dawn, ready for the cycle to begin again. It is this Then, either through spitting, sneezing, or plan. Re felt that it was time to eradicate
nightly drama that is shown in the masturbating (depending on the variation his creation, but he was willing to hear
decoration of the royal tombs in of the myth), Atum created the gods Shu other opinions. No one disagreed. Nun
and Tefnut. He passed his ka – a form of
“RE WAS APPALLED TO
the Valley of the Kings.
Despite being a fundamental lifeforce – into their bodies and gave them
the breath of life, enabling them to be
LEARN THAT HUMANS HAD
part of Egyptian belief, this myth
could be adapted depending on active in the world.
Shu represented the atmosphere and
CREATED WEAPONS AND THE
local geography. The Faiyum Oasis,
for example, lies to the west of dryness, but the meaning of Tefnut
is harder to define – she may have
CONCEPT OF MURDER”
where the sun was traditionally
believed to set, so the explanation been moisture or the afterlife realm’s
for the sun god’s movements had to atmosphere, mirroring the role of Shu.
be changed. According to the Book Soon after, the two newborn gods went suggested that Re should dispatch his
Of The Faiyum, in the morning, the missing, so Atum sent his Sole Eye to find Eye in the form of the goddess Hathor –
sun god rose from the waters of them. The light that shone down from this usually a goddess of love, music, and sex
Lake Qarun, which dominates the manifestation of Atum’s power became the – to deal with the rebellious humans. The
oasis. He sailed across the sky and first sunrise. Atum could now be called gods thought that this was a good idea,
eventually set in the western side Re-Atum, representing the sun god at his so Hathor duly transformed into the Eye
of the lake. Upon entering the lake, most powerful and his oldest. Shu and and flew off towards the desert where the
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images

the god transformed into a crocodile Tefnut went on to become the parents of humans were hiding. When she found
and swam through its rejuvenating the earth god Geb and the sky goddess them, she slaughtered everybody, and fell
waters, becoming young again in time Nut. And in turn, these two deities gave into such a blood-thirsty rage that she
to board his day boat on the eastern birth to Osiris, Isis, Seth, and Nephthys. changed from the friendly Hathor into the
shore. The new day could now begin. Together, these nine divinities formed fearsome goddess Sekhmet. Meanwhile,
the Ennead, the first gods and goddesses. back in his palace, Re was having second

30
 Gods of Egypt

thoughts. If all humanity died, he’d be a Re had managed to undo the mistake
king without subjects, and that wouldn’t he’d made, but he still felt weary. He
be any fun at all. When Hathor-Sekhmet wanted to abdicate the throne, but as a
arrived at the palace to report on her god, his only option was to depart for the
mission, Re told her to stop killing people, sky. Despite having some second thoughts,
but she refused to listen and flew from the his resolve to leave was strengthened
audience hall to continue her rampage. when he learned that humans had created
In order to save what remained of weapons and the concept of murder.
humanity, Re sent his servants to gather Appalled, he asked the goddess Nut to
up red ochre and to brew vast quantities transform into a heavenly cow and carry
of beer. When it was all gathered and him into the sky. In doing so, the sun god
ready, they mixed the two ingredients separated himself from creation.
together, turning the beer red, and the Now sailing in the sky, across the
next morning, poured 7,000 jars of the underside of the infinite ocean, and
concoction into the fields where Hathor- onward, down beneath the horizon into
Sekhmet slept. When the goddess awoke, the afterlife realm, Re had begun the
she thought that she was wading in sequence of day and night. The god Thoth
blood. She drank the beer and became so manifested as the moon and served
drunk that she fell asleep, abandoning her the sun god as his wise vizier. Stars
mission to destroy humanity. To ensure and planets appeared in the night sky.
that this never happened again, Re issued The cosmos had taken its current and
a decree that beer should be brewed for final form. Re’s son Shu now assumed
all festivals dedicated to Hathor (thus the kingship in his place, until he too
explaining the drunkenness associated eventually departed for the sky, later to
with her celebrations). be followed by Geb. The kingship then

BELOW The goddess Isis was RIGHT The Pyramid Texts on the walls RIGHT-INSET Statue
usually shown in human form, of the Pyramid of Unas at Saqqara, built of a pharaoh holding an
though sometimes with the around 2300 BCE, contain the earliest offering for Maat, the
addition of protective wings known references to Osiris and Isis goddess of truth

31
 passed to Osiris, whose story is one of spread the body parts across Egypt. Again,
ancient Egypt’s most enduring myths. Isis set off on a quest, this time to rebuild
her husband’s corpse. She found every part
THE DEATH OF OSIRIS except for his phallus, which had been
As a god of regeneration and king of the eaten by a Nile fish and had to be replaced.
blessed dead, Osiris remained important The destruction and healing of Osiris’
throughout ancient Egyptian history. body is one of many myths that explain
Normally shown in art as a mummy the phases of the moon.
with either green or black skin, he holds This version of the Osiris myth was
a crook and flail in his hands, each a recorded by the Greek writer Plutarch in
symbol of kingship, and wears a bulbous the 2nd century CE, but traces of it can
crown with feathered plumes on his head. be found in the earliest known myths
When a person died, it was Osiris who of Osiris, inscribed on the walls of the
oversaw their judgement. From his throne, Pyramid of Unas at Saqqara over two
flanked by his sisters Isis and Nephthys, thousand years earlier. In these texts –
he watched as Anubis weighed the hearts which consist of a long list of spells meant
of the dead against the feather of maat, to help the dead king reach the afterlife
symbol of order, justice, and cosmic – Osiris’ death is not mentioned explicitly,
balance. If judged worthy, the person because describing such a chaotic event
entered the afterlife. If not, they were would invite danger into the king’s burial.
eaten by Ammit, a ferocious beast that was In one spell, we are told that Seth caused
part-crocodile, part-hippo, and part-lion or Osiris to fall on his side and that Geb
panther. But it hadn’t always been this way searched for his body. Others say that Seth
for Osiris. Originally, he’d been a beloved kicked Osiris, or that Osiris was hurled into
king on earth. ABOVE According BELOW God of the RIGHT Worshipped water. Isis and Nephthys then searched
to the Book Of The moon, Thoth, was at the city of
One day during his reign, Osiris for the god’s body and revived him with
Dead, Ammit, the usually portrayed as Bubastis, the
attended a party thrown by his brother devourer, ate those having a man’s body goddess Bastet was magic. There are also references to Osiris
who failed to pass with the head of typically shown in being dismembered, to Horus
“AMUN-RE’S PROMINENCE Osiris’ judgement an ibis the form of a cat
searching for his body parts, and
to a trial where Osiris was raised
REACHED EVEN GREATER from the underworld to give
testimony and in which Seth
HEIGHTS UNDER THE KINGS was sentenced to carry Osiris
for eternity. In later myths, Isis
OF THE 18TH DYNASTY” resurrects Osiris long enough
to conceive their son, Horus,
Seth. For a game, Seth had brought along who went on to avenge his
a spectacular, ornate chest, and told his father and take Egypt’s
guests that whoever fit exactly inside throne from Seth. Osiris,
could keep it. Everyone took a turn, but meanwhile, continued to
when Osiris lay down, Seth’s followers rule in the afterlife. From
leapt forward, nailed the chest shut, and then on, each pharaoh
hurled it into the Nile. Osiris drowned, and reigned as Horus in life,
the chest was carried by the current all the but became Osiris in
way to Byblos in Lebanon, where it washed death.
up on a beach and was enveloped by a
tree, perhaps thanks to Osiris’ regenerative KING OF THE GODS
powers. Soon after, while out walking on So far, the gods we’ve
the beach, the tree caught the eye of the encountered remained popular
Queen of Byblos. It will make a wonderful for thousands of years – from
column for my palace, she thought, and the beginning of ancient
had it cut down. Meanwhile, Isis left Egypt Egyptian history right through
in search of her husband’s body. She to the end. However, this wasn’t
tracked the chest to Byblos, where she met the case for all of them. The god
members of the queen’s entourage and Amun played very little role in
took a job at the palace. Each night, she the earliest religious writings
transformed into a bird and flew around from ancient Egypt. At Thebes
the pillar mourning her husband, until one
day, her powers were discovered. Knowing
RIGHT The gods Osiris (left),
that it was time to leave, she pulled the Anubis (centre), and Horus
chest from the tree and returned to Egypt. (right). Horus wears the
double crown of Upper and
But this was not the end. Seth found Lower Egypt, usually worn
Osiris’ corpse, tore him into pieces, and by pharaohs

32
 Gods of Egypt

(modern Luxor), an unimportant

town for the first thousand years
of Egyptian history, Amun was the
primary god, representing all that
was hidden in the cosmos, while
at Hermopolis, he was one of the
eight gods of pre-creation. There
was nothing to suggest that he
would ever become anything
more. This situation changed
with the start of the Middle
Kingdom, around 2000 BCE,
when Egypt’s new royal family
came from Thebes. Under their
rule, they expanded Amun’s
Theban temple and four of the
kings were called Amenemhat,
meaning ‘Amun to the Front’. This
royal backing rocketed Amun to the

WORSHIPPING
top of the pantheon, and people
across Egypt began to worship him.

EGYPT’S GODS AND

To help further, Amun was fused
with the sun god to become Amun-

GODDESSES
Re, a new all-powerful god that
represented all that was hidden and LEFT A statuette of the goddess
visible in the cosmos. Neith, who was creator of the sun
god in her mythology
Amun-Re’s prominence reached
The best way to deal with Egypt’s deities
even greater heights under the
kings of the 18th Dynasty (c. 1549- campaigns. Kings inscribed their was to keep them happy
1298 BCE), who also came from Thebes. successful deeds on the temple’s walls and
Amun-Re became king of the gods, and it erected celebratory stelae (inscribed stone According to the myths, Egypt’s deities existed along
was the duty of each pharaoh (some called slabs) in the grounds. Each expanded with humans, ghosts and demons in the same bubble of
Amenhotep, or ‘Amun is Content’) to lavish the god’s temple too, adding courtyards, creation that floats in the endless waters of Nun. Within
gifts on his temple, often from the spoils of shrines and columned halls, and made this bubble, they had jobs to do, and could help, hinder,
war brought back from empire-expanding it the focal point of important ritual or ignore people, depending on their mood. Humanity,
after all, was an accident, created from the tears of the
sun god when he cried, so they were of little importance
in the grand scheme of things. For humans, however, the
best approach to living among such powerful beings was
to keep them happy. To do this, they built temples that
served as earthly palaces for the gods.
In ancient Egypt, priests were known as “god’s servants”,
and there were different ranks and levels of purity required
to enter the most sacred areas of a temple. Only the
temple’s high priest and the king were allowed inside
the god’s sanctuary to make the offerings of food, drink,
incense, and clothing that the god inhabiting the divine
statue expected three times per day. These offerings were
accompanied by complex age-old rituals that had to be
performed correctly. The gods enjoyed order and balance –
for things to be done in the exact same manner that they’d
been done since the beginning of time – and any mistakes
could mean catastrophic consequences for the cosmos.
Ordinary Egyptians were not allowed inside these
temples (perhaps with the exception of the first courtyard
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images, © Met Museum

on special occasions). In fact, the closest that they could

get to the divine statues was during festivals, when the
statues were placed on portable boats, carried on the
shoulders of priests, and taken out of the temple on
procession. This gave people the chance to ask “yes” or
“no” questions to the gods, with their divine boats dipping
forwards or backwards in response.

33
 processions around Thebes. Yet despite
this new prominence, Amun-Re continued
to play little role in mythology beyond
being a creator. To the Theban priests, he
was now the god that created the Ogdoad,
making him older than the pre-creation
universe. He was hidden and unknowable,
behind everything, and existed beyond
even the gods’ understanding. According
to one hymn, if a person managed to
properly comprehend Amun-Re, they died
– a good reason not to think too deeply
about him.

RISING GODS
After his unexpected rise to the top
of the pantheon, Amun-Re dominated
Egyptian religion until the end of
ancient history. Nonetheless, during the
Third Intermediate Period (c. 1069-664
BCE), when Egypt became politically
fragmented, and following the country’s
reunification in the Late Period (664-
332 BCE), other gods and goddesses
gained prominence. This is because a
number of royal dynasties came from
different cities in quick succession, and
each dynasty raised their preferred deity
to a new height. Among them was the
city of Bubastis in Egypt’s Delta, which
was home to the 22nd Dynasty (c. 948-
715 BCE) and the cult centre of the cat
goddess Bastet. Consequently, it became
an important breeding ground for cats.
These were killed, mummified, and sold

TOP Pectoral jewel

from the tomb of
Tutankhamun,
depicting Ptah
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images

and Sekhmet

LEFT & ABOVE The

Temple of Isis at Philae
was built late in ancient
Egyptian history and
became a popular place
of pilgrimage

34
 Gods of Egypt

ABOVE The to pilgrims who, in turn, offered them protected the young sun god from Apophis suffered, just like many in these troubled
god Atum fights
the chaos snake to the goddess at her temple. Similar and fought the rebels that emerged from times. As Isis’ popularity grew, people
Apophis, nemesis practices happened elsewhere, with the one of the snake’s eyes. Once the battle built temples to her across Europe. One
of the sun god, in a mummified creature switched according was won, they held a grand celebration of stood in London, one in Mainz, another in
scene from the Book
Of Gates in the Tomb to the deity’s associated animal – dog or their victory at Sais. Pompeii. Wherever a devotee travelled or
of Ramesses I in the jackal mummies were offered to Anubis, settled, they could find like-minded Isis
Valley of the Kings
and crocodile mummies to Sobek. THE GODDESS ISIS worshippers, a ready-made community in
BELOW A statue The city of Sais, also in the Delta, Despite appearing frequently in spells, an increasingly cold world.
of Ramesses III,
flanked by the gods
was home to three of Egypt’s later royal hymns, and funerary scenes from around Because of Isis’ newfound fame, pilgrims
Horus (left) and Seth dynasties. The prime deity there was 2300 BCE onwards, in general, Isis was flocked to visit her temple at Philae in
(right). In mythology, Neith, a goddess of warfare, hunting, not treated with the same importance southern Egypt, which was primarily built
these two gods
fought for and weaving, who had a long as Osiris or Horus. She didn’t even have around 332-30 BCE, under the Ptolemaic
Egypt’s history but played a secondary Dynasty, who ruled the country after
crown role in most myths. The earliest
written reference to her comes
“BECAUSE OF ISIS’ Alexander’s invasion. But this new cult
of Isis differed from traditional Egyptian
from the Early Dynastic Period (c.
3150-2584 BCE), at the beginning
NEWFOUND FAME, PILGRIMS religion. Now, Isis was all powerful in
the pantheon. She invented writings
of Egyptian history, when her
name formed part of the names
FLOCKED TO VISIT HER and laws, and all goddesses were simply
manifestations of her power. According to
of queens, but her hieroglyphic
symbol is known from as far
TEMPLE AT PHILAE” inscriptions at Philae, she led the Ennead of
Heliopolis and was responsible for the Nile
back as the Predynastic Period, her own temples until the Late Period. flood – a role normally assigned to the god
before Egypt was unified under This all changed in the years following Hapy. She destroyed Egypt’s enemies, and
a single king. In a myth recorded the death of Alexander the Great in 323 defeated the chaos snake Apophis. Indeed,
on the walls of Neith’s temple BCE. The world he left behind became her cult was so popular that her temple
at Esna in southern Egypt, the destabilised. The future looked uncertain. at Philae was the last temple in Egypt
goddess was the first deity People moved great distances in search of to close, by order of the eastern Roman
to emerge from the waters of opportunities to improve their lives, and Emperor Justinian in around 537 CE.
Nun. She spoke everything into wherever they settled, hoped to find others Ultimately, then, Isis didn’t just take the
existence, from Egypt itself to all who shared their experiences and beliefs. sun god’s secret name, she replaced him,
divinities, including the sun god, As the years passed, merchants, soldiers, and went on to become the last of Egypt’s
who saw her as his mother. Re’s and travellers spread the word of Isis. deities – cosmic forces that had served to
nemesis, the chaos snake Apophis, Her mythology connected with ordinary explain the workings of our universe for
developed out of her spit. Neith people – she was a mother who had thousands of years.

35
 The Nun’s Lover
John V of Portugal, 1689 – 1750 The Elbow-High
Władysław I Łokietek, King Of
It might be fair to say that Poland, c.1260 – 1333
European royals of history are It should be fairly obvious
more notable when they didn’t where Władysław I, a
have a plethora of mistresses and celebrated king who managed
affairs, but few can claim to have to consolidate provinces into
such a distinctive preference in the single Polish nation, got
paramours to earn the nickname his name from… he was short.
the nun’s lover. So it was for John Or we thought he was. Recent
V who had a series of affairs research has put his height at
with nuns, one lasting around a 152-155cm (5’0”-5’1”). Legend
decade. It doesn’t seem as if he had claimed that he was a
was too fussy though as other diminutive 120cm (3’11”). As
affairs were also chronicled. it happens, the average male
height would have been about
165-167cm (5’5”-5’6”) at the time.
Instead some experts believe
it was intended as an insulting
name when he was a lowly
prince of limited influence.

The Unready
Æthelred II of England, c.968 – 1016
Some names are just a little easier to
mock than others and it turns out that
royals courts are often very similar to
children’s playgrounds when it comes
to cruel wordplay. So, when your name
means ‘noble counsel’ and your reign is
dogged by invasions and failures, you
The Bad Entertainer end up being called ‘Unraed’ meaning
bad counsel or ‘unready’. So it came to
Halfdan Olafsson, King of Uppsala,
Unknown – c.784 be that we got one of England’s most
As much as we would like to tell you that famous royal nicknames.
Halfdan got his name because he tried his
hand at stand-up comedy, the explanation The Cabbage
Ivaylo Of Bulgaria, Unknown – 1281
for his epithet is much simpler. While
known as a generous king in terms of pay Rising up as a rebel leader of peasant origins in Bulgaria,
Ivaylo’s story has taken on near-legendary status, achieving
Image source: wiki/Snorre Sturlaśon

for his men, he didn’t provide them with

enough food. So, he didn’t entertain them military victories against the mighty Byzantines and
well. Still, Halfdan fared much better Mongols from 1277. His success saw him proclaimed
when it came to a nickname than his emperor from 1278 to 1279. Due to his lowly origins, hee
father, known as Eystein Fart. Alas, the earned the name ‘Lakhanas’, meaning cabbage. He wass
reason for that appears lost to time. ultimately pushed out by nobles and beheaded in 1281.

36
 What’s in a name?

The The Slobberer

Do-Nothing
Louis V, c.966 – 987
Alfonso IX, King Of Leon and
Galicia, 1171 – 1230
Crowned while his father
was still alive in 979 and As unfortunate nicknames go,
dying only a year after this one stuck hard to a monarch
his father died in 987, who, for the most part, seems to
Louis Do-Nothing earned have worked hard to reform and
his moniker with a reign evolve his kingdom. He opened a
marked by failure on most university, convened a parliament
fronts. His main objective for greater representation and
had been to retake the incurred the wrath of the Vatican
southwest region of France by teaming up with the Muslim
known as Aquitaine, Almohads to expand his lands in
which he couldn’t achieve, conflict with Castile. But he also
his wife ran away without had a temper and was known to
an heir, and then he died launch into mouth-frothing tirades.
aged 20 in a hunting Hence, he became Alfonso ‘Baboso’,
accident, ending the meaning the Slobberer.
Carolingian dynasty.

20 strangest royal nicknames from

history (and where they came from)
illiam the Conqueror. Suleiman the
Magnificent. Ivan the Terrible. Some royal
nicknames are pretty memorable and tell
you a lot about the person who earned them.
Whether given to them in their lifetime or
how they were thought
posthumously, you immediately get a picture of
every one is so lucky to get such clear
of and remembered. However, not
or sobriq uets. Here we chron icle some of the most
and powerful epithets
in how they came to be.
peculiar and surprising royal nicknames and expla

The Gouty
Bermudo II, King Of León, c.953 – 999
Supported by the nobles of Galicia and Portugal,
Bermudo challenged and overthrew Ramiro III
in Galicia in 982, going on to become king of
León also in 984. However, as his nickname of
el Gotoso suggests, he suffered in later life from
gout. He appears to have been a controversial
figure in the years that followed his reign, not
least as he relied on the support of the Caliphate
of Córdoba for protection in the region.

The Dung-Named
Constantine V, Byzantine Emperor, 718 – 775
The Queen of Sad Mischance
Isabella II of Spain, 1830 – 1904
The legacy of Constantine V’s reign was
tarnished after he backed a movement Isabella ascended as a child after the death of her father, who
against iconophiles, during which many had only just signed into law that she would inherit the throne.
churches saw their religious icons and She faced opposition from the previous heir apparent, her uncle,
relics – many quite valuable – seized or and continued to have challenges to her power in the years to
destroyed. There followed a rumour that come, including the government who pushed her into a marriage,
during his baptism, the infant Constantine signing laws and more. Initially popular with the people, her
All images: © Alamy,
© Getty Images,

had defecated into the baptismal font. Thus, spending and chaotic governance saw them turn on her and she
© Shutterstock

the emperor began to be called Kopronymos or had to flee to France. A life of sad mischance, indeed.
‘named in dung’.

37
 The Beer Jug
The Slit-Nosed
The Be-shitten
James II of England,
John George I, Elector of
Saxony, 1585 – 1656
A ruler who would much
Justinian II, Byzantine Emperor, c.669 – 711
While Justinian II had some successes in
1633 – 1701 rather be drinking or hunting reclaiming lost lands of the Byzantine Empire
than dealing with the early in his reign, his tyrannical
Don’t get on the wrong side complex inter-state politics policies and, in particular, his
of Ireland. Advice that many of the era, John George I still heavy taxation of the peasantry,
English royals could have found himself dragged into saw him become increasingly
heeded over the centuries, the arguments that resulted unpopular. In 695 CE
but James II was one of in the Thirty Years’ War. an uprising led
many to make the error. He flipped sides a couple of by Leontios, a
He assembled an Irish and times, but ultimately seems senior general
French force to take on to have weakened Saxony’s in the army,
William of Orange for the standing in Germany. He just saw Justinian
throne at the Battle of the wanted to “drink his beer in overthrown and
Boyne, but lost, leaving peace” so his various names exiled. To add
Ireland for France. Seen of ‘Beer Jug’ and ‘Drunkard’ injury to insult,
in Ireland to have failed are easy to understand. Justinian’s nose
in his duty, he earned the was cut off,
nickname Séamas an Chaca earning him his
or James the be-shitten, if nickname for
you prefer. posterity.

The Book-Lover
The Lisp and Lame
Eric XI of Sweden, 1216 – 1250
Coloman, King Of Hungary,
c.1070 – 1116

Don’t let anyone ever tell you that a While there is no shortage of darker
poem can’t do you any harm. Thanks tales around King Coloman (blinding
to the Eric Chronicle, the 14th century his rival and infant son, for instance)
medieval rhyming history of Swedish the Hungarian king is best known
kings, we came to know Eric XI as as a celebrated statesman of his era
limping in his walk and lisping in his who expanded his kingdom while
talk. So it came to be that while he also implementing new laws, such as
was simply Erik Eriksson in his own outlawing trials of supposed witches,
time, a king who inherited the throne whose existence he denied. It’s this
as a child only to flee in the face of legacy that earned him variations
a rival and then return with little of the name Learned, Possessor of
authority, became known to posterity Books or the Book-Lover.
as Eric the Lisp and Lame.

38
 What’s in a name?

The Asleep
Sebastian of Portugal, 1554 – 1578
The name for this monarch derives
from messianic tales that formed
after his death. A deeply religious
king, raised by Jesuits, Sebastian
committed himself to a crusade
against the Muslims in Morocco. He
led a force of warriors to Larache in
1578 only to see his army crushed
by the Moroccans who greatly
outnumbered them. He is thought to
have died in the battle, but rumours
he survived persisted, leading to a
legend that he would one day return
(or ‘awaken’) to free Portugal from
Spanish rule.

Broom-plant
Geoffrey V, Count of Anjou, 1113 – 1151
Some names hide loftier tales, and
being known as Geoffrey Broom-
plant probably doesn’t seem like a
prestigious beginning for anything.
Minus-a-Quarter
Michael VII Doukas, Byzantine Emperor, c.1050 – 1090
Geoffrey got the name through his
association with the planta genista, the We rather like this nickname on its face, because it
Latin name of the yellow bloom flower feels a little like those euphemisms for people who are
associated with his home of Anjou that perceived to be easily distracted or unintelligent (they’re a
he either wore in his helmet or grew sandwich short of a picnic, for example). However the name
in abundance on his hunting grounds. Parapinakes that Michael VII earned is a much duller affair.
Either way, the nickname gave us the His reign oversaw an attempt to nationalise grain sales,
name Plantagenet, as Geoffrey’s son leading to wheat prices increasing and buyers getting a
Henry II began a new royal dynasty quarter less wheat for their money. He abdicated in the face
in England. of a military uprising against his rule shortly after.

The Sausage- The Queen Of Bees

Maker
Count Manuel Godoy,
Anne, Duchess Of Maine, 1676 – 1753
What happens when a woman wants to escape
the stuffy halls of power of early 18th century
Prime Minister Of Spain, France? She mocks them, of course. When Anne
1767 – 1851 Louise Bénédicte de Bourbon grew

All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images, © Shutterstock

Reading how other nobles tired of her father-in-law Louis
talked about and treated XIV’s grandiose show of power
Godoy, you would think he at Versailles, she set up a rival
was a peasant elevated to ‘court’ in her own estate, with
nobility. In reality he was mock rituals and protocols. It
from a noble, but poor, family included an Order of
and rose in influence after the Honey Bee, based
catching the eye of Maria on her nickname
Luisa of Parma, wife to the as ‘queen’ of
future Charles IV. An affair her own realm.
followed as did numerous Medals were even
titles and honours, not least made with the
two terms as prime minister. inscription “She
His nickname of Choricero is small, it is true,
was a contemptuous but she inflicts
reference to the popular food great wounds.”
in his home of Extremadura.

39
 Discover the age when the coasts of Britain
were awash with illegal goods
Written by Callum McKelvie

rom the picturesque cliffs of rural Cornwall, and meant only they could bring items in and out of the
to the quaint harbour town of Poole – the country. This was problematic enough, but the issue was
shores of 18th and early 19th century Britain compounded by the tendency of Georgian governments to
were dangerous places to be. Due to import use high taxes as a means to raise funds. These taxes could
taxes, smuggling was rife across the country. be placed on all sorts of goods, perhaps best demonstrated
Largely the work of a series of highly organised criminal by the notorious tea tax, an astronomical 119%.
gangs, they would stop at nothing, even murder, in the As such the smuggling of tea became common. According
distribution of their illicit cargo. These smugglers used to a 1745 report, cited by Hanna Hodacs in her book Silk
ingenious methods and their cruelty even earned some a And Tea In The North, illegally introduced tea consumed
place in popular folklore, notorious still to this day. in Britain was triple the amount brought in legally. Hodacs
As a result this period has become known as the ‘golden goes on to state that, “in the late 1770s and early 1780s seven
age of smuggling’. A time in which all manner of items, from and a half million pounds of tea was believed to have been
alcoholic spirits and tobacco to ordinary tea, were brought smuggled into Britain.”
illicitly into the country. A vast and rich topic, we’ve selected But it was not just tea that was smuggled into the
some of the most blood curdling facts and chilling tales country. Items such as tobacco and brandy were equally
surrounding these vicious criminals. So come with us as we profitable ventures for the criminal gangs, particularly
dip our toes into the murky waters of the smugglers. after the tea tax was lowered. According to Jeff Horn in
Economic Development In Early Modern France, William
Why Smuggling? Pitt the Younger stated that in 1787, 3-4 million gallons of
In 1651 and 1660, the Navigation Acts were introduced. French alcoholic spirits entered Britain illegally compared to
These strict laws limited trade to exclusively British ships 600,000 legal gallons, though this was likely exaggerated.

40
“In 1787 3-4 million
gallons of
French alcoholic
spirits entered
Britain illegally
compared to
600,000 legal
gallons”

© Alamy

41
 How Smugglers
Operated
But smuggling these items into the
country was not easy, nor cheap. The
majority of these gangs were highly
organised and finance came from a
variety of sources. According to the
Smugglers Britain website, in the south
east, smuggling operations were funded
by wealthy individuals working alone or in
groups. These financiers were sometimes
merchants and therefore could sell the
items themselves. In the case of alcohol
smuggling, taverns would occasionally
fund the operations, offering the illegal
beverages for sale at their own bars. There
were even rare cases of solo smugglers,
such as Robert Hanning, who while living
in Dunkirk was responsible for £40,000
worth of goods being smuggled into
Britain per year.
When being brought into the country,
contraband was sometimes smuggled
in crates or hogsheads – large barrels.
However, some smugglers used more
ingenious methods. According to the 1892
work Smuggling Days And Smuggling Ways
tobacco was “made up into ropes, varying
in size,” and after “being slightly washed
with rum, had every appearance of being
hempen rope.” There were even stories of
smuggling vessels having entire hidden
compartments specially constructed.
Once the contraband was ashore it was
quickly taken away, but if under threat
TOP-LEFT An 1847 then the smugglers would be forced to
illustration showing conceal their loot until it could be retrieved
smugglers at work on
the Isle of Wight later. Particularly on the Isle of Wight,
caves could be used but this was rare
TOP-RIGHT An
illustration of and more often the items were buried in
the Hawkhurst the sands. Nonetheless, the notion of the
Gang’s murder of
‘smugglers cave’ has become an enduring
William Galley. It is
suspected he was image in popular culture.
buried alive According to John Rule and Roger AE
ABOVE An Wells in Crime, Protest And Popular Politics
illustration of a In Southern England, 1740-1850, smugglers
smugglers cave,
though in reality in this area would travel in large groups.
it was rare for They state that at maximum, these gangs
smugglers to actually could organise 500 to 1,000 men, though
hide contraband in
such places often it was much less. Rule and Wells also
state that while the smugglers occasionally
LEFT An early 20th
century illustration carried firearms, the bludgeon was their
of smugglers hard at weapon of choice.
work, bringing their
loot ashore
The Poole
INSET Illustration
Custom House
of a ‘robber’ from
around 1754 Raid – 1747
One of the most prominent areas of
smuggling was the picturesque waterfront
town of Poole in Dorset. “Smuggling was
rife along the southern coast of the West
Country,” David Watkins of Poole Museum
told us. “Poole had advantages for the
trade as its Harbour is one of the largest

42
 The Golden Age of Smuggling

The Hawkhurst
Gang’s
Vengeance
Although no one was hurt, the audacity
of the raid sparked outrage and the
authorities requested that anyone with
knowledge of the incident come forward.
One man believed to know the identity
of one of the participants, John Diamond,
was Daniel Chater, a shoemaker. Returning
home with their goods, the Hawkhurst
gang members passed through the town
of Fordingbridge in Hampshire where they
greeted crowds of eagle-eyed spectators.
Diamond was said to have recognised
Chater as the pair occasionally worked
in the world with miles of deserted shore. ABOVE The Custom
Although, vessels entering the Harbour House in Poole, “Chater was slashed across the face with
could be observed by customs officers, and
Dorset as it stands
today. In 1747 it was
such force that his nose was severed and his
so more often it was the shores of Poole raided by members eyes nearly popped out of their sockets”
Bay rather than the Harbour that were of the notorious
Hawkhurst Gang
used to land smuggled goods.” deterrent to any would-be attackers. together in the fields and even threw
In 1747, Poole became the target of one And yet there was one factor that the him a bag of stolen tea. So when Chater’s
of the most fearsome smuggling gangs: the excisemen had not taken into account knowledge of Diamond reached the ears
Hawkhurst Gang. Taking their name from – the tide. At certain times of day the of the collector of Southampton customs
the small Kentish town from which they retreating tide meant that the ship’s guns port, Mr Shearer, he dispatched a custom’s
operated, they were described by author would drop below the quayside, leaving officer, William Galley, to collect Chater so
Joseph Dragovich as being to Kent and the Custom’s House defensless. that he could identify Diamond.
Sussex, “what the Krays are to London, This is exactly what occurred at 2am There are numerous versions of the
Al Capone is to Chicago or John Gotti on 28 October when the Hawkhurst Gang story, but it appears that somewhere along
is to New York.” In October of 1747, they broke into the Custom House to retrieve their journey, Chater and Galley made
set their sites on Poole after excisemen the highly priced tea. According to a the unfortunate mistake of stopping at
(customs officers) apprehended a large contemporary account in the Salisbury the White Hart in Rowlands Castle. The
amount of the gang’s smuggled tea, coffee Journal, one of the members of the inn was owned by one Elizabeth Payne
and brandy and secreted it at the town’s gang “told the Watchmen that they had who was not only sympathetic to the
Custom House. come for their Own, and would have smugglers’ cause, but also had two sons
The Custom House was protected by it; but would do no other Damage. And who were actually reputed to be gang
the guns of a Royal Navy ship, a useful accordingly did not.” members. That night, the gang burst in

Cornish Wreckers
Cornwall was said to be the home of ‘wreckers’,
groups who intentionally lit false lights in order to
cause shipwrecks. But were they fact, or fiction?
‘Wreckers’ were individuals said to disaster for any material that might be
place lamps on cliffs or beaches during recovered. According to the National
terrible storms in order to purposefully Archives, ‘The Right of Wreck’ franchise
wreck merchant vessels. While the allowed landowners to recover various
crew drowned, the wreckers would items from the sea. Landowners often
wait patiently for the storm to abate feuded between who was entitled to
and for the ship’s precious cargo the loot from which wreck.
to wash ashore. Author Daphne Du When salvaging was eventually
Maurier even included wreckers in made illegal, the practice still continued
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images, © Shutterstock

her quintessential smuggling novel, – particularly in impoverished areas

Jamaica Inn. However, the stories of during the 18th century. The author
these malevolent figures have been Cathryn J Pearce in her work, Cornish
largely exaggerated and while attacks Wrecking, successfully demonstrated
did occur, they were rare. that the typical wrecker was merely an
Instead, ‘wreckers’ were individuals average local who happened upon an
who scoured the beaches following a opportunity and took it.

43
 on Galley and Chater while they slept and raised funds by increasing the window
whipped and beat them savagely. The two tax, a tax on the number of windows or
men were then taken and tied to a horse openings in a building that would not be
and were forced to ride for five miles, repealed until 1851.
being constantly whipped and beaten
while they did. The Cornish
Both met gruesome fates. Galley, Smugglers
discovered sitting upright in a grave with Yet, while tea may have been deemed
his hands held up to protect his face, no longer profitable to smuggle, there
was suspected to have been buried alive. were still plenty of other items to trade.
Chater’s death was equally horrific. First, Although smuggling was rife across
Chater was slashed across the face with Britain as a whole, one area that gained
such force that his nose was severed and a reputation for its involvement with the
his eyes nearly popped out of their sockets. criminal enterprise was Cornwall. There
Then, he was hung from the top of a well are numerous tales of Cornish smugglers,
but despite choking, he did not die. After but one in particular known for his ferocity
cutting the rope, Chater fell into the well was nicknamed ‘The King of Prussia’.

“Coppinger’s loot was said to have been kept in

a mysterious hidden sea cave, though no trace
of it has ever been found”
but still survived. The gang hurled rocks “John Carter and his brother Harry were
and stones on top of him until finally part of a notorious gang of smugglers who
Chater’s moans ceased. operated from Prussia Cove in Cornwall
These horrific murders would eventually at the end of the 18th century,” explains
mean the end of the Hawkhurst Gang’s Jeremy Rowett Johns, a smuggling expert
ruthless reign of terror. After Galley and focussing on Cornwall and the village of
Chater’s bodies were discovered the Polperro. “The Carter brothers owned two
authorities quickly set about apprehending large vessels each with a crew of around
the gangs leaders and, by 1749, all involved 30 men, which were involved in a number
had been tried and executed. of battles with Revenue vessels.”
But Galley and Chater’s murder was only Prussia Cove was not the only
one example of the increasing violence smuggling hotspot on the Cornish coast
involved with smuggling. In 1783, 24-year- and between 1775 and 1800, one small
old William Pitt became Prime Minister village became a smuggler’s paradise. “In
of Britain, still the youngest person to Polperro, a small fishing port in south-east
do so, and was quickly made aware of Cornwall, it was continued on an almost
the huge problems the smugglers were industrial scale,” Rowett Johns tells us.
causing. On the advice of Richard Twining, “It was highly organised by a man called
of Twinings Tea, Pitt introduced the Zephaniah Job – known as the ‘Smugglers’
Commutation Act that effectively put an Banker’ – because of his ability to organise
end to the smuggling of tea by reducing the payments to the Guernsey merchants
taxation from 119% to 12.5%. Instead he and ensure that any Polperro fishermen

Wiltshire Moonrakers
A piece of smuggling folklore that
gave birth to a local nickname
The quiet rural area of Wiltshire was once barrels. However, they hadn’t counted on the
home to a rampant smuggling trade for gin and roaming excisemen. Questioned and forced
brandy. The smugglers would travel down to to think quickly, one of the smugglers pointed
the South Coast where they would obtain the to the moon’s reflection, exclaiming that he
barrels of contraband. One folk tale describes believed it to be a great cheese that had rolled
how, upon returning to their village, a group of into the lake and they were attempting to
smugglers either by accident or intent hid the retrieve it. In the centuries since, as a result of
barrels in a small pond. One night they headed this tale, ‘Moonrakers’ has become a popular
out with rakes in an attempt to retrieve the nickname for Wiltshire locals.

44
 The Golden Age of Smuggling

to have been a real person – though his

escapades were likely exaggerated over
time. Coppinger is said to have arrived in
Cornwall when his ship was wrecked off
the coast. The story states that the locals
saw a huge, lumbering figure thrashing
about in the water until he strode ashore
and stole a young local woman’s horse –
with her still astride it.
At first he forced himself into her
household, though overtime he became
softer towards her and they eventually
married. Coppinger was suspected to have
had Danish origins and quickly organised
a notorious local gang of cutthroats
and thieves. As his nickname suggests,
Coppinger was known for his cruelty and
his murderous approach to dealing with
anyone who got in his way. Not content
with the size of his operation, he also
had a ship known as the Black Prince
constructed for him in Denmark, which
he used to attack ships in the English
Channel and steal their goods. Coppinger’s
loot was said to have been kept in a
mysterious hidden sea cave, though no
trace of it has ever been found. There are
numerous stories concerning Coppinger,
though the validity of the majority of them
remains unknown.

The end of the

Smugglers
For decades smuggling persisted. During
the Napoleonic Wars, smugglers continued
to travel to Dunkirk and Gravelines where
upon collecting their goods they were
TOP-LEFT known to impart information to French
Smugglers by
who were arrested were hardly ever spies. However, eventually during the mid-
George Ogilvy Reid
from 1903 convicted by a Cornish jury.” 1840s, the lucrative enterprise finally came
The smugglers of Polperro were highly to an end. The establishment of the Coast
ABOVE Bloody
battles were efficient and vast amounts of contraband Guard proved to be a lethal blow to the
fought between came ashore in its waters. “The village’s smugglers. Under their watchful eye, the
the smugglers and
excisemen isolated location also made it almost shores of Britain were now defended and
impossible for the revenue men to conduct it became increasingly difficult to bring
ABOVE-LEFT The
Hawkhurst Gang a raid without the inhabitants being contraband ashore. In 1849, Parliament
tied both William forewarned,” says Rowett Johns. However, finally repealed the Navigation Acts
Galley and Daniel all good things must come to an end and allowing foreign trade into Britain’s ports.
Chater to the same
horse, whipping eventually Polperro’s smuggling empire Smuggling was no longer necessary and it
them frequently collapsed. “It was the murder of a customs quickly died out.
LEFT ‘The officer in 1798 that led to the crew of a However, still to this day stories of
Smuggler’s Polperro smuggling vessel, the Lottery, smugglers remain popular. Jamaica Inn
Apprentice’ steel being captured,” Rowett Johns continues. in Cornwall, an 18th century coaching
sculpture in the
coastal town of “The conviction of one of the crew led to inn, was well known for its connection
Scarborough a Revenue preventive boat being stationed to the smugglers. In 1936, celebrated
in Polperro Harbour. It was largely driven author Daphne du Maurier used the inn
underground thereafter and never carried as a setting for a novel of the same name,
on as openly.” a dark Gothic tale of smuggling on the
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images

So powerful were some of the smugglers Cornish coast, which remains one of her
that they became legendary in their best known works. Now, smuggling history
renown and were transformed into figures is a profitable industry that attracts tourists
of folklore. ‘Cruel Coppinger’ is one such from all over the world, coming to hear the
example. According to Zteve T Evans dark tales of cutthroats and bandits who
of Folklore Thursday, he is suspected defied the law of the excisemen.

45
46
 How did people from the past envision the world
to come, and did their predictions come true?
Written
W
Writte
Wri
itten by
by D
David
avid
avi
id J Wi
Willi
Williamson
lliams
lli amson
on

ver the centuries many ‘predictions’ have their accuracy, but they should be understood and
been born out of the imaginations of appreciated in the context of their own time. What
creative minds: from a single disaster to was unbelievable but entertaining fantasy for 19th
the apocalyptic elimination of mankind, or 20th century audiences has, in some cases,
a dystopian society that turns the world eerie similarities to our present. Similarities we
upside down, or technological innovations that can often overlook. Some may even have been inspired
either make the world a better place, or a living by these wondrous ideas, others are consequences
hell. From our standpoint of the present, it is easy of our actions. How close did these past visionaries
to look back at these visionary works and judge get to the world as it is today?
© Alamy

47
 MODERN DANGER ON THE SEA
COMMUNICATION DID THIS BOOK PREDICT THE TITANIC SINKING?
FROM: FUTILITY, 1898. MORGAN ROBERTSON
GERNSBACK PREDICTS A
REVOLUTION FOR MEDICINE In the closing years of the 19th century
the innovations made in sea travel saw the
FROM: RALPH 124C 41+, 1911, BY HUGO GERNSBACK building of larger and more luxurious ships.
AMAZING STORIES, EDITED BY HUGO GERNSBACK
THE FUTURE WORLD
Inspired by this progress, author Morgan
Robertson based a disaster plot on such a
Gernsback is often credited as the father of vessel in his novella Futility. But it was a story
modern science fiction, after all the Hugo A NEARSIGHTED LOOK AT WHAT that was to prove eerily accurate of future
Award for science fiction is named after him.
This is due to his wide-ranging publishing
WAS TO COME events. His book depicts a ship called The

history with several pioneering magazines FROM: EARTH, 1990, DAVID BRIN Titan, the largest passenger ship afloat, and its
voyage on the lucrative transatlantic route to
serialising fantastic tales about the future. the United States. It carries the bare minimum
David Brin set his novel Earth almost
Born in 1884, he taught himself electrical of lifeboats and, when it strikes an iceberg
50 years into the future, and it carries a
engineering while at university before moving and sinks in the North Atlantic, almost all of
number of predictions that were to become
to the United States. His professional passion the 3,000 passengers are drowned. Robertson
reality far sooner than the writer envisaged.
became radio communication, having set up lived long enough to know of the Titanic’s
Brin predicted something very similar to the
a radio supply house in 1905. So, when he fate, and his re-released book
World Wide Web, for instance, which was
released a story known as Ralph 124C 41+, it was a best seller because of it. DID IT COME TRUE?
only just getting off the ground. The system
included a form of video communication he How was it so close? Robertson
he envisaged was a global news and media
called the Teledactyl. denied being clairvoyant,
network in which individuals could interact
He envisioned this coming into use in but he did have extensive
through discussion forums. He also foretold
1975 and used by doctors to care for patients, knowledge of trends in naval
of the huge rise of email, and in particular
even being able to interact physically vessel construction and the
spam email, that would regularly block the
through robotic arms. He was a dangers of the Atlantic.
system. Tim Berners-Lee’s proposal to CERN
little ahead of our technology
that began the internet was only submitted
(the first true remote surgery
in 1989, so foreseeing how such mass
to be completed was in 2001),
communication could be used and abused
but remote
DID IT COME TRUE? is interesting. Earth goes on DID IT COME TRUE?
surgeries are
to address global warming,
now possible
endangered species and
through
refugee crises. It also explores
robotics
artificially created black holes
and internet
– a field that has had major
communication.
breakthroughs in recent years.

DA VINCI’S TANKS, AIRCRAFT AND MORE

FROM: CODEX ATLANTICUS, 15TH/16TH CENTURY, LEONARDO DA VINCI
Leonardo Da Vinci was an immensely talented artist, inventor, and visionary.
Many of his ideas were, not surprisingly in the politically unstable world of
the late 15th and early 16th centuries, related to war. Some were also hundreds
of years before their time. Multi-barrelled cannon, armoured cars or tanks,
and quick-assembly swing bridges to help armies rapidly cross rivers, were
among the concepts he sketched. This more mechanised battlefield was
many generations away. But in his massive volume of drawings – the Codex
Atlanticus – there are other examples of uncanny vision. Some, like his one- DID IT COME TRUE?
man flying machine that mimics the movement of a bird, were not terribly
practical. However, Da Vinci’s design for what we would now call scuba diving
apparatus is much nearer the mark. The diver would have a constant supply of
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images

air from the surface piped into a kind of helmet, with buoyancy aids to control
his position in the water. Ideal for sabotaging ships, and two hundred years
before the invention of the diving suit in the early 1700s. His plan for a type
of parachute was, at first sight, thought to be completely unworkable until, in
2000, a copy was made and was found to work extremely well!

48
 Visions of the Future

RISE OF AI
ASIMOV’S CONCERNS OVER THE RISE OF THE MACHINES
FROM: LITTLE LOST ROBOT, 1947; I, ROBOT (COLLECTION 1950);
THE ROBOTS OF DAWN, 1983, ISAAC ASIMOV
As early as the 1940s and 50s, Isaac Asimov speculated on
the possibility of mankind losing control of AI – and robots
in particular. He created the iconic Three Laws of Robotics to
mitigate that eventuality. They were:
1) A robot may not injure a human being or, through
inaction, allow a human being to come to harm.
2) A robot must obey orders given to it by human beings
except where such orders would conflict with the First Law.
3) A robot must protect its own existence as long as such
protection does not conflict with the First or Second Law.
From the I, Robot collection of short stories in 1950,
including Little Lost Robot (from 1947), through to novels
in the 1980s such as The Robots Of Dawn, Asimov conjured
scenarios where such rules were broken or challenged, and the
consequences that ensued. This inspired countless works of
literature and film, such as I, Robot (2004) all
the way to James Cameron’s Terminator films. DID IT COME TRUE?
Meanwhile Fritz Lang’s Metropolis (1927) poses
a subtler use for AI, in infiltrating a worker’s
group to spread misinformation. He has the
AI personified in a robot form, but it has odd
parallels to modern bots on social media.
The debate on AI is very much to the
fore today as technology becomes more
sophisticated. However, the questions posed
decades ago are as relevant and unanswered
now as they were then.

49
 TOTALITARIAN CONTROL
BIG BROTHER IS WATCHING IN THESE STORIES
FROM: 1984, 1949, GEORGE ORWELL
FAHRENHEIT 451, 1953, RAY BRADBURY
One book that has become a byword for future dystopian states with control
of its citizens, both mind and body, is 1984. It depicts a regime in absolute
control of the media, daily life, speech and movement. Orwell’s depiction of
propaganda, censorship and the dreaded ‘Thought Police’ can be likened to
the Soviet State at the time of Orwell’s writing in the late 1940s. But he was
perhaps also warning us about the ways in which such policies could be used
in democratic societies through fear and concerns for security. The ubiquitous
use of CCTV today is often contrasted with Orwell’s story. Censorship is also
at the heart of Fahrenheit 451, although the solution is far more
DID IT COME TRUE?
direct. Books are banned and, if discovered, the Fire Service will
burn them. But Bradbury also gives us some insight into how
technology may impact our behaviour in the future. Citizens
tune out of their everyday lives through sounds in the ‘seashells’
they place in their ears, closing out the world to live in their
own bubble. Cultural restrictions, state surveillance and social
polarisation are all regular issues of concern in today’s world.

CONTROLLING PEOPLE THROUGH POLICY

FROM: BRAVE NEW WORLD, 1932, ALDOUS HUXLEY
THE HANDMAID’S TALE, 1985, MARGARET ATWOOD

Unlike 1984, Huxley’s world

of the future relies on the
attainment of happiness
and well-being as a means
of controlling society. This
is achieved through the
constant distribution and
consumption of a ‘happiness
drug’ called ‘soma’, and the
state support of free love. In
this dystopian vision where
technology has overtaken
nature, babies are born using
artificial wombs in ‘hatcheries’, the majority of women
have been made infertile and children are indoctrinated
into a severely structured class system to balance
intellectual need with that of physical labour. Thankfully,
still something far from our modern experiences.
In Atwood’s dystopia, religious extremists, reacting
to environmental change and dropping birth rates, have
overthrown the United States to form Gilead. Women are
the lowest class of society, are refused education, and
must dress in a colour coded hierarchy of status. Drawing
on a wide history of patriarchal, repressive DID IT COME TRUE?
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images

regimes through history, The Handmaid’s Tale

was a reaction to the religious right in the US
in the 1980s. Both books paint dire images,
one of a society progressing incredibly fast
and losing some of its humanity, and the other
regressing into religious extremism.

50
 Visions of the Future

VERNE’S VISION OF HUMANITY IN SPACE AND THE SEA

FROM: FROM THE EARTH TO THE MOON, 1865, JULES VERNE
20,000 LEAGUES UNDER THE SEA, 1870, JULES VERNE
The name Jules Verne has become synonymous with an ingenious mix
of romantic adventure and technological vision. With a personal curiosity
in science and geography, Verne began writing stories of adventure inspired
by the technological advances of the mid- to late-19th century. In From The Earth To The
Moon, Verne’s heroes are blasted into space using a giant cannon. While this drew on the
most advanced technology of his era, his calculations are thought to have been surprisingly
close for getting a craft into space. A launch from Florida, and the use of special suits in
the environment of space were both predicted by Verne, along with an ocean
DID IT COME TRUE?
splashdown for returning spacecraft. He also expressed a view that one day
spacecraft could be powered by light and solar panels are used on many
missions today. A submarine is at the heart of 20,000 Leagues Under The Sea;
there had been attempts at creating a viable submarine long before Verne’s
book, but they were either incredibly small – literally a one-man vessel – or
they suffered from design faults making them impractical. Verne’s cylindrical
concept was to pave the way for the efficient and workable shape that was to
develop throughout the 20th century into the vessels we see today.

CLIMATE CRISIS
NUCLEAR AGE
HG WELLS SAW THE ATOM AS THE KEY
JG BALLARD FEARED OUR IMPACT
ON THE WORLD
FROM: THE WIND FROM NOWHERE, 1961; THE
FROM: THE WORLD SET FREE, 1914, HG WELLS DROWNED WORLD, 1962; THE BURNING WORLD, 1964,
THE SHAPE OF THINGS TO COME, 1933, HG WELLS JG BALLARD
HG Wells is known for The Time Mankind’s impact on
Machine, 1895, and The War Of The the planet is all too
Worlds, 1898 – both deal with the fate real, but the early
of human kind in different ways, but visionary works of
it is in some of his lesser known works JG Ballard in the
that Wells proved to be much more 1960s ring eerily
prophetic. Wells was deeply interested in true, albeit with
technology and science and in his work things turned up
The World Set Free he predicts that the to extremes. In The
power of the atom will be harnessed in Wind From Nowhere,
the year 1933. Eerily that very year Leo changes to weather
Szilard put forward the theory of nuclear patterns result in terrifying
chain reaction. Wells also predicted hurricanes that demolish civilisation. The
the discovery would lead to the use Drowned World depicts a planet of increased
of atomic weapons, albeit on a small temperatures and sea levels so high only the
scale, which would leave battlefields Poles are habitable. And in The Burning World
radioactive and desolate. War and a new (also released as The Drought), industrial
world order were also the focus of his waste in the oceans has interfered with the
1933 book The Shape Of Things To Come natural cycle of evaporation, rain is non-
(inspiring the 1936 movie, Things To existent and water a precious commodity in a
Come). A new world order ruled by elite world of global warming.
pilots and their aircraft follows a terrible There continues to be debate around the
war in which ‘aerial torpedoes’ (what we
DID IT COME TRUE? severity of the current climate crisis. In
might call cruise missiles) as weapons all of these works we see DID IT COME TRUE?
of mass destruction are launched from humans forced to adapt to a
submarines. Even though technology vastly changed environment,
was developing with frightening speed a message that resonates
when Wells was writing this, his vision with many in the here and
of atomic weapons and cruise missiles now, preparing for what may
was a vision decades before its time. already be inevitable.

51
52
ELIZABETH’S NEMESIS
Who was the ambitious Tudor noblewoman
who proved to be a thorn in Gloriana’s side?
Written by Emily Staniforth

o, that’s not a portrait of individual wealth and forging connections with the
Queen Elizabeth I, although rich and powerful.
she does look very similar.
This fiery red hair, pale skin From modest beginnings
and haughty expression Bess was born Elizabeth Hardwick sometime
in fact belong to another of Tudor England’s most between 1521 and 1527 to parents John Hardwick
prominent women. Elizabeth Cavendish, more and Elizabeth Leeke. The family estate at the time
commonly known as Bess of Hardwick, who led a of Bess’ birth was Hardwick Hall in Derbyshire, a
remarkable life for a woman in the 16th century, humble manor house that had been the Hardwick
enduring tragedy and hardship with a defiant family property since the 13th century. Though their
attitude that would see her become the second estate had lots of land, the family finances were not
richest woman in England after Gloriana herself. as healthy as their holdings would suggest and when
But her success was not straightforward and many Bess’ father died in 1528 the situation worsened.
of her calculated decisions put her at odds with Bess only had one brother out of her six siblings,
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images

Queen Elizabeth, making her life precarious and, at and he was two at the time of his father’s death.
times, dangerous. However, even before Elizabeth Therefore, as the law dictated at the time, young
became queen in 1558, Bess was striving to better James Hardwick became a ward of the king. A third
her life. From as young as 16 she began building her of John Hardwick’s wealth eventually passed to his

53
 widow and the other two thirds was held The marriage of Bess and William prosperous financial status would certainly
by the Court. Cavendish seems to have been a happy have been an attractive prospect to the
Now supporting her four daughters (one one. In the ten years they were married, indebted Bess, and his status within
had died after her father’s death), Elizabeth Bess gave birth to eight children. Bess the royal court would also surely have
Hardwick remarried. Biographies of Bess and William, both intent on climbing the interested her. With Mary I having died
suggest that at around the age of 12 she social ladder of the Tudor upper classes, in 1558, her younger sister, Elizabeth, had
was sent away to live in the home of a shrewdly chose each child influential inherited the Crown. St Loe was rewarded
family of higher standing. There Bess had godparents, including several members of for previous loyalty he had shown to
better marriage prospects than if she had the Grey family who were cousins of the Elizabeth and appointed Captain of the
remained at home. At around age 15, she Tudors, creating a web of connections at Guard and Chief Butler of England. Bess’
married her first husband. Robert Barlow the Tudor court that could prove beneficial marriage to St Loe, therefore, put her
was a member of the gentry and was only in theirs or their children’s later lives. firmly in Elizabeth’s circle of trusted
13 at the time of their union. However, the Young Henry Cavendish, the couple’s third friends, allies and advisors. She was made
marriage would not last long as Barlow child and first son, became the godson of a lady of the bedchamber to the queen
died around a year after their wedding. Princess Elizabeth. Though it was not a shortly after her marriage. However, Bess’
Bess had outlived her first husband. foregone conclusion at the time of Henry’s ambition and close associations with the
birth in 1550 that Elizabeth would one day troublesome Grey family would see any
The black widow inherit the throne, she was the half-sister potential friendship begin to sour.
The death of Bess’ first husband was the of the reigning king Edward VI and thus St Loe died in 1565, leaving Bess the
beginning of a pattern, with all of her a very high ranking woman indeed. Bess entirety of his vast estate. There have been
various estimates as to the extent of Bess’
“BESS CLEARLY SAW THE ADVANTAGES THAT A CLOSER personal wealth after the death of her
third husband, with most approximations
PROXIMITY TO THE ROYAL PRINCESS HELD” suggesting that her annual income would
have amounted to upwards of £17 million
husbands dying before her. Though this clearly saw the advantages that a closer in today’s money. She was the second
sounds like a series of tragedies for Bess, proximity to the royal princess held. There wealthiest woman in the country after the
and on a personal level it almost certainly appeared to be no bad blood between Bess queen herself. From this point in her life,
was, the deaths of her subsequent and Elizabeth in their younger years. Bess could have lived as an independent
husbands would help Bess reach a level of For the majority of their marriage, Bess woman if she had wished to do so. But,
wealth and status that was extraordinary and William lived together in Derbyshire. Bess’ resources also gave her power,
for a woman of her time. Soon after their wedding, Bess had making her a threatening presence for the
After being widowed for the first time, convinced her husband to sell his own queen. Bess’ decision to marry for a fourth
Bess’ next marriage saw her paired with lands and use his fortune to purchase and final time could have been due to the
an older man. At 20 years her senior, Sir Chatsworth Manor in her home county. fact that she had recently found herself in
William Cavendish was quite the catch This decision shows the kind of woman hot water with the queen, and had been
in terms of securing Bess a place in that Bess was: though William was her dismissed from her position at court.
Tudor high society. It is likely that they superior in age and status, it is clear that
first met while Bess was employed as Bess was not about to let herself and her Elizabeth vs Elizabeth
a lady-in-waiting to Lady Frances Grey, desires be walked over in order to appease Bess’ continued friendship with the Grey
the Marchioness of Dorset and niece of her husband. Together, the pair financed family was behind her first run-in with
Henry VIII. Cavendish was a politician and oversaw extensive work on the Queen Elizabeth. Lady Katherine Grey
and had been a familiar face at the court Chatsworth estate.
of Henry VIII. In his role as a clerk to the Unfortunately, Bess’ second husband
king’s influential chief minister Thomas died in 1557, just ten years into their
Cromwell, and commissioner of the king marriage. At the time of his death, Bess
during the Dissolution of the Monasteries, inherited her deceased husband’s debts
William Cavendish was a well-connected and two years later she married her third
man of means. husband Sir William St Loe. St Loe’s

More of POPE PIUS V

In 1570, Pope Pius V excommunicated

Elizabeth's
Elizabeth I, branding her a heretic,
through a Papal Bull. While Elizabeth
was a Protestant and so likely unmoved
personally by such a move, it was intended

enemies to tell English Catholics that they should

hold no loyalty to the Tudor queen and,
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images

potentially, should consider her illegitimate.

Parliament rallied around the monarch,
Gloriana had plenty of however, passing acts in 1571 to criminalise
adversaries to worry about challenges to the queen’s authority.

54
 Bess of Hardwick

ABOVE A portrait of
a younger Bess

ABOVE-RIGHT A
recreation of Bess
hosting in the Great
Chamber of the Old
Hall at Hardwick

RIGHT The ruins

of Old Hardwick
Hall, where Bess was
born, overlooking
the New Hall which
she began building
in 1590

PHILIP II OF SPAIN MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS

Philip had been Elizabeth’s brother-in- As the granddaughter of
law as the husband of Mary I and even Margaret Tudor, older sister of Henry
proposed marriage to the new queen at VIII, Mary was Elizabeth’s cousin, but
first, but relations soured significantly also a potential heir to the throne.
after Mary, Queen of Scots was killed. From 1561, the Catholic queen ruled
The execution of a prominent Catholic Scotland and began to be embroiled
royal drew the wrath of the Catholic in the religious and political schisms
superpower of Spain and the following taking place south of the border.
year the Spanish Armada was rallied Caught up in plots against Elizabeth,
to invade England. The invasion was she was eventually executed for
famously averted, but tensions remained. plotting against the queen in 1587.

55
 Bess the
LEFT The Turret House
at Sheffield Manor where
the Shrewsburys had Mary,
Queen of Scots imprisoned

builder
INSET Bess’ second husband
Sir William Cavendish

The lasting legacy you can

still visit today
Becoming one of the richest women
of the era, Bess of Hardwick invested
in property, leaving behind two
buildings that survive to this day and
are incredible examples of Tudor
architecture. In 1549 she bought the
Chatsworth estate in Derbyshire,
with her then husband Sir William
Cavendish. In her subsequent
marriages, Bess retained control of
this estate and financed significant
remodelling projects to make it what
it is today.
Having moved back to Chatsworth
from 1584 as her fourth marriage
broke up, she then decided to return
to her birthplace of Hardwick in
Derbyshire where her family had a
modest estate. This was gradually
was Elizabeth’s cousin to the queen. After Mary, Queen of Scots, transformed into Hardwick Hall as
and, according to the Elizabeth’s cousin and rival to the throne, we know it now, starting with an
will of Henry VIII, was a had been forced to abdicate her Scottish enlarged manor in 1590. After her
serious contender and possible throne and been accused of aspiring to husband died, she invested her
legitimate heir to the throne. take the English Crown for herself in increased inheritance on further
Therefore, Elizabeth kept an eye on 1568, the queen entrusted custodianship building, including a new hall,
Katherine’s activities and so when she of Mary to the Earl of Shrewsbury, and completed in 1599, with impressive
married without royal permission, Queen therefore Bess. Mary was effectively kept windows. The old and new halls were
Elizabeth was furious. This was bad under house arrest by Shrewsbury at his in development together, allowing for
news for Bess because, as a confidante and Bess’ homes, including Bess’ beloved a complementary design.
of Katherine, she allegedly knew of the Chatsworth as well as Sheffield Manor.
marriage and had failed to bring it to The marriage between Bess and the Earl
the attention of the queen. There are suffered as a result of Mary’s placement
conflicting contemporary accounts of the with them. Both parties struggled with
punishment Bess received for her betrayal the financial strain the responsibility put
of the queen, with one having stated that on them, as well as the pressure the role
Bess was thrown into the Tower of London inevitably brought with it. Proximity to the
alongside Katherine. However, another deposed Scottish queen was precarious,
source tells us that while the queen was and with Bess having already been
angry with Bess, questioned her and questioned once for betraying the Virgin
dismissed her as a lady of the bedchamber, Queen, walking the tightrope between
her rage eventually subsided and Bess spending a lot of individual time with
faced no further consequences. Mary, which could give rise to gossip,
Either way, Bess’ involvement in such while simultaneously staying on the right
a scandal may have prompted her to side of Elizabeth, cannot have been easy
seek out a marital match that would help for either party. The pair became distant
to bolster her reputation. With her last from one another and the situation was
husband, she hit the jackpot – George made worse when Bess’ scheming put her
Talbot was a bona fide English aristocrat at odds with the queen once again.
with an impressive lineage. He was also Already aware of Elizabeth’s reactions to
the 6th Earl of Shrewsbury and so by unsanctioned marriages, Bess nevertheless
marriage Bess became a countess. This sought to wed her daughter, Elizabeth
new match put Bess back in the game and Cavendish, to Charles Stuart, the brother
soon her and her husband were trusted of Mary, Queen of Scots’ second husband
with a matter of the utmost importance and uncle to her son James VI of Scotland.

56
 Bess of Hardwick

ABOVE Bess’ impressive

collection of tapestries
and portraits still line the
walls of the Long Gallery at
Hardwick Hall

RIGHT Bess made Princess

Elizabeth the godmother to
one of her children

The marriage went ahead in secret in not under suspicion. Her ambition for on the grounds of Hardwick. Hardwick
1574 but, of course, the queen found out. her granddaughter, however, did not sit Hall was completed in 1597 and is one of
Enraged by the actions of the newlyweds’ well with Arbella who grew to resent the the finest country houses from the Tudor
mothers for arranging the match, Elizabeth way she was treated by her grandmother. era to still exist. It remains her greatest
had Stuart’s mother, Margaret Douglas, When Elizabeth died in 1603, it was James visible legacy – a visual representation
imprisoned in the Tower of London. Again VI of Scotland who succeeded the Virgin of her wealth, status and ambition.
there are conflicting accounts of what Queen and so Bess’ vision never came to Just to ensure everyone knew that she
exactly happened to Bess and it is possible be. The relationship between Arbella and was the owner and builder of such an
that she too was thrown into the Tower Bess continued to deteriorate until Bess impressive house, Bess had the initials ES
for a period. Having trusted Bess to guard eventually disinherited her. for Elizabeth of Shrewsbury carved into
Mary, Queen of Scots, the betrayal and Hardwick’s facade.
deceit must have been a slap in the face A lasting legacy Although Bess’ attempt to have her
for the queen. It does not seem as though Bess of Hardwick achieved an descendent on the English throne was
Shrewsbury had been aware of his wife’s extraordinary amount for a woman in never realised in her own lifetime, she
clandestine matchmaking. Tudor England. Though her relationship did have a lasting impact on English
royal lineage. Through her son, Charles
“SHE WAS THE SECOND WEALTHIEST WOMAN IN Cavendish, Bess is a direct ancestor of
the late Queen Elizabeth II, another
THE COUNTRY AFTER THE QUEEN HERSELF” exceptional and defiant woman who
shares her name.
Elizabeth Cavendish and Charles Stuart with the Earl of Shrewsbury soured and Bess was lucky in that she was never
had a single child: a daughter named she moved out of their shared home in dealt with more harshly by Elizabeth,
Arbella. Arbella Stuart’s existence was a 1584 to Chatsworth, she continued to but she surely proved to be a dangerous
threat to Elizabeth I’s throne as she was aspire to great things. She had purchased foe and a worthy opponent of the Tudor
a descendent (through her father’s line) the land of her old family home at Queen. If it was not for Bess’ far-reaching
of Henry VII and thus a prime candidate Hardwick from her brother in 1583 and aspirations, it is possible that the two
to be named as Elizabeth’s successor, or set about completing a project that would women may even have been friends who
even her replacement. With ambitious cement her legacy as a powerful woman. admired one another. But Bess’ headstrong
Bess as a grandmother, however, Arbella’s She began to transform Hardwick manor nature would never have been content
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images

life was focused on becoming a suitable house into a grand and modern home, with a place in the background of history.
heir. Elizabeth therefore continued to which is now known as Hardwick Old As a woman who negotiated and navigated
keep an eye on Bess’ aspirations for her Hall. The Earl of Shrewsbury died in 1590 her way through a turbulent political
grandchild, particularly when she became and Bess inherited his wealth. This meant environment from poverty to becoming
Arbella’s guardian after both of her parents that she could expand her architectural England’s richest noblewoman, she was a
died. Bess, from that point, was never ambitions and started to build a new home force to be reckoned with.

57
 OWN OUR OWN
Blindness and blind people have
usually been framed in history as
inspirational or tragic, but now Selina
Mills wants to question that narrative
Interview by Emily Staniforth

hen looking at the history of blindness and those with visual

impairment, it is not very common to come across writers and
historians who have themselves experienced sight loss. This is
something that journalist Selina Mills wants to change. Having
spent ten years writing Life Unseen: A Story Of Blindness, a part
memoir, part historical journey that charts blindness through the ages,
Mills’ new publication aims to establish how blindness has been perceived
throughout history and where our modern notions of blindness have come
EXPERT BIO from. We sat down with Mills to discuss her new book, her own feelings
towards discussions around sight loss, and her research into the past.
SELINA MILLS
Selina Mills is an
award-winning Why did you decide to write Life Unseen: A Story Of Blindness, and
writer and how would you describe the book?
broadcaster. She I was fed up with reading extreme polarised depictions of blind people: either
has worked as a
they were superstars or they were burdens and impoverished and I thought
senior reporter
and broadcaster “that’s not me”. There are all these modern biographies about people climbing
© Zoe Norfolk

for Reuters, The Mount Everest and I’m just here getting up and trying to go to work with
Daily Telegraph, all the obstacles that entails. There are dangerous repercussions of those
and the BBC.
extreme portrayals which are all put onto blind people.

58
 Teiresias, the blind seer
of Greek mythology, is a
common figure in Greek
tragedies and legends

© Alamy

59
 I’m visually impaired and legally blind, and my friends who
are completely blind say the same thing. I wanted to correct
the dial a little bit. I also wanted to counter the rather endlessly
enthusiastic sighted historians who had written all the books
about blind people, aside from one or two exceptions. History
has been written from a very visual point of view about lack of
sight as a deficiency. But what if blindness is more of a descriptor,
then maybe we don’t have to make it a melodrama? I say this
with caution because, obviously, it can be a trauma and a very
frustrating situation if you suddenly lose your sight, but I still
want to correct the extreme versions that have been depicted for
the past thousand years.
One of the reasons I wrote the book in the way that I’ve written
it as part memoir is because it is really hard to read all of this is called Le Garçon et l’aveugle which was performed all over ABOVE-LEFT In
trauma. There is so much that is sad and isolating and if you Europe. It set up this idea that blind people were stupid, greedy a Euripides play,
Hecuba blinds
think about how people have been treated over the centuries, it’s and taking advantage of the sighted world. Add to this the Polymestor in
not an easy read. I wanted a sort of humanity and emotionality suspicion that blind people were secretly the Devil, there was a revenge for killing
her son
that allowed readers to think about how this is not just historical constant depiction of blindness that suited the era.
fact, but lived experience. There is also a religious aspect of blindness, particularly in ABOVE The Miracle
Of Christ Healing

“SINCE THE BEGINNING OF TIME WE HAVE

Christianity, with Jesus curing blind people. This was miraculous
The Blind, a painting
as blindness was considered so terrible, so there is a repetitive by El Greco

SHOWN INTEREST IN BLINDNESS”

narrative of sight being good and blindness bad. Interestingly
though, Jesus’s philosophy is far thinking because he states that
blindness is not a repercussion of past behaviour or sinning. He
In what ways has blindness usually been discussed within a changed the pity narrative to say that we embrace everybody, and
historical context? we take care of everyone.
In each epoch we have attached whatever that era was interested In the 21st century, I think we attach to blindness our obsession
in onto blindness. We project the notion of blindness as a with tech to make our lives easier. Almost every time I get in a
metaphor and a symbol, and it’s usually very little to do with taxi or on a bus I’m asked if I’ve had laser treatment or got all
the person not seeing. For example, blindness had a particular these new apps or if I’ve heard of driverless cars. There’s this
resonance in classical times. The great classical writers all used notion that we can fix and cure, which was an 18th century idea,
blindness as metaphor. There are characters that are blind like and that tech is the answer and blindness itself must not exist.
Teiresias, who can see into the future. He was punished for The overarching themes through time, I would say, are always
abusing his visual gifts after looking at Athena in the bath. At the inspiration on one end and tragedy on the other with different
other end you’ve got Oedipus and Hecuba and big characters that nuances in each era.
have either gouged their own eyes out or gouged other people’s
eyes out. The good news is that recent research by writers like For how long have people considered blindness as a
Martha L Rose in The Staff Of Oedipus started looking at the problem to be solved?
lives of ordinary blind people in this era rather than the fictional Since the beginning of time we have shown interest in blindness.
characters. Blindness is depicted in classical literature as high Historians have discovered early papyrus scrolls in Egypt, which
drama, but maybe day-to-day life was not so tragic. Apart from say you should squeeze the blood of a pigeon’s liver or kidney
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images

votives (an object offered in fulfilment of a vow) and temples to over the eyes of someone with night blindness. The unexpected
eyesight, which we certainly know existed, we don’t really know thing is that it did help because it had a certain vitamin in it and
what daily life was like. night blindness can be caused by a lack of that vitamin.
Then you’ve got other eras. I started digging and looking at But we could go even further back. An archaeologist told me
medieval history and aside from the fabulous nuns, there are about Nandy the Neanderthal. Archaeologists found in Nandy’s
plays and French farces from the 13th century, one of which eye sockets the remnants of a disease that certainly would have

60
 History Of Blindness

THE BLIND BARD

Was the Greek poet Homer blind and if not,
why might he have been labelled as such?
The Greek poet and author Homer is traditionally depicted
as having been blind. He is famous as the creator of The
Odyssey and The Iliad, although it is likely that the sagas,
which were peppered with blind characters, were actually
the product of a collection of different poets. It is unclear
whether Homer actually was blind, but this notion has
nevertheless become ingrained in the historical narrative of
the poet’s life.
In Life Unseen, Mills considers the debate that historians
have had for centuries with regard to Homer’s ability to
see, and questions why it matters. Ancient recorders like
Thucydides, Herodotus and Aristotle talked of Homer’s
blindness, drawing a connection between his lack of sight
and his talent as a poet. However, more modern and recent
studies into Homer’s sight have suggested that the poet
was not blind at all, and that the myth that he was has been
perpetuated in order to make him stand out as exceptional.
In Ancient Greece, blindness was often linked to mythical
attributes and in attaching Homer’s name to blindness he
became inextricably linked to the Greek gods and a divine
knowledge. This idea of blind people as other, exceptional
and heroic is a common trend throughout history and
continues to contribute to the way historians and others
perceive and write about the past. However, as Mills
highlights, what if you are someone with a visual impairment
who is ordinary? Does the hero status historians have
attached to talented blind people from the past change the
way you are seen by the rest of society?

ABOVE A 19th rendered him blind. He also had a withered leg so we know he
century painting of was quite disabled. The DNA showed he was 45 when he died and
a Blind Beggar by
Francesco Ferrari yet the other skeletons around him died when they were 28.
It begs the question: why and how did he survive? The
archaeologist I spoke to made the claim, which I don’t necessarily
agree with, that someone must have taken care of him. But how
do we know that? That’s us presuming everyone would have been
kind and caring. But what if it was simply that he was greedy and
grungy and maybe he was really funny, and people just brought
him food and he lived quietly by the Tigris River? What if because
he wasn’t hunting and he wasn’t out and about getting munched
by lions and tigers, maybe he just survived? I’m cautious to
impose my notion of caring and kindness onto archaeological
evidence, but we do know that Nandy survived. Carbon dating
showed he lived 45,000 years ago. It cheers me up because we
blind folk have all been here for a while. It’s not like blind people
suddenly popped up. Blind people are part of human history.

In writing Life Unseen, were there any historical figures

whose life and experiences with blindness you particularly
resonated with?
I think finding blind women was the best thing. Finding Maria
Theresia von Paradis really did help me because she was as
famous as Mozart, she was incredibly talented, she made money
from making music and she died wealthy. I think von Paradis
was the first person who really made me think that this wasn’t
a fruitless enterprise. Von Paradis had a lot of medical treatment
and it really upset me thinking about how this woman had

61
 gone through such awful treatments. Her head was bandaged much in the 19th century. The Reform Act got
up, she had electrodes put on her eyes, she had leeches on her rid of the Elizabethan Poor Laws which said
back and they cut her. Maybe that’s my 21st century reaction to that you must look after the blind, the deaf
it, but we know that she hated it because her doctor said that and the dumb in this list of infirmities and
she was insanely in pain from all the treatments. I thought she disabilities. But then there was this idea in
was successful and talented. I’m sure she was understood as the 19th century, led by Malthusian theory,
inspirational, although I didn’t feel that about her. She invented that people shouldn’t be looking after the
raised maps and she got silk scarves and put knots in them burdens of society. I feel like there’s still a
to learn the key changes. She was privileged and she had an sniff of it around now with the idea that
education so those two things will totally shift your chances, but I blind and disabled people are scroungers and
really liked that she existed. taking advantage. In the book I write about
The other person I really loved was the 19th century being accused of faking it myself and that
philanthropist Elizabeth Gilbert, who was nicknamed Bessie. She happens all the time.
was blind, privileged, had access to education and had a bit of TOP A 19th century
money. Bessie was raised like her other sisters, dressed herself and What impact do you hope that Life Unseen will have on the engraving of blind
residents of Stepney
way people consider visually impaired people from the past
“BLIND PEOPLE ARE NOT CONFINED TO
Workhouse
and in the present?
ABOVE The
I hope it helps sighted people not be scared of sight loss. It’s
THE CORRIDORS OF HISTORY”
Austrian musician
definitely hard and difficult but also has advantages – history and composer
shows us this. One of the frightening aspects of blindness is Maria Theresia
von Paradis was as
took herself out and about. She had chances that, again, most of feeling like you are going to be treated differently and be alone. I’d famous as Mozart
the women of her era did not have. She learned to write between like people to read my book and think that it’s all about how we
two boards and she wrote to her father about there being very treat each other.
little chance that she would get married, but that she would use It’s important to note that everybody’s experience of blindness
her inheritance to do something for other blind people. Bessie or of not seeing is unique to them. I don’t want to tell people how
went off and started a charity and got the backing of Queen to feel about blindness per se because it’s their experience. I’ve
Victoria and Benjamin Disraeli. It was called Clarity and it was had bad days and I’ve been scared, so this book is not all about
a cooperative, so everybody had a stake in it. The charity made always being cheerful and positive about blindness. But it is about
baskets, brushes, stools and wooden products in Holborn, London. changing the dial a little bit with regards to how we talk about it.
There was a Braille library, a choir and a pension pot – it was so I think that it’s important that blind and visually impaired people
well thought out and it was owned and worked by blind people. It (blindness is part of a spectrum) own our own history and feel
centred around work ethic and the charity put the money it made like blind people are not confined to the corridors of history. I’d
back into housing and food. I think she was very much part of her love in 100 years’ time if the word ‘blind’ would not evoke such
era in terms of philanthropy. There were something like over 600 emotion and would just be a descriptor.
or 700 charities for blind people in Britain in the 19th century, but I want people to see that there’s a spectrum of human ability
Bessie did something that included the blind people themselves. and disability and that it’s been around since time began. It’s not
a separate body of boutique specialist interest. One in five of us
If you could choose any era to live in as a visually impaired will have an eyesight problem, particularly when we are over 60.
person, when would you choose? Still to this day, the notion of blindness is
I would certainly say my own era. Maybe being a posh blind nun so polarised, and I think it boils down to
in the medieval era would be interesting. If I was educated and people being terrified. They are scared that
thoughtful, I would go to a convent or an abbey. There were a few they will not be able to cope. But the point
blind nuns who became abbesses and they had people to read for is that you do cope because you have no
them. I think the 19th century would be hell on Earth – the 1834 choice, by functioning in a different way.
LIFE UNSEEN:
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images

Reform Act made being blind much harder because it created There are some really good people thinking
institutions like the workhouse. You would have to prove that you
were capable. Unless you were like Bessie and you had money,
about this and the development of haptic
technology or audio description all come A STORY OF BLINDNESS
you had no chance. You were sent off to an institution and there from helping blind people. So why don’t (BLOOMSBURY, 2023) BY
were some really horrible labels associated with blind people. we think of it as something that’s part of us SELINA MILLS IS AVAILABLE
The notion of the beggar is ‘formally’ attached to blindness very rather than a niche subject? TO BUY NOW.

62
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 This illustration shows Saigo’s
troops blunt the Imperial
Army’s determined assault
on the Shiroyama heights.
But the truth was the rebels
had been decimated by their
enemy’s howitzers beforehand
© Getty Images

Greatest Battles

T
he rising that began on 15 February 1877 had
the gravitas and splendour of the Sengoku
Jidai (the bygone Warring States period)
that roiled Japan from 1467 to 1600. But
the circumstances of 1877 were different
as samurai in their thousands, armed to the
teeth, swept through northeast Kyushu – Japan’s
prominent southern island.
Outwardly, these fighting men of Satsuma
Province announced a long trek to the imperial
capital Tokyo as a means for pressing their cause.
Within weeks, however, the campaign faltered as
a botched siege and a wobbly command structure

KAGOSHIMA, JAPAN, 1-24 SEPTEMBER 1877

undermined the rebels.
Adding insult to injury, the response from Tokyo
was the arrival of army and police regiments in their
Written by Miguel Miranda drab marine-blue uniforms. Leading the imperial

64
forces were aristocratic samurai and courtiers who to raise Japan’s prestige. The imperial court decided daimyo and their samurai retainers were abolished
were determined to uphold the new era: the end otherwise and set the country on a rapid course and, as some compensation, were entitled to receive
of the Tokugawa bakufu and the permanence of toward industrialisation and, for the meantime, small pensions. Most importantly, for the Meiji
Emperor Meiji. Japan would not go to war against any state. court a modern armed force was to be founded that
Leading the rebels was Saigo Takamori, once a sidelined the prominence of samurai.
champion of restoring the emperor but now fully SEEDS OF REBELLION The re-organisation of local government was
committed to overthrowing the state. The limited historiography on the Satsuma seen as an onerous burden as samurai families in
Opposing him was not just the young Emperor Rebellion, often tucked into summaries of the Meiji the Satsuma region lived in marginal poverty. An
Meiji, formerly known as Prince Mutsuhito, but the era, focuses on the discontent that gripped the esteemed adviser and general in the imperial court,
imperial court, or mikado, that was staffed by the Shimazu samurai clan when the Tokyo government the rebel leader Saigo himself was not affected by
heads of other samurai clans, all firm believers in a acted on its policies for overhauling Japan’s this reform, but his family were outspoken about
modern society that could stand among the world’s economic order. With the creation of a financial Tokyo’s foreign policy. In his frustration over the
industrial powers. system patterned after European countries, the imperial court’s reluctance to declare war on Korea
The schism between these two factions was not feudal organisation of society was dismantled. This and annex Formosa (known today as Taiwan) a
the samurai heritage in particular but the conduct meant what had once been clan domains were contemptuous Saigo quit the government and
of foreign policy. The rebelling Shimazus under erased in favour of prefectures, with a governor used his influence to establish paramilitary camps
Saigo wanted violent conquests abroad as a means responsible for the citizens’ welfare. The local (shigakkos) in Satsuma that attracted thousands of

65
 Greatest Battles
This dramatic depiction of
the battle for Shiroyama
depicts Saigo, attired like a
European officer, directing
his samurai against the
encroaching Imperial Navy
3x © Getty Images

samurai. There was a dimension of class struggle insisted their cause was a just one, but Tateki Admiral Sumiyoshi would give his opponent no
to this as Saigo’s staunchest support did not come forbade his troops from leaving and burned all the quarter. With just a few hundred of his desperate
from the actual Shimazu family – who enjoyed houses surrounding the castle, giving his riflemen a samurai remaining, Saigo ordered his men to
high-ranking positions in the emperor’s court – but clear field of fire. muster whatever supplies they could before they
the rural samurai of his homeland who feared for The samurai rebels used some of their cannon occupied the hilltop of Shiroyama.
their future. against the ramparts and wooden structures of
With up to 20,000 samurai mustering under the the castle, but the defenders were undeterred. For THE LAST STAND
Shimazu banner a march was set for Kumamoto weeks the garrison withstood hunger and privation To the dismay of the imperial court and the
Castle, a local stronghold and the seat of Meiji but Tateki’s gamble paid off. An imperial army that embarrassment of the army generals in the field,
authority in Kyushu, but upon arriving at their had disembarked at Nagasaki arrived, set the rebels Saigo and at least a battalion’s worth of samurai
destination the samurai led by Saigo struggled to flight, and relieved Kumamoto Castle by April. had regrouped and swept into the sleepy coastal
to overwhelm the garrison. It did not help their The siege of Kumamoto was broken after 55 days town of Kagoshima. Unlike Nagasaki, Kagoshima
cause that the defenders were motivated to hold and almost depleted the rebel army. was closed off from the world and surrounded by
the fortress and the rebels’ ammunition supply The vanquished samurai rebels made a fighting forested hills.
was soon dwindling. To add an element of retreat back to their homeland and marched The rebels made their camp on the hilltop of
farce, Kumamoto Castle itself was an antiquated east toward the coast. Saigo and some 10,000 Shiroyama, giving them a vista to observe the
structure built in the 17th century and it had samurai travelled hundreds of kilometres with town below and situational awareness in every
never been subjected to any upheaval close to a ease, avoiding pursuit and detection by much direction, but these advantages meant getting cut
full-blown siege. The Shimazu were protective larger imperial forces, and tried to capture the port off from escape and any resupply. The tactical side
of their autonomy in the Tokugawa era so they’d city of Hyuga. When they met stiff resistance the of things was just as difficult. By the summer Saigo
poured labour and money into building small samurai retreated to the nearby town of Nobeoka and his followers were little more than fugitives
forts around Satsuma. Kumamoto was the largest to the north and gave battle. When fielded against from justice and their families dispossessed of their
among them but its elaborate moats, ramparts and determined imperial soldiers with sword and rifle homes. Elsewhere in the Hyuga domain a guerrilla
wooden towers were far from intimidating. Yet in the rebels crumbled and were surrounded. war unfolded, to the frustration of the imperial
an indictment of anachronistic samurai warfare, the After a consultation with Saigo’s commanders on troops – northerners with limited knowledge of the
castle held fast against its former masters. 18 August it was decided to surrender the greater region. Those who led the rebellion had nothing
One major obstacle the samurai rebels faced was part of the rebel army, some 7,000 exhausted to lose, which meant the shortage of ammunition
a lack of ammunition and gunpowder in Satsuma samurai. To save face, Saigo and his staunchest for their Springfield muskets was taken for granted
prefecture. Before the uprising had even begun, followers such as Kirino Toshiaki were allowed to and there was little hope that clemency would be
the army and national police removed these stores. escape. Having broken through imperial lines in offered by the imperial court. Instead, up to 15,000
Nonetheless, the failure to capture even an ageing a surprise attack, the ragtag group made haste for imperial soldiers were rushed to Kagoshima in a
fortification was certainly damning for the Shimazu Kagoshima and reached it by 1 September. blatant show of force. These included the Japanese
clan’s reputation. On 3 September the imperial troops were Navy, whose officers were shaped by advisers from
nearly driven away by the rebels marching from Britain’s Royal Navy.
ROUT AND RUIN the northeast, but the sudden arrival of the navy The Battle of Shiroyama lasted three weeks and
The small garrison who held the castle was led by ruined Saigo’s plans for holding Kagoshima. It did was a brief siege that, as providence would have it,
a loyal and very stubborn officer: Tani Tateki. An not help that the reinforcements that Tokyo sent spared the innocent residents of Kagoshima from
unremarkable samurai of unquestionable loyalty, to Kagoshima were led by Admiral Kawamura its worst effects. We must dispel any thought of
Tateki was astute enough to ignore the rebels’ pleas Sumiyoshi, a high-born Satsuma samurai who was the ensuing events as a clash between ‘traditional’
for his surrender. The samurai outside Kumamoto once Saigo’s comrade-in-arms. Despite this history, samurai and ‘modern’ Japanese forces. Both sides

66
 Battle of Shiroyama
A line of Japanese soldiers practise using their
Snider-Enfield rifles with fixed bayonets. During
the latter half of the 19th century huge quantities
of Western small arms were imported by Japan

IMPERIAL ARMY & NAVY

During the peaceful centuries of Tokugawa rule

samurai clans were allowed to hone their martial
arts skills in exclusive schools. The Shimazu
clan in particular were fond of these shigakko
academies for training young men in kenjutsu

used rifles as their primary armament and, among EMPEROR MEIJI YAMAGATA ARITOMO KAWAMURA SUMIYOSHI
the rebels, these small arms were in poor condition When the Tokugawa shogunate was Made chief of staff to the new In command of the Imperial Japanese
after months of combat. brought to an end in 1867 and the Imperial Japanese Army, Yamagata Navy, Kawamura had a personal family
imperial family of Japan was restored was the architect of this new military connection to the rebellion’s leader as
What truly set the imperial forces apart from the to the throne, it was Mutsuhito who force’s organisation and philosophy. his wife was Saigo’s aunt. He was also
rebels was attire; the former adopted the fashion of became the 122nd emperor of Japan Following his years in the military a native of Satsuma, the region the
European armies of the time – button-down jackets aged just 15. Under his leadership, he served as prime minister on two samurai retreated to. Following the
and maroon trousers – and their officers sometimes Japan was set on a path of rapid occasions and as president of the rebellion he was entrusted with the
modernisation that angered some Japanese Privy Council from 1909 upbringing of future emperor Hirohito
hung sabres on their belts rather than the samurai’s
traditionalist samurai. until his death in 1922. and his brother.
katana. By comparison the Shimazu rebels had
been reduced to a motley assemblage, half-starved
and facing death. None wore any armour, as it had
long since become obsolete by the use of guns.
The samurai did carry personal weapons such as
SATSUMA REBELS
swords and spears in case of close-quarters combat,
which never did happen during the battle, contrary
to sensational newspaper reportage at the time. An
advantage for the imperial army below Shiroyama
was predictable enough. Aside from sheer numbers,
they had howitzers and these medium-calibre
artillery pieces, brought ashore from the navy’s
warships, did their work in reducing the crude
fortifications erected by the defiant rebels.
After the first week of the Shiroyama stand-off

All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images, wiki/National Diet Library

Kagoshima itself was near-empty; the residents took
flight as early as a month prior and some houses
were destroyed. By all accounts the officers of the
imperial army were far more capable and cautious
than their opponents atop Shiroyama. Rather than
have their troops assault the rebels, who had the
advantages of trenches and dugouts, an assault that
could squander lives for little gain, mortars were
brought as close as possible without exposing their
crews to gunfire – a well-aimed percussion cap
musket was still lethal at 200 metres.
The grim reality of the encircled samurai on SAIGO TAKAMORI BEPPU SHINSUKE
Shiroyama was, since they established their position One of three nobles who helped to lead the Meiji Another samurai who for a time was an officer in the
with haste, there were insufficient supplies to hold Restoration, Saigo led forces for the empire in the Boshin Imperial Japanese Army, Beppu is believed to have been
War. However, he was persuaded to lead the samurai the man tasked with acting as Saigo’s second when he
out for any meaningful period of time. Their food rebels in the Satsuma Rebellion that followed. Dying at performed seppuku. There has been some doubt cast on
supply was almost non-existent, and a few days into the Battle of Shiroyama on 24 September 1877, he quickly the gravely injured Saigo’s ability to do this, but Beppu was
their ordeal starvation and weakness set in. became a folk hero in Japan. the one to decapitate him.

67
 Greatest Battles

In addition, the 49-year-old Saigo was in poor

shape; exhausted by the flight to Kagoshima, 01 Kagoshima overrun
On 1 September approximately
400 samurai led by Saigo Takamori rush
03 Standing firm
The rebel stronghold is
inaccessible from almost all directions,
he spent the days in a shallow ditch that barely into Kagoshima from the northeast. They which protects them from a
protected him from the elements. Posthumous overrun the town but are outnumbered. determined assault by imperial troops.
illustrations of the rebel leader tend to glamorise
him in colourful attire and a distinct white sash tied

02 Reinforcements 04 Under fire

around his head. This was the romance of Satsuma,
but the truth of the matter was Saigo and his With fresh imperial troops By 10 September mortars are now
holdouts were facing certain death. arriving by sea the rebels evacuate in position just yards away from the rebel
the town and take over the Shiroyama perimeter. Other 50-pounder cannons farther
heights on 3 September. away maintain a steady bombardment.
SAMURAI DIEHARDS
The doomed samurai atop Shiroyama realised
their last remaining hope for survival vanished
when a heavy bombardment from the warships
anchored outside Kagoshima nearly wiped them
out. On the dreadful day of 10 September the
rebels suffered at least 200 casualties and their
leader Saigo was himself ailing from sickness. But
Admiral Kawamura was steadfast in his mission to
annihilate the rebels and he went as far as rebuffing
01
an attempt by Shimazu clan emissaries who
inquired about a possible ceasefire.
The last phase of the battle was a gruesome
mop up. The imperial forces readied an intense
bombardment and, on the morning of 24
September, launched an all-out assault with
infantry. On they came in unbroken lines through
the fog and smoke with rifles brandished, lethal
and unstoppable. The samurai behind the palisades
managed a feeble resistance; they were low on
ammunition and morale but custom dictated they
couldn’t abandon their leader and face the ultimate
shame – to be held captive by peasant conscripts
and rival samurai from the Satsuma region.
There was no drama or poignancy in this final
spurt of violence, only a miserable end for the
rebels. When Saigo was shot near his groin the
04
exhausted leader performed a form of ritual suicide
known as seppuku to spare himself the humiliation
of surrender. There was a hurried effort to conceal
the severed head of the rebel leader but this too
was collected among the corpses in the overrun
encampment. With little fanfare or celebration the
victorious imperial troops retrieved the bodies of
the fallen – casualties were light on their side –
and buried them in a mass grave.
No other civil disturbance followed the
Satsuma Rebellion and the influence of the
Shimazus and other samurai clans was
never restored, although a local legend soon
emerged from the episode. The events
were dramatised in pictorial form through
ukiyo-e – woodblock prints – and these
circulated in newspapers and magazines
at the time. It was through ukiyo-e prints
that the Shimazu rebels attained a place
in history they never deserved: as the
vengeful samurai pitted against the
Westernising state being ushered in
by the Meiji court. The irony is the
rebellion validated the government
as it showed the rest of Japan how it
managed a national crisis.

68
 Battle of Shiroyama

05 Heavy
a casualties
The Japanese Navy’s offshore ironclads open
fire on Shiroyama and inflict heavy casualties from 10
“THE JAPANESE NAVY’S OFFSHORE IRONCLADS
September until 22 September. Up to half of Saigo’s
men are killed or wounded.
OPEN FIRE ON SHIROYAMA AND INFLICT HEAVY
CASUALTIES FROM 10 SEPTEMBER UNTIL 22
06 Bloody endgame
As many as 15,000 Japanese army conscripts SEPTEMBER. UP TO HALF OF SAIGO’S MEN ARE
and sailors are sent to Kagoshima from different parts
of Japan. The final assault takes place on 24 September
and most of the rebels are killed.
KILLED OR WOUNDED”

06

Map by: Nicholas Forder

03

05

02

69
 What If…

With no ruling monarchy and no Christmas, what

would a continuing republic have looked like?
Interview by Callum McKelvie

INTERVIEW WITH
JOHN MORRILL
Professor John
Morrill is an expert
F ollowing the Roundhead victory at
the end of the English Civil War, King
Charles I of England was executed.
Oliver Cromwell, the leader of the new
republic, took charge but refused the
tight military control. For example,
there is a significant series of garrisons
in Scotland, and they’re important not
only for intimidating the population
and reminding them that there’s no
bishops, the crown and 800 ‘malignant’
royalists. Eventually, they ran out of land
to sell and were forced to use credit.
Interest rates went up and Cromwell had
already alienated the main money men in
on the English crown himself. For the next 11 years, point in rebelling, but also because the London – he’d not honoured his promises
Civil War and the
Interregnum. He in a period known as the Interregnum, military officers stationed there act as to prioritise them in the redistribution of
taught at Trinity Cromwell and Parliament ruled over a magistrates and local governors. So it’s a land in Ireland. However, Cromwell was
College, Oxford
and is the author of
now strictly puritan nation. Festivals such highly militarised regime. In Ireland 40 aware that if he cuts back on the army
Oliver Cromwell: The as Christmas and Easter were banned per cent of all land was transferred from and significantly reduces the military
Brave, Bad Man Of and theatres were closed. But following Irish Catholics to English Protestants and presence then it’s possible there might
British History due
for publication in Cromwell’s death and the lacklustre 40,000 Catholic soldiers deported, but the be unrest, particularly in Scotland and
October. reception of his successor, Charles II problem is that he’s running out of money. Ireland. So things are not entirely secure.
returned to England and the monarchy The large funds needed to support the
was restored. However, is it possible that military establishment always outstripped So how much of the eventual collapse
if a different successor was chosen, the even the very high levels of taxation that of the republic is due to Richard
English republic could have continued? were in place. Cromwell’s effectiveness as a leader?
Initially, that problem was resolved A number of historians have made
What was the situation in England by selling the land of cathedrals, the attempts to rehabilitate Richard Cromwell.
upon the death of Oliver Cromwell
in 1658?
Complicated. On the one hand the nation
was secure and there was no realistic
prospect of any uprisings attempting to
overthrow the regime. Over the previous
years all Royalist opposition had been
disarmed and dispirited. There’s a
Presbyterian who says of Cromwell that
Main image source: © Alamy, © Getty Images, © Shutterstock

“I Will not oppose him, but he deserves

to be hanged for a fool If he thinks that
I will help him if once he stumbles”. In
other words, he’s achieved acquiescence
but he lacks popular support. I think it’s
RIGHT
important to remember that we are not
The brutal English only talking about England but Scotland,
civil wars saw King Wales and Ireland too. The regime is
Charles I executed and
secure, but only because it’s got a very
© Alamy

Britain plunged into a

Puritan Republic large military establishment and very

70
with it

71
 What If…

THE PAST
1660
THE RESTORATION
Following Richard’s disastrous rule he was
forced to flee. Parliament would eventually
choose to restore the monarchy and Charles
II was invited back to once again rule over
his former kingdoms. In a ceremony on 23
April 1661 he was crowned, the delay partly
being due to the fact that a new crown
had to be made as the previous one had
been melted during
the years of the
republic. His reign
was a troubled one,
thanks to outbreaks
of plague, the disaster For example Jason Peacey, a very good ABOVE-LEFT often thought that, prior to his death,
historian, believes that he was really The death mask of there had been a pretty catastrophic
of the Great Fire of
Oliver Cromwell. At
London and defeat nowhere near as bad a leader as he was the end of his rule falling out between him and Cromwell.
in the Second Anglo- made out to be. Personally, I’m not so the republic was in Although there had been a close bond
Dutch War. financial difficulties
sure. One problem regarding Richard’s between them, towards the end of
succession is that Oliver Cromwell, under ABOVE-RIGHT Cromwell’s time in Ireland he seems
During his return
1660 – 1710 the constitution of 1657, was required to
nominate his own successor. There wasn’t
to England, Charles
II stopped in
to be really demoting Ireton. What the
latter could have brought is a very clear
any other mechanism through which Rotterdam. If the legal mind. He was less fiercely puritan
RESTORATION COMEDY someone could legitimately take charge.
On the day before his death, Cromwell is
republic had not
fallen, would the
monarchy have
than Cromwell and most likely would
have been very concerned with getting a
By order of Parliament, on 6 September
1642, London’s theatres were closed and said to have been delirious and murmured remained in exile? written constitution that really worked.
would remain so for the next 18 years. Richard’s name to an appreciative In Ireland he likely would have been very
Under Cromwell, this form of entertainment
audience – but of course if he hadn’t hardline and interested in dispossessing
was seen as ‘ungodly’ and so was banned.
However, upon Charles II’s return theatre they’d be in a real pickle! But there’s the remaining Catholic population.
once again flourished. In particular, comedy also quite a strong possibility that But I’m not entirely sure that if he
proved extremely popular. ‘Comedy of Cromwell had written a nomination had survived he would have been a
Manners’, as the and given it to his secretary of tremendously attractive alternative.
style of this period
became known,
state John Thurloe, who was a On the other hand, if there was
was a form that master of steaming out sealed an envelope containing John
poked fun at the documents. WH Dawson in the Lambert’s name, then that’s a more
behaviours and 1930s argued that Cromwell had intriguing possibility. Let’s assume
societal norms
actually nominated John Lambert that Lambert was in fact Cromwell’s
of the day. Many
restoration but the council suppressed nominee. What would that mean?
comedies are this and claimed he nominated Lambert came from solid Yorkshire
still performed to Richard instead. So there’s added gentry stock, more solid than Cromwell
this day. complications to Richard’s succession. and so he would have been an attractive
How was he as a leader? He lacked figure for the gentry. He’s committed
charisma but also a clear vision. That’s to a broad religious settlement, but he
1688 – 1689 pretty fatal when he’s surrounded by ABOVE
Oliver Cromwell’s
doesn’t have Cromwell’s zeal and doesn’t
powerful people who do have visions but son, Richard, who have Cromwell’s desire to build a new

GLORIOUS REVOLUTION they clash with one another. It’s possible lacked the vision Jerusalem. He also has an unblemished
and charisma to be a
he was put in because everyone thought successful ruler military record and had been a highly
Following the death of Charles II, his
brother, James II, became king. James that he was weak and that they could successful general in the north and then
quickly proved himself to be an unpopular control him. He seems to have been in Scotland. He is much more considered
ruler and pushed England to the paralysed into inactivity, all the while the and moderate than anyone else and there
brink of another civil war. financial situation continues to deteriorate is a possibility that he could have been
William of Orange and
and army unrest continues to grow. successful. But how he would have solved
his wife Mary arrived in
England with an army the financial difficulties, I don’t know.
and James was removed Could Cromwell’s son in law, Henry
from the throne. Their Ireton, or John Lambert have made So if the republic had continued,
reign saw more limits
effective leaders? what could it have looked like?
placed on the power of
the monarchy and greater Years earlier Henry Ireton might have The most obvious thing is it wouldn’t
rights given to parliament. seemed the obvious successor but I’ve have been Anglican, there would still have

72
 England had remained a republic?

THE POSSIBILITY
1660
OLIVER CROMWELL – HERO?
In the autumn of 1660, the bodies of Oliver
Cromwell, Henry Ireton and John Bradshaw
were removed from their graves at the orders
of Charles II. The bodies were taken to the
gallows at Tyburn where they hung from
chains before being beheaded. For the next
25 years, the heads were placed on a large
spike outside Westminster Hall. However, one
night a storm dislodged Cromwell’s head. For
centuries the head
passed through
various hands,
even appearing
been a broad national church based on ABOVE weddings, funerals, and accommodating in a touring ‘freak
puritan principles together with a very Following the semi-Puritan forms of festivals such as show’ before being
collapse of the
broad toleration for others. The second republic, the bodies Christmas. So it is possible we would have buried at Sidney
thing is that I think the configuration of of Oliver Cromwell, seen a new form of the Sacraments, still Sussex College in
Henry Ireton and the 20th century.
England, Ireland, Scotland, Wales would not fundamentally Anglican, but with
John Bradshaw Had the republic
have remained very different. Under the were posthumously these ideas creeping back. continued it’s
protectorate, there was a single parliament executed highly doubtful
for the whole of these islands for the only What do you think could be some he would have
received such
time before 1801. There would not have implications for today?
treatment and may
been the restoration of Irish and Scottish It’s almost impossible to say. However, I have been treated
Parliaments as there was in 1660 and do think there are two societal impacts as a national hero.
there would not have been a large degree that we can trace back to the Interregnum.
of devolution with executive functions The first is that in England, since the 17th
and judicial functions. Most likely, it century, there has been a deep suspicion 1706 – 1707
would have been a very colonial system. of religious fanaticism. There hasn’t ever
With Englishmen, acting as chief been the kind of religious extremism
executives and boards in Scotland. that you find in the history of most A SCOTTISH COLONY?
I think the process of colonisation European countries. Indeed, I The Treaty of Union and the Acts of Union,
and acculturation in Scotland and think there’s a fear of fanaticism passed in 1706 and 1707 overseen by Queen
Anne, resulted in the creation of Great
Ireland would have been a major, in general. You can even take this Britain and united England and
long-term difference. further as Britain was probably the Scotland. However, as John
least affected by the totalitarian Morrill suggests, had a
Would it have remained movements of the 1930s and 1940s. republic continued it is
likely that these acts
strictly Puritan? In particular, There is a kind of societal fear of
would never have
could you see festivals such as a return to a rather false memory occurred. Instead,
Christmas returning? of what the mid 17th century was England may have taken
To an extent they already were. Despite all about. You see this in the lack of a more colonial approach
Puritan attempts, aspects of traditional revolutionary fervour in Britain during to rule in Scotland.

Anglican religious culture were creeping the French Revolution and the decades
ABOVE
back, particularly around festivals afterwards. The second is that there has 2023
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images

Was General John

like Christmas. In fact, there were still Lambert chosen as never been any move in Britain back to
Christmas festivities in a large number Cromwell’s actual having military heroes as political leaders.
of churches. For example, the Puritans
successor?
Wellington is a partial exception, but he NO MORE MONARCHY?
had tried to replace the old Anglican becomes prime minister 15 years after Since Charles II was restored to the throne,
system, in which people took communion Waterloo and he’s more of a figurehead. there have been 16 subsequent monarchs.
only at Christmas, Easter and Pentecost, There’s a suspicion that you don’t want The current king, Charles III was crowned
on 6 May 2023. However, if the
with monthly communion services. But military leaders with strong support in republic had continued, what
in most parish churches it’s quite clear the armed forces, as political leaders. position would the monarchy
they are still celebrating communion at However, if you look around the world, be in? Would they have
Christmas and Easter. They may be using you’ll find that pretty unusual. If England died out in exile? Or would
there have been further
some more puritanical forms, but they are had remained a republic, it’s impossible
civil wars as they sought
remembering these are the great festivals. to say whether this suspicion of religious to regain the throne?
So there are lots of people who are using fanaticism or the lack of military heroes as
the Book of Common Prayer for baptisms, political leaders would have occurred.

73
 Through History

WHO ARE THE PAGANS?

A new book explores the rituals and beliefs of ‘pagan’
communities through their material culture

T
he label of ‘pagan’ has been used for over this definition having their own beliefs and of images, accompanied by Doyle White’s
a thousand years by Christians to describe practices. So can paganism be defined and what concise and informative research, helps readers
those who did not conform or subscribe did pagans believe? to understand more about what and how
Main image: © Public Domain, Bibi Saint-Pol

to Christianity, and instead worshipped In Pagans: The Visual Culture Of Pagan different ‘pagan’ communities have worshipped
their own gods and goddesses. Then, in Myths, Legends And Rituals (Thames & throughout history and navigates the eclectic
the 20th century, groups such as Wiccans and Hudson, 2023), writer Ethan Doyle White has material culture of different religious groups.
Druids began to refer to themselves as pagans. collated information on ‘pagan’ communities Doyle White’s book analyses and explains, in a
As a result, the term ‘pagan’ has come to throughout the centuries and presented facets visually beautiful way, the array of rituals and
encompass a large and diverse population, with of their cultural identities through various symbols that have come from ‘pagans’ who have
each historical and modern community within images and artefacts. Each stunning page found divinity in the natural and material world.

74
 Who are the Pagans?

CEREALIA
The ancient Roman festival of Cerealia, held in April, was dedicated
to Ceres, the goddess of grain. This painting entitled Spring by
Lawrence Alma-Tadema from 1894 shows women and girls processing
through the streets in honour of the goddess.
© The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles

SACRIFICE
Human sacrifice has
been a practice of many
cultures through the ages.
This blade, which dates
from the 11th to the 15th
century, was probably
used in sacrificial rituals by
the Chimú people of Peru.
© The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
York, gift and bequest of Alice K. Bache,
1974, 1977

MJÖLNIR
In old Norse mythology,
the god of thunder and
lightning, Thor, wielded his
hammer known as Mjölnir.
Pendants of the hammer,
like this silver one from
Skåne, Sweden were worn
by religionists between the
9th and 11th centuries.
© Ola Myrin, Statens historiska museum/
Swedish History Museum, Stockholm

75
 Through History

RITUALISM
Photographed by the ethnographer VV Sapozhnikov in the 1890s,
this ritual specialist is seen beating a drum during a performance. They
are from a community in the Altai Mountains in Russia who believed
the drum aided in visionary journeys.
© V. V. Sapozhnikov, Photo Materials from Expeditions in the Southern Altai Region, 1895-99, World Digital Library

MYTHICAL BEINGS
Various communities
throughout history have
believed humans share the
natural world with mythical
beings. This painting by
John Bauer from 1915
shows a family of trolls from
Scandinavian folklore. Trolls
were believed to turn to
stone during the day.
© John Bauer, ‘The Boy and the Troll or The
Adventure’, Among Gnomes and Trolls,
volume 9, 1915

GOLD AMULET
Possibly depicting a sun
goddess, this gold sculpture
may have been worn as an
amulet. It has been attributed
to the Hittite people of
Anatolia and dates from
the 14th or 13th century
BCE. It was cast using the
lost-wax technique.
© The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York,
gift of Norbert Schimmel Trust, 1989

76
 Who are the Pagans?

IZANAGI AND
IZANAMI
This 18th century painting
by Nishikawa Sukenobu shows
the god Izanagi and goddess
Izanami observing the creation
of an island. The scene comes
from the creation story of the
Japanese Shinto religion in
which the deities stir the seas
to form land.
© The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York,
Mary Griggs Burke Collection, gift of the Mary and
Jackson Burke Foundation, 2015
Pagans: The
THE ORACLE Visual Culture
AT DELPHI of Pagan Myths,
This painting from 1880 Legends and
by Camillo Miola shows the
Pythia, a priestess of Apollo,
who served as an oracle. The
Rituals
Pythia was based at Delphi (Thames & Hudson,
in Ancient Greece where
she would see visions after
2023) by Ethan Doyle
imbibing vapours that rose White is available to
from the floor of the temple.
© The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles buy now.

77
 The books, TV shows and films causing a stir in the history world this month
© StudioCanal

CROSS OF IRON
A grimy Eastern Front drama about the madness of war
Certificate: 18 Director: Sam Peckinpah Cast: James Coburn, Maximilian Schell, James Mason Released: Out now

M
ankind’s propensity to violence as a German perspective, the Iron Cross medal given between the imperious and aristocratic Captain
first resort is the quintessential theme out to soldiers who demonstrated the utmost Stransky (Maximilian Schell) and brave non-
in the work of Sam Peckinpah. His bravery in the field of combat. Beginning with commissioned officer Steiner (James Coburn),
most famous and celebrated film is an eerie montage of newsreel footage capturing which brilliantly adds further fuel to the blazing
The Wild Bunch (1969), whose slow- Hitler’s political and psychological grip over conflagration of battle.
motion bloodletting announced a new era in a nation, real-life scenes that recall Leni Unfolding on the Taman Peninsula in the
what could be shown on screen. The Wild Bunch Riefenstahl’s propaganda documentary Triumph Soviet Union, as the 17th army falls back and
is a western set in the early 20th century when Of The Will (1935), hauntingly soundtracked increasingly and obviously stares bitter defeat
outlaws were fast running out of places to by the folk song Hänschen Klein (Little Hans), in the face, the soldiers and their commanders,
hide, but his 1977 picture, Cross Of Iron, offered Peckinpah atmospherically sets the stage for in between skirmishes, sit around drinking
Peckinpah the chance to explore man’s savagery an extraordinarily brutal anti-war saga, also themselves into oblivion, the film’s gangrenous
to man in its optimum setting: the war movie. complete with painstakingly accurate use of hues and muddy landscapes adding to the sense
This new Blu-ray release by StudioCanal’s uniforms and weaponry. of slow decay and the ever-present nightmare of
Vintage Classics label benefits from a frankly A mainstream English-language production, inglorious death.
stunning 4K restoration sourced from the made by a big-name director, with screen Showing the men as cannon fodder for the
original 35mm negative. Over 240 hours went legends such as James Coburn and James Mason Iron Cross-obsessed Stransky, as well as the
into cleaning and removing flaws, including appearing in key roles, typically WWII movies disarray stemming from a broken command
scratches, dirt, wobbly frames, and other took the POV of the Allied nations fighting chain, this sympathy with the average conscript,
imperfections which occur when celluloid ages the Nazis on the beaches, in the forests and – for usually Germans are depicted as zombie-
in the can. Cross Of Iron has never looked better; villages of France, Italy and Germany. Here eyed Nazis – helped mark the film out from the
the restoration team having done the Lord’s instead, Peckinpah explored the fraught and crowd; especially in a genre stuffed to the gills
work in preserving this under-appreciated but dangerous plight of the ordinary duty-bound with American GIs blasting away faceless hordes
masterfully staged war-is-hell yarn. Wehrmacht soldier busy fighting a losing of the Wehrmacht. MC
As the honorific title suggests, Cross Of Iron campaign. It equally afforded the opportunity to
is a depiction of World War II told from the explore class conflict via festering antagonisms

78
 Book Film TV Podcast Games Other
Reviews by
Martyn Conterio, Catherine Curzon, Mallory James, Jonathan Gordon

CHILDREN OF THE
HOUSE OF CLEVES:
ANNA AND HER SIBLINGS
An in-depth dive into the family of Anne of Cleves
Author: Heather R Darsie Publisher: Amberley Publishing
Price: £22.99 Released: Out now

C
hildren Of The House Of Cleves delves into less familiar. From their personal troubles to
the life of Anna – better known to most as the occasionally hair-trigger political climate
Anne of Cleves – and her siblings, parents, through war, marriage and madness, Children Of
and wider family. While much has been The House Of Cleves tells the story of this once
written about Anne thanks to her ill-fated powerful dynasty.
marriage to Henry VIII, this is much more than The book is clearly structured and bolstered
a retelling of that familiar story. Instead, it is a by appendices and additional information
comprehensive and well-researched account of including quick reference tables of the important
some of the most turbulent times 16th century players across Europe and within Anna’s family
Europe ever witnessed, seen through the eyes of as well as an essential timeline. There is also a
the House of Cleves. comprehensive bibliography for those who wish
Author Heather R Darsie tells the story of the to read further and even a fascinating endnote on
era through the children of the dynasty of Cleves. the matter of witches and demons. This is a book
Their lives were rife with incident and between that should appeal to a broad range of audiences;
them Sybylla, Anna, Wilhelm and Amalia played it is authoritative, readable and fascinating. CC
a part in some of the most infamous events in
history, as well as some that will doubtless be

PURE WIT: THE REVOLUTIONARY

LIFE OF MARGARET CAVENDISH
Following a unique woman through war, exile and return
Author: Francesca Peacock Publisher: Head of Zeus
Price: £27.99 Released: 14 September

I
n 1643, Margaret Cavendish (then Lucas) encompassing philosophy, science and
made a dangerous and almost unthinkable literature. It particularly considers women’s
journey. Accompanied by her brother, she writing – and publication – during this era.
made her way from London to Oxford – Margaret was a Royalist aristocrat – in
crossing a country ravaged by the Civil War exile she would marry the then Marquess,
– to join the court of Queen Henrietta Maria. and future Duke, of Newcastle upon Tyne
Shy and anxious, Margaret struggled in her – but as well as this, she would become a
new surroundings. But she was committed to published author in an era when few women
the Royalist cause, and would later follow the did so. Margaret’s works included poetry and
queen into exile in Europe. Over the course philosophy, questioned marriage for women,
of war and exile, Margaret suffered multiple and offer one of the earliest examples of what
bereavements. Her home was also ransacked can be described as science fiction.
by Parliamentarian forces, and the graves of Pure Wit presents a rich portrait and detailed
her mother and sister desecrated. They made examination of Margaret’s compelling,
wigs of their hair. complex and controversial life, and analyses
In this new biography of Margaret, Pure Wit how she has been forgotten and remembered
details the Civil War alongside her personal in the centuries that have followed. MJ
story. However, it also provides a wider and
extensive exploration of the 17th century,

79
 RECOMMENDS…
What If Book of Alternative Luck of the Draw
Author Frank Murphy Price £25 Publisher Elliott & Thompson
American History
What if China had discovered America first? What if the American Including a vivid description of the costly raid against
Revolution had never happened? What if President John F manufacturing infrastructure in the city of Regensburg, Germany,
Kennedy had survived his assassination? In What If… we explore on 17 August 1943, this book reveals the harrowing nature of
the potential answers to these fascinating counterfactual combat in the clouds. Frank Murphy and his B-17 Flying Fortress
questions and many more. bomber, and fellow crewmen, survived that pulse-pounding
Out Out experience, but Murphy’s bomber was later shot down during
now! Buy What If Book of Alternative American History in shops or
online at magazinesdirect.com Price: £14.99
now! a raid on the city of Münster, and he endured the privations of
captivity as a German prisoner of war. A compelling chronicle.

AFTER THE NAZIS

How West Germany rebuilt itself culturally following WWII
Author: Michael H Kater Publisher: Yale University Press Price: £25 Released: Out now

T
his is the concluding book in a series on the national consciousness, if at all?
from Michael H Kater on German How deep had the tendrils of National
culture following Weimar: From Socialism dug into people’s skin? What
Enlightenment To The Present (2014) place would German Jews have in this
and Culture In Nazi Germany (2019). new nation? After The Nazis opens with
Having tracked cultural movements a chapter about exactly those issues as
and influences from one of Germany’s well as life under Allied occupation and
most influential cities to the upheaval of the efforts to rebuild West Germany into a
Nazism, he now looks at the tumultuous democratic state.
post-war era, and it’s possibly the most There’s also an important connection
fascinating of them all. drawn between cultural freedom and
Kater paints a picture of a nation democratic ideals. The Third Reich
stripped of cultural touchstones it could controlled culture and the arts as a means
rely on. The Nazis had destroyed and of social control. People were not free to
sidelined art that it considered unworthy think or act as they wished and artistic
(at best) and degenerate (at worst). Now, in restrictions both reflected and enforced
the post-war era, anything connected to this view. In West Germany, a new spirit of
the Nazis was also taboo. With so much democracy needed to be engendered and
lost under the Third Reich and now a freedom of expression was integral to this.
whole generation of art considered tainted And all in a nation that was essentially
by Hitler’s regime, a cultural chasm bankrupt and rebuilding its economy
was waiting to be filled. It’s a dark and piece by piece. Kater lays out the gradual
daunting image in many respects, but also process very well, not least because he
one full of possibilities, which you can feel grew up living it.
in Kater’s own descriptions of it. From the outset, Kater reflects on
The new creative voices of West his own personal connections and
Germany, as the democratic half of the experiences to draw readers into these
nation was now known, were embracing stories, remembering episodes from his
rebellion, internationalism and anti- own time growing up in Germany or the
establishment thinking. There was distant relations of the past who had
experimentation and the expression of their roles to play in daily German life.
individualistic voices, not the grand social This humanisation is a welcome respite
hegemony that had been expected of the given that much of the book can feel very
1930s and 40s. academic and heavy in its language and
However, these new creative endeavours references, but it is also a means to ground
were not without some shadow of Nazism the history and information being shared,
“With so much lost under the still hanging over them and, again, Kater making it all that little bit easier to engage
Third Reich… a cultural chasm takes us down this thread. How did the
spectre of totalitarian rule, the war and
with and digest. JG

was waiting to be filled” the horrors of concentration camps weigh

80
 VS
Fact versus fiction on the silver screen

OPPENHEIMER
Director: Christopher Nolan Starring: Cillian Murphy, Emily Blunt, Matt Damon Country: USA Year: 2023
VERDICT: An incredibly accurate
The story of the man who ushered in the atomic age, portrayal of J Robert Oppenheimer’s
life, only slightly let down by some
but does it drop a bomb when it comes to the facts? stars on a flag.

01 In Christopher Nolan’s
biopic, theoretical physicist
J Robert Oppenheimer fears nuclear
02 Oppenheimer’s affair with
Jean Tatlock (Florence
Pugh) continues despite his
03 General Groves (Matt
Damon) is the military
director of the Manhattan Project.
04 Oppenheimer meets
President Truman, tries
to warn him of an arms race and
05 Recently, the internet has
seen a wave of fans point
out an error during a key sequence
detonation could result in a chain marriage and during his work at the Despite their differing temperaments, informs him “I have blood on my following the bombings of Hiroshima
reaction that would destroy the Manhattan Project. Authors Kai Bird the film shows them as developing a hands”. Truman takes offence and and Nagasaki. Americans are
world, and consults Albert Einstein and Martin J Sherwin (American friendship. In reality, while it might refers to him as a “crybaby” scientist. shown waving flags with 50 stars,
(Tom Conti). However, in reality he Prometheus) assert this, though it is be hard to describe them as friends, This interaction really occurred and representing 50 states. However, in
spoke to Arthur Compton. debated by other historians. they worked well together. is replicated almost word for word. 1945 there were only 48 states.
All images: © Alamy

81
 On The Menu
Check out
THE ULTIMATE
HISTORY COOKBOOK
available now

Did
you know?
Allegedly the Copts
ate ta’amia during
Lent when they were
not allowed to

Inset image: © Getty Images

eat meat. Ingredients

Main image: © Alamy

400g dried fava beans
4 cloves of garlic
2 onions
1 tsp ground cumin
1 tsp ground coriander
50g parsley leaves

TA’AMIA
50g coriander leaves
½ tsp baking powder
Salt and pepper to taste
3 tbsp sesame seeds
Vegetable oil

AN AUTHENTIC, HERBY AND SPICED ANCIENT DISH, EGYPT, C.1991 BCE - PRESENT
hough the precise origins of this
METHOD
T Egyptian dish have been disputed,
there is evidence that ta’amia may
have existed in ancient Egypt since
the 12th Dynasty. However, there is
another theory that states that the dish
01 Soak the fava beans overnight in a bowl of water
or for at least 10 hours.
02 Once soaked, remove the beans from the water
and pat dry.
fridge for at least an hour.
08 After an hour, remove the bowl from the fridge
and, using your hands, ball the mixture into
small spheres.
was invented around 1,000 years ago 03 Roughly chop the onions. 09 Roll each ball in sesame seeds to coat the
by the Copts, an Egyptian Christian sect. 04 Put the fava beans, garlic, onions, cumin, outside of the ta’amia.
The precursor to falafel, ta’amia is said ground coriander, parsley leaves, coriander 10 Put the vegetable oil into a deep pan and heat.
to have been exported from the port of leaves, baking powder and a pinch of salt and 11 Once the oil is hot, carefully place the balls into
Alexandria into the Middle East where pepper into a food processor. the pan to fry for around 5 minutes.
the recipe was altered and adapted. 05 Blend the ingredients in the food processor 12 Fry until the balls are golden brown and crispy,
Ta’amia, like falafel, remains a popular and together until a coarse paste is formed. then remove them and place them on paper
authentic Egyptian dish. It is made with 06 Remove the paste from the food processor and towels to absorb the excess oil.
fava beans, while falafel is made primarily place in a bowl. 13 Serve the ta’amia with a yoghurt dip
from chickpeas. 07 Cover the bowl with cling film and place it in the and pita.

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