data communications and networking

Lecture 4
Data and Signals

By Juliana S Kamaghe
[email protected]
Lecture 3: Outline

Chapter 3: Data and Signals

 3.1 Analog and Digital
 3.2 Analog-to-Analog Conversion
 3.3 Digital Signals
 3.4 Transmission Impairment
 3.5 Data-rate Limits
 3.6 Performance
Data and Signals
 Data refers to information that conveys
some meaning based on some mutually
agreed up rules
 conventions between a sender and a
receiver and today it comes in a variety of
forms such as text, graphics, audio, video
and animation.
signals
 It is electrical, electronic or optical
representation of data, which can be sent over a
communication medium
 signal is merely a function of the data. For
example, a microphone converts voice data into
voice signal, which can be sent over a pair of wire.
 The independent variable of the signal could be
time (speech, for example), space (images), or the
integers (denoting the sequencing of letters and
numbers in the football score)
Physical layer

To be transmitted,
data must be transformed to electromagnetic signals.
3-1 ANALOG AND DIGITAL
Data can be analog or digital
 Analog data refers to information that is continuous
 Typical examples of analog data are voice and video
 Analog signals can have an infinite number of values in a range

 Digital data refers to information that has discrete states

 Digital data take on discrete values
 Digital signals can have only a limited number of values
Text or character strings can be considered as examples of
digital data. Characters are represented by suitable codes, e.g.
ASCII code, where each character is represented by a 7-bit
code In data communications, we commonly use
periodic analog signals and nonperiodic digital signals.
Comparison of analog and digital signals
3-2 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS

Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or composite.

 A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave, cannot be
decomposed into simpler signals.
 A composite periodic analog signal is composed of multiple
sine waves.
Signal amplitude
 Frequency

Frequency is the rate of change with respect to time.

 Change in a short span of time means high frequency.

 Change over a long span of time means low frequency.

 If a signal does not change at all, its frequency is zero

 If a signal changes instantaneously, its frequency is infinite.
 Frequency and Period
Frequency and period are the inverse of each other.

Units of period and frequency

Two signals with the same amplitude,
but different frequencies
 Examples
The power we use at home has a frequency of 60 Hz. What is the period of
this sine wave ?

The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its frequency in kilohertz?

 Phase
Phase describes the position of the waveform
relative to time 0

Three sine waves with the same amplitude and frequency,

but different phases
 Example

A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to time 0. What is its phase in
degrees and radians?

Solution
We know that 1 complete cycle is 360°. Therefore, 1/6 cycle is
Wavelength and period

Wavelength = Propagation speed x Period

= Propagation speed / Frequency
Time-domain and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave

A complete sine wave in the time domain can be

represented by one single spike in the frequency domain.
 Frequency Domain

 The frequency domain is more compact and useful when we are

dealing with more than one sine wave.

 A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in data communication

o We need to send a composite signal, a signal made of many simple
sine waves.
 Fourier analysis

According to Fourier analysis,

any composite signal is a combination of simple sine
waves with different frequencies, amplitudes, and phases.

 If the composite signal is periodic, the decomposition

gives a series of signals with discrete frequencies;
 If the composite signal is nonperiodic, the decomposition
gives a combination of sine waves with continuous frequencies.
A composite periodic signal

Decomposition of the
composite periodic
signal in the time and
frequency domains
Time and frequency domains of a nonperiodic signal
 A nonperiodic composite signal
o It can be a signal created by a microphone or a telephone set
when a word or two is pronounced.
o In this case, the composite signal cannot be periodic
because that implies that we are repeating the same word or words
with exactly the same tone.
Bandwidth
The bandwidth of a composite signal is
the difference between the highest and the lowest
frequencies contained in that signal.
 Example
A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz,
with a middle frequency of 140 kHz and peak amplitude of 20 V.
The two extreme frequencies have an amplitude of 0. Draw the
frequency domain of the signal.

Solution
The lowest frequency must be at 40 kHz and the highest at
240 kHz.
Lecture 3: Outline

Chapter 3: Data and Signals

 3.1 Analog and Digital
 3.2 Analog-to-Analog Conversion
 3.3 Digital Signals
 3.4 Transmission Impairment
 3.5 Data-rate Limits
 3.6 Performance
3-3 DIGITAL SIGNALS

 In addition to being represented by an analog signal,

information can also be represented by a digital signal.
 For example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage
and a 0 as zero voltage.
 A digital signal can have more than two levels.
 In this case, we can send more than 1 bit for each level.
Two digital signals: one with two signal levels and
the other with four signal levels
 Examples
A digital signal has 8 levels. How many bits are needed per
level?

We calculate the number of bits from the formula

Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.

A digital signal has 9 levels. How many bits are needed per
level?

Each signal level is represented by 3.17 bits.

The number of bits sent per level needs to be an integer
as well as a power of 2.
Hence, 4 bits can represent one level.
 Examples
Assume we need to download files at a rate of 100 pages
per minute. A page is an average of 24 lines with 80
characters in each line where one character requires 8
bits. What is the required bit rate of the channel?

A digitized voice channel is made by digitizing a 4-kHz

bandwidth analog voice signal. We need to sample the
signal at twice the highest frequency (two samples per
hertz). Assume that each sample requires 8 bits.
What is the required bit rate?
 Example

HDTV uses digital signals to broadcast high quality video

signals. There are 1920 by 1080 pixels per screen, and the
screen is renewed 30 times per second. Also, 24 bits
represents one color pixel.
What is the bit rate for high-definition TV (HDTV)?

The TV stations reduce this rate to 20 to 40 Mbps

through compression.
The time and frequency domains of periodic and
nonperiodic digital signals
Baseband and broadband
 Base-band is defined as one that uses
digital signalling, which is inserted in the
transmission channel as voltage pulses
 broadband systems are those, which use
analog signalling to transmit information
using a carrier of high frequency
 Signaling: It is an act of sending signal over
communication medium
 Transmission: Communication of data by
propagation and processing
Baseband and broadband
 In baseband LANs, the entire frequency
spectrum of the medium is utilized for
transmission and hence the frequency
division multiplexing cannot be used
 Since broadband systems use analog
signalling, frequency division multiplexing is
possible, where the frequency spectrum of
the cable is divided into several sections of
bandwidth
Baseband transmission

In baseband transmission, the required bandwidth is

proportional to the bit rate;
if we need to send bits faster, we need more bandwidth.
Bandwidths of two low-pass channels
Baseband transmission using a dedicated medium

Baseband transmission of a digital signal that preserves

the shape of the digital signal is possible only if we have a
low-pass channel with an infinite or very wide bandwidth.
 Example

An example of a dedicated channel where the entire

bandwidth of the medium is used as one single channel is
a LAN.
Almost every wired LAN today uses a dedicated channel
for two stations communicating with each other.
In a bus topology LAN with multipoint connections, only
two stations can communicate with each other at each
moment in time (timesharing); the other stations need to
refrain from sending data.
In a star topology LAN, the entire channel between each
station and the hub is used for communication between
these two entities.

36
Rough approximation of a digital signal using
the first harmonic for worst case
Simulating a digital signal with first three harmonics
 In baseband transmission, the required bandwidth is
proportional to the bit rate;
if we need to send bits faster, we need more bandwidth.

Bandwidth requirements
 Example

What is the required bandwidth of a low-pass channel if we

need to send 1 Mbps by using baseband transmission?

Solution
The answer depends on the accuracy desired.
a. The minimum bandwidth, is B = bit rate /2, or 500 kHz.

b. A better solution is to use the first and the third

harmonics with B = 3 × 500 kHz = 1.5 MHz.

c. Still a better solution is to use the first, third, and fifth

harmonics with B = 5 × 500 kHz = 2.5 MHz.
 Example

We have a low-pass channel with bandwidth 100 kHz.

What is the maximum bit rate of this channel?

Solution
The maximum bit rate can be achieved if we use the first
harmonic. The bit rate is 2 times the available bandwidth,
or 200 kbps.

41
Bandwidth of a bandpass channel

If the available channel is a bandpass channel,

we cannot send the digital signal directly to the channel;
we need to convert the digital signal to an analog signal
before transmission.
Modulation of a digital signal for transmission
on a bandpass channel
 Example
An example of broadband transmission using modulation is
the sending of computer data through a telephone
subscriber line, the line connecting a resident to the
central telephone office.
These lines are designed to carry voice with a limited
bandwidth.
The channel is considered a bandpass channel.
We convert the digital signal from the computer to an
analog signal, and send the analog signal.
We can install two converters to change the digital signal
to analog and vice versa at the receiving end.
The converter, in this case, is called a modem.
 Example

A second example is the digital cellular telephone.

For better reception, digital cellular phones convert the
analog voice signal to a digital signal.
Although the bandwidth allocated to a company providing
digital cellular phone service is very wide, we still cannot
send the digital signal without conversion.
The reason is that we only have a bandpass channel
available between caller and callee.
We need to convert the digitized voice to a composite
analog signal before sending.
Lecture 3: Outline

Chapter 3: Data and Signals

 3.1 Analog and Digital
 3.2 Analog-to-Analog Conversion
 3.3 Digital Signals
 3.4 Transmission Impairment
 3.5 Data-rate Limits
 3.6 Performance
3-4 TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT

 Signals travel through transmission media, which are

not perfect.
 The imperfection causes signal impairment.
 This means that the signal at the beginning of the
medium is not the same as the signal at the end of the
medium.
 What is sent is not what is received.
 Three causes of impairment are attenuation,
distortion, and noise.
Attenuation
 Example
Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium
and its power is reduced to one-half.
This means that P2 is (1/2)P1.
In this case, the attenuation (loss of power) can be
calculated as

A loss of 3 dB (–3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half the

power.
 Example

A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is

increased 10 times.
This means that P2 = 10P1 .
What is the amplification (gain of power)?

50
 Example
One reason that engineers use the decibel to measure the
changes in the strength of a signal is that decibel numbers
can be added (or subtracted) when we are measuring
several points (cascading) instead of just two.
A signal travels from point 1 to point 4.

In this case, the decibel value can be calculated as

Distortion
Noise
 Example

The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the

noise is 1 μW; what are the values of SNR and SNRdB ?

Solution
The values of SNR and SNRdB can be calculated as
follows:

56
Two cases of SNR: a high SNR and a low SNR
 Example

The values of SNR and SNRdB for a noiseless channel are

We can never achieve this ratio in real life; it is an ideal.

58
Lecture 3: Outline

Chapter 3: Data and Signals

 3.1 Analog and Digital
 3.2 Analog-to-Analog Conversion
 3.3 Digital Signals
 3.4 Transmission Impairment
 3.5 Data-rate Limits
 3.6 Performance
3-5 DATA RATE LIMITS

A very important consideration in data communications is

how fast we can send data, in bits per second, over a
channel.
Data rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)

Increasing the levels of a signal may reduce the reliability

of the system.
 Nyquist Theorem
For noiseless channel,

BitRate = 2 x Bandwith x log2Levels

In baseband transmission, we said the bit rate is 2 times

the bandwidth if we use only the first harmonic in the
worst case.
However, the Nyquist formula is more general than what
we derived intuitively; it can be applied to baseband
transmission and modulation.
Also, it can be applied when we have two or more levels of
signals.
61
 Examples
Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz
transmitting a signal with two signal levels. What is the
maximum bit rate?

Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting a signal

with four signal levels (for each level, we send 2 bits).
What is the maximum bit rate?

62
 Example

We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with a

bandwidth of 20 kHz. How many signal levels do we need?

Solution
We can use the Nyquist formula as

Since this result is not a power of 2, we need to either

increase the number of levels or reduce the bit rate.
If we have 128 levels, the bit rate is 280 kbps.
If we have 64 levels, the bit rate is 240 kbps.
63
 Shannon Capacity
In reality, we can not have a noisless channel

For noisy channel,

Capacity = Bandwith x log2(1+SNR)

The Shannon capacity gives us the upper limit;

the Nyquist formula tells us how many signal levels we need.

64
 Example
Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of
the signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero.
In other words, the noise is so strong that the signal is
faint. What is the channel capacity?

Solution

This means that the capacity of this channel is zero

regardless of the bandwidth.
In other words, we cannot receive any data through this
channel.
65
 Example
Let’s calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a regular
telephone line. A telephone line normally has a bandwidth
of 3000. The signal-to-noise ratio is usually 3162.
What is the channel capacity?

Solution

This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line
is 34.860 kbps.
If we want to send data faster than this, we can either
increase the bandwidth of the line or improve the signal-
to-noise ratio. 66
 Example

For practical purposes, when the SNR is very high, we can

assume that SNR + 1 is almost the same as SNR.
In these cases, the theoretical channel capacity can be
simplifiedto

For example, we can calculate the theoretical capacity of

the previous example as

68
 Example
We have a channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth. The SNR for
this channel is 63.
What are the appropriate bit rate and signal level?

Solution
First, we use the Shannon formula to find the upper limit.

The Shannon formula gives us 6 Mbps, the upper limit. For

better performance we choose something lower, 4 Mbps,
for example.
Then we use the Nyquist formula to find the number of
signal levels.

69
Lecture 3: Outline

Chapter 3: Data and Signals

 3.1 Analog and Digital
 3.2 Analog-to-Analog Conversion
 3.3 Digital Signals
 3.4 Transmission Impairment
 3.5 Data-rate Limits
 3.6 Performance
3-6 PERFORMANCE

One important issue in networking is the performance of

the network—how good is it?

Bandwidth
Throughput
Latency (Delay)
bandwidth
 In networking, we use the term bandwidth in two
contexts

The first, bandwidth in hertz, refers to the range
of frequencies in a composite signal or the range
of frequencies that a channel can pass.
 The second, bandwidth in bits per second, refers
to the speed of bit transmission in a channel or
link
Throughput and latency
 The throughput is a measure of how fast we can
actually send data through a network
 The latency or delay defines how long it takes for
an entire message to completely arrive at the
destination from the time the first bit is sent out
from the source.
 Propagation time measures the time required for
a bit to travel from the source to the destination.
The propagation time is calculated by dividing the
distance by the propagation speed
 Examples

The bandwidth of a subscriber line is 4 kHz for voice

or data.
The bandwidth of this line for data transmission
can be up to 56,000 bps using a sophisticated modem
to change the digital signal to analog.

If the telephone company improves the quality of the

line and increases the bandwidth to 8 kHz,
we can send 112,000 bps.

74
 Example

A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an

average of 12,000 frames per minute with each frame
carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is the
throughput of this network?

Solution
We can calculate the throughput as

The throughput is almost one-fifth of the bandwidth in

this case.
75
 Example

What is the propagation time if the distance between the

two points is 12,000 km? Assume the propagation speed to
be 2.4 × 108 m/s in cable.

Solution
We can calculate the propagation time as

The example shows that a bit can go over the Atlantic

Ocean in only 50 ms if there is a direct cable between the
source and the destination.
76
 Example
What are the propagation time and the transmission time
for a 2.5-kbyte message if the bandwidth of the network
is 1 Gbps? Assume that the distance is 12,000 km and that
light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.

Solution

Note that in this case, because the message is short and

the bandwidth is high, the dominant factor is the
propagation time, not the transmission time.
The transmission time can be ignored.
77
 Example
What are the propagation time and the transmission time
for a 5-Mbyte message if the bandwidth of the network is
1 Mbps? Assume that the distance is 12,000 km and that
light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.

Solution

Note that in this case, because the message is very long

and the bandwidth is not very high, the dominant factor is
the transmission time, not the propagation time.
The propagation time can be ignored. 78
Concept of bandwidth-delay product

The bandwidth-delay product defines the number of bits

that can fill the link.

We can think about the link between two points as a pipe.

The cross section of the pipe represents the bandwidth,
and the length of the pipe represents the delay.
We can say the volume of the pipe defines the
bandwidth-delay product.
Filling the link with bits in case 1

80
Filling the link with bits in case 2

81
 Lecture 5
Transmission Media

1
A transmission media define as anything that can carry information from a source to a
destination.
Figure 7.1 Transmission medium and physical layer

Figure 7.2 Classes of transmission media

 7-1 GUIDED MEDIA
Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another,
include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.
A signal traveling along any of these media is directed and contained by the physical
limits of the medium. Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors
that accept and transport signals in the form of electric current. Optical fiber is a cable
that accepts and transports signals in the form of light.
1. Twisted-Pair Cable
A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic
insulation, twisted together, as shown in Figure 7.3.

One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only
as a ground reference. The receiver uses the difference between the two.
In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one of the wires, interference (noise)
and crosstalk may affect both wires and create unwanted signals.
If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted signals is not the same in
both wires because they are at different locations relative to the noise or crosstalk
sources . This results in a difference at the receiver. By twisting the pairs, a balance is
maintained. For example, suppose in one twist, one wire is closer to the noise source
7.84the other is farther; in the next twist, the reverse is true.
and
The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is referred to as
unshielded twisted-pair (UTP). STP cable has a metal foil or braided-
mesh covering that encases each pair of insulated conductors. Although metal casing
improves the quality of cable by preventing the penetration of noise or crosstalk, it is
bulkier and more expensive. Figure 7.4 shows the difference between UTP and STP.

RJ45 connector RJ-45

BNC
 Table 7.1 Categories of unshielded twisted-pair cables

Performance : One way to measure the performance of twisted-pair cable is to

compare attenuation versus frequency and distance. A twisted-pair cable can pass a
wide range of frequencies. However, Figure 7.6 shows that with increasing frequency,
the attenuation, measured in decibels per kilometer (dB/km), sharply increases with
frequencies above 100 kHz. Note that gauge is a measure of the thickness of the wire.
 Figure 7.6 UTP performance

Applications
otelephone lines to provide voice and data channels. The local loop--the line that
connects subscribers to the central telephone office-commonly consists of unshielded
twisted-pair cables.
The DSL lines that are used by the telephone companies to provide high-data-rate
connections also use the high-bandwidth capability of unshielded twisted-pair cables.
Local-area networks, such as 10Base-T and 100Base-T, also use twisted-pair cables.
2. Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in twisted-
pair cable, in part because the two media are constructed quite differently. Instead of
having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire
(usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased in an
outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two. The outer metallic
wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the second conductor, which
completes the circuit. This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath,
and the whole cable is protected by a plastic cover
 Two kinds:
1. Thicknet(RG-11): it connect 100 devices with range 500 m (more
expensive ).
2. Thinnet (RG-58): it connect 30 devices within 185 m (cheaper).
 To connect coaxial cable to device, we need (BNC).
Carries signals of higher frequency ranges than twisted-pair cable.
Figure 7.8 BNC connectors

Figure 7.9 Coaxial cable performance

3. Fiber-Optic Cable
A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.
Figure 7.10 Bending of light ray

1. If the angle of incidence I (the angle the ray makes with the line perpendicular to
the interface between the two substances) is less than the critical angle, the ray
refracts and moves closer to the surface. If the angle of incidence is equal to the
critical angle, the light bends along the interface. If the angle is greater than the
critical angle, the ray reflects (makes a turn) and travels again in the denser
substance. Note that the critical angle is a property of the substance, and its value
differs from one substance to another.
2. Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel.
3. A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic.
The difference in density of the two materials must be such that a beam of light
moving through the core is reflected off the cladding instead of being refracted into
it. See Figure 7.11.
 Figure 7.12 Propagation modes

1. Single-mode fiber
Carries light pulses
along single
path.
2. Multimode fiber
Many pulses of light
travel at
different angles
Figure 7.13 Modes
In multimode step-index fiber, the density of the core remains constant from the
center to the edges. A beam of light moves through this constant density in a straight
line until it reaches the interface of the core and the cladding. At the interface, there is
an abrupt change due to a lower density; this alters the angle of the beam's motion. The
term step index refers to the suddenness of this change, which contributes to the
distortion of the signal as it passes through the fiber.
In multimode graded-index fiber, decreases this distortion of the signal through the
cable. The word index here refers to the index of refraction. the index of refraction is
related to density.
A graded-index fiber, is one with varying densities. Density is highest at the center of
the core and decreases gradually to its lowest at the edge. Figure shows the impact of
this variable density on the propagation of light beams.
Table 7.3 Fiber types

7.92
.
Performance: The plot of attenuation versus wavelength in Figure716 shows a very interesting
phenomenon in fiber-optic cable. Attenuation is flatter than in the case of twisted-pair cable and
coaxial cable. The performance is such that we need fewer (actually 10 times less) repeaters
when we use fiber-optic cable.
Applications: Fiber-optic cable is often found in backbone networks because its wide bandwidth
is cost-effective. Today, with wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM), we can transfer data at a
rate of 1600 Gbps.

Advantages Fiber-optic cable has several advantages over metallic cable (twisted- pair or
coaxial).
•1. Higher bandwidth. 2. Less signal attenuation. 3. Immunity to electromagnetic interference.
4. Resistance to corrosive materials. 5. Light weight. 6. Greater immunity to tapping.

Disadvantages There are some disadvantages in the use of optical fiber.

1. Installation and maintenance. Fiber-optic cable is a relatively new technology. Its installation
and maintenance require expertise that is not yet available everywhere.
2.• Unidirectional light propagation. Propagation of light is unidirectional. If we need
bidirectional communication, two fibers are needed.
3.• Cost. The cable and the interfaces are relatively more expensive than those of other guided
media. If the demand for bandwidth is not high, often the use of optical fiber cannot be justified.
7.93
7.94 1303330 Data Communication & Computer Network 94
 7-2 UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS
Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor.
This type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication.
Figure 7.17 Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication

Radio, satellite microwave,, Bluetooth, and infrared light are all different forms
of electromagnetic waves that are used to transmit data

7.95
unguided signal can travel from the source to destination in several ways:
1.Ground Propagation:
 Radio waves travel through the lowest portion of the atmosphere, hugging the earth.
 The low frequency signal follow the curvature of the planet.
 Distance depends on the amount of the power.
2.Sky Propagation:
 Higher frequency radio radiate upward into the ionosphere where they are reflected
back to the earth.
 Sky propagation allow for greater distance with lower power output.
3.line-of-sight Propagation: Very high frequency signals are transmitted in
straight lines directly from antenna to antenna.

7.96
The section of the electromagnetic spectrum defined as radio waves and microwaves
is divided into eight ranges, called bands, each regulated by government authorities.
These bands are rated from very low frequency(VLF) to extremely high frequency (EHF).
Table 7.4 lists these bands, their ranges, propagation methods, and some applications.
Table 7.4 Bands

7.97
 Figure 7.19 Wireless transmission waves

Figure 7.20
Radio Waves Omnidirectional antenna
electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are called
radio waves;
waves ranging in frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves

Radio waves, for the most part, are omnidirectional. When an antenna transmits
radio waves, they are propagated in all directions. This means that the sending and
receiving antennas do not have to be aligned. A sending antenna sends waves that can
be received by any receiving antenna. The omnidirectional property has a disadvantage,
too. The radio waves transmitted by one antenna are susceptible to interference by
another antenna that may send signals using the same frequency or band.
 Between 3 KHz – 1 GHz.

 Radio waves use omnidirectional antenna.

 Radio waves used for multicast communication, such as radio and television.

 Sky Propagation. This makes radio waves a good candidate for long-distance broadcasting
such as AM radio.
The following describes some characteristics of microwave
propagation:
Microwave propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with the mounted
antennas need to be in direct sight of each other, towers that are far apart
need to be very tall. The curvature of the earth as well as other blocking
obstacles do not allow two short towers to communicate by using microwaves.
Repeaters are often needed for long distance communication.
1. Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. This
characteristic can be a disadvantage if receivers are inside buildings.
2. The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299 GHz. Therefore wider
sub-bands can be assigned, and a high data rate is possible.

Unidirectional Antenna Microwaves need unidirectional antennas that send

out signals in one direction.
Two types of antennas are used for microwave communications: the parabolic
dish and the horn.
A parabolic dish antenna is based on the geometry of a parabola: Every line
parallel to the line of symmetry (line of sight) reflects off the curve at angles
such that all the lines intersect in a common point called the focus.
The parabolic dish works as a funnel, catching a wide range of waves and directing
them to a common point. In this way, more of the signal is recovered than would be
possible with a single-point receiver. Outgoing transmissions are broadcast through a
horn aimed at the dish. The microwaves hit the dish and are deflected outward in a
reversal of the receipt path.
A horn antenna looks like a gigantic scoop. Outgoing transmissions are broadcast
up a stem (resembling a handle) and deflected outward in a series of narrow parallel
beams by the curved head. Received transmissions are collected by the scooped shape
of the horn, in a manner similar to the parabolic dish, and are deflected down into the
stem.
Figure 7.21 Unidirectional antennas

Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as cellular

telephones, satellite networks, and wireless LANs.
Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz (wavelengths from
1 mm to 770 nm), can be used for short-range communication. Infrared waves,
having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls. This advantageous
characteristic prevents interference between one system and another; a short-
range communication system in one room cannot be affected by another
system in the next room. When we use our infrared remote control, we do not
interfere with the use of the remote by our neighbors. However, this same
characteristic makes infrared signals useless for long-range communication. In
addition, we cannot use infrared waves outside a building because the sun's
rays contain infrared waves that can interfere with the communication.

 Between 300 GHz-400 THz

 Used for short-range communication.
 Very common with remote control devices, but can also be used for
device-to-device transfers, such as PDA to computer.
 Line-of-sight propagation.

Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed area

using line-of-sight propagation.

7.101
Applications
The infrared band, almost 400 THz, has an excellent potential for data transmission.
Such a wide bandwidth can be used to transmit digital data with a very high data rate.
The Infrared Data Association (IrDA), an association for sponsoring the use of infrared
waves, has established standards for using these signals for communication between
devices such as keyboards, mice, PCs, and printers. For example, some manufacturers
provide a special port called the IrDA port that allows a wireless keyboard to
communicate with a PC. The standard originally defined a data rate of 75 kbps for a
distance up to 8 m. The recent standard defines a data rate of 4 Mbps.
Infrared signals defined by IrDA transmit through line of sight; the IrDA port on
the keyboard needs to point to the PC for transmission to occur.

 (a) In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio waves follow the
curvature of the earth.
 (b) In the HF band, they bounce off the ionosphere.