ASTROPHYSICS AND

COMSMOLOGY

STEFAN BOLTZMAN LAW

Introduction
With our naked eye, we are only able to distinguish six different levels of how
bright stars appear to us. This is insufficient for scientific use as many stars of
differing brightness would appear identical to our eyes
This is why astronomers prefer to classify the actual brightness of stars which is
their total output power known as luminosity
TERMS
Luminosity is the rate at which energy of all types is radiated by an object in all
directions. It depends upon both the object’s size and, more importantly
temperature

Apparent Magnitude: This is how bright a star looks from Earth. It depends on the
object's actual brightness (luminosity) and how far away it is.

Absolute Magnitude: This is how bright a star would appear if it were placed at a
standard distance (10 parsecs or about 32.6 light-years) from Earth. It's a way to
compare the intrinsic brightness (luminosity) of different objects without being
affected by their varying distances

Light years
Light year is the distance that light can travel in one year
so to get the distance in metres in one year, we use the formula
distance = speed of light x time

where speed of light is 3 x 108 ms-1 and time will be converted from years to
seconds by 365 x 24 x 60 x 60 to give 3.15 x 107 seconds

so the distance in metres in 1 light year is 3 x 108 ms-1 x 3.15 x 107 seconds which
is 9.46 x 1015 m so to get the distance travelled in 32.6 light years which is used in
absolute magnitude, we do 32.6 x 9.46 x 1015 which is 3.08 x 1017 m
Apparent magnitude- photometry is a technique used in astronomy that is
concerned with measuring the intensity of light radiated by astronomical objects.
This light is measured through a telescope using a photometer. When calibrated
against standard stars of known intensity and colour, photometers can measure
the apparent magnitude of celestial objects
Absolute magnitude (M), This measure enables astronomers to compare the true
brightness of different objects, irrespective of their distances and the formula is:
M = m - 5 log 10 (D/10)
where: m = apparent magnitude.
M = absolute magnitude.
d = distance measured in parsecs (pc) (1 Parsec = 3.10 x 1016m) which is measured
using parallax method
Simple example to understand magnitudes
Let’s take an example of 2 identical cars on a road
When 2 identical cars are next to each other, we can see that the headlights are
the same brightness. This is absolute magnitude. Their intrinsic brightness
(luminosity) is the same (diagram 1) but when one pulls infront of the other, we
see its headlights appear brighter than the car left behind despite their headlights
having the same luminosity. The apparent brightness has changed (diagram 2)

The Law
The Stefan-Boltzmann Law states that for a black body which is an object that
absorbs all incident electromagnetic radiation, this law states that the total
energy radiated is proportional to its surface area and the fourth power of the
absolute temperature.
The Stefan-Boltzmann Law can be expressed mathematically as follows:
L=4πr2σT4
where:
L is the luminosity (total power radiated by the star),
R is the radius of the star,
σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (σ≈5.67×10−8 W m−2K−4),
T is the absolute temperature of the star

How is temperature measured

To calculate luminosity, we need to know the temperature of the star. There are
many ways that temperature of stars can be measured, we will be looking at the
way that uses the wavelength of light given off by the star
Using wiens law- Wein's Law is a formula that relates the temperature of a
blackbody radiator to the wavelength at which the radiation is most intense. The
formula for Wein's Law is:
λmax=b/T
where:
λmax is the wavelength at which the radiation is most intense,
b is Wien's displacement constant (2.898×10−3 mK),
T is the temperature of the object in Kelvin.
To calculate the temperature of a star using Wein's Law, you can rearrange the
formula to solve for temperature:
T=b/λmax
Here's how to use this formula:
Determine the Wavelength: Measure or find the wavelength at which the star's
radiation is most intense. This is often the peak wavelength in the star's spectrum.
This device- a prism plus an electronic camera is called a spectrograph and used
to create a graph which measures the intensity of light versus wavelength and this
graph is called a spectrum
Use Wien's Displacement Constant: Substitute the value of Wien's displacement
constant (b=2.898×10−3 mK).
Calculate Temperature: Plug in the values into the formula and solve for
temperature (T).
Now, let's examine how Stefan-Boltzmann Law affects the surface temperature,
size, and luminosity of stars:
1) Surface Temperature (T):
L=4πr2σT4
According to Stefan-Boltzmann Law, the surface temperature of a star (T) is
directly proportional to the fourth root of its luminosity (L). This means that an
increase in luminosity leads to a higher surface temperature, and a decrease in
luminosity results in a lower surface temperature.
L=4πr2σT4
Additionally, the temperature is inversely proportional to the square root of the
star's radius (r). A larger star (larger r) will have a lower surface temperature,
while a smaller star (smaller r) will have a higher surface temperature
2) Size (Radius, r):
The size or radius of a star affects its luminosity and temperature.
L=4πr2σT4
Larger stars with a greater surface area (r2) will emit more radiation and have a
higher luminosity (L), according to the direct proportionality in the formula.
Conversely, smaller stars with a smaller surface area will have lower luminosity.
L=4πr2σT4
The surface temperature is also inversely proportional to the square root of the
radius, so larger stars will have a lower surface temperature, and smaller stars will
have a higher surface temperature.
3) Luminosity (L):
L=4πr2σT4
Luminosity is directly proportional to the fourth power of the star's temperature
and the square of its radius. An increase in temperature or size will result in a
significant increase in luminosity, while a decrease in temperature or size will lead
to a substantial decrease in luminosity

Intensity and Luminosity

Luminosity (L) is the rate of light energy released or power output of a star.
Intensity (I) is the power received from a star (its luminosity) per unit area and has
the unit, W m-2.
The intensity of a star follows the inverse square law, meaning it is inversely
proportional to the
square of the distance between the star and the observer. It is assumed that light
is emitted
equally in all directions from a point, so will spread out (in the shape of a sphere).
Therefore, this
can be shown by the equation below:
I = L/4πd2
Where I is intensity, L is luminosity and d is the distance from the source (star)
The luminosity is gotten from the Stefan Boltzmann law and the distance is gotten
using trigonometric parallax

How to get distance using trigonometric parallax?

When looking outside a window in a moving car, you have probably noticed that
nearby objects such as the tree in this case quickly fly past the window while the
mountains move much slower and in the far distance, the moon and the stars
don’t seem to move at all. Objects closer to you such as the trees seem to shift
position relative to more distant objects like the mountains. This effect is called
parallax and is affected by distance you travel along the road and how far away
the trees are
In a similar way, some stars move very little relative to other stars. Like the trees along the
road, the stars that seem to be moving more are just closer than those that don’t seem to
move. A relatively close star will appear to move across the background of more distant
stars. The star itself is not moving significantly duringthe course of the observations
If we observe the star when it is in one spot in its orbit and then wait 6 months for the earth
to move around the sun to the opposite point along its orbit and observe the star again, we
can measure the parallax angle.
By cutting the picture in the video in half, we get a right- angled triangle wherewe can use
the parallax angle and trigonometry to work out how far the star is since we already know
the distance from the earth to the sun which is 1 AU
An Astronomical Unit (AU) is the mean distance between the center of the earth and the
centre of the sun
Where 1 AU is 1.5 x 1011 m and θ is in radians

Standard candles
In astronomy, a standard candle is a source that has a known luminosity
For distances which are too large to measure using parallax, astronomers use 'standard
candles‘.
If we have a figure for the luminosity and measure the energy intensity (brightness) of the
star reaching the earth, we can then calculate how far away itis by comparing it with a
standard candle with same luminosity

USES OF STEFAN-BOLTZMANN LAW

1) H-R diagrams plot the luminosity of stars against their surface temperatures (orspectral
types). The Stefan-Boltzmann law is essential for determining luminosities, allowing for the
vertical axis of the H-R diagram.
Main Sequence: The main sequence on the H-R diagram represents stars in the stable
phase of hydrogen fusion. The Stefan-Boltzmann law helps place stars of different
luminosities along the main sequence, where luminosity increases withincreasing
temperature.
Giant and Supergiant Branches: Stars that have exhausted their core hydrogen move into
different regions of the H-R diagram. The Stefan-Boltzmann law helps explain why giants and
supergiants, which are larger and cooler, have highluminosities.
White Dwarfs: White dwarfs, the remnants of lower-mass stars, are located in aseparate
region of the H-R diagram. The Stefan-Boltzmann law is used to understand their
relatively low luminosities and high temperatures.
Giants and supergiants have high luminosity according to the Stefan-Boltzmann Law
primarily due to their large surface area and, to a lesser extent, their lower temperatures
due to expansion and cooling compared to main-sequence stars.
White dwarfs have lower luminosity because of their small surface area and high surface
temperatures.
The Sun's luminosity is 3.84 × 1026 W, symbolized as Lsun. To compare other star'sluminosity,
we use L star/Lsun as a fraction or multiple. This is convenient as star luminosity varies
greatly, ranging from <10-4 to about 106 times that of the Sun.
2) The second use is to get galactic luminosity. Stefan-Boltzmann law is applied toestimate
the total luminosity of galaxies. By considering the cumulative radiation
from all the stars within a galaxy, astronomers can use the law to understand theenergy
output of galaxies.
While the Stefan-Boltzmann Law is fundamental for understanding the luminosityof
individual stars, its direct application to entire galaxies is limited because galaxies consist of
diverse components with varying temperatures and distance
Limitations of Stefan-Boltzmann Law
1) The law assumes that the object is optically thin, meaning that radiation can easily
escape. In cases where the object is optically thick, such as in the outer layer of a star,
additional considerations are needed to account for opacity andradiative transfer
2) the use of this law assumes that the body under consideration is a perfect blackbody
radiator, which isn't always the case in reality. A black body is a theoretical object that
completely absorbs all radiation that lands on it. A black body is a perfect emitter which
emits radiation at all wavelengths
 Wien’s law
Understanding Wien's Law
• Wien's Law, named after physicist Wilhelm Wien, is the concept for understanding black-
body radiation and the behavior of a particular type of ideal radiator known as a black body.
• The Wien’s displacement law states that “the peak wavelength of emitted radiation is
inversely proportional to the absolute temperature of the object”.
• The formula for Wien's Law is derived by considering a black body in thermal equilibrium.
Mathematically, it's expressed as:

• Where: λmax is the peak wavelength, T is the black body's temperature (in Kelvin), and b is
Wien's displacement constant (approximately2.898 × 10–3mK).

DEFINITIONS:
• Black body radiator is a theoretical object which absorbs all radiation that lands on it.
• Luminosity is the rate at which energy of all types is radiated by an object in all directions.(
SI unit is Watts)
• Black body is a hypothetical perfect absorber and radiator of energy with no reflecting
power.
• Intensity is the power per unit area.( SI unit is Watts per Metre square)

Stefan-Boltzmann Law
• The law states that “the power output from a black body is directly proportional to its
surface area and the fourth power of its temperature in kelvin.”

L = AσT4
Where:

• L- luminosity
• surface area of the black body

• σ- Stefan-Boltzmann constant ( 5.67 x 𝟏𝟎–𝟖W𝐦–𝟐𝐊–𝟒)

• T- absolute temperature

How Wien's Law and the Stefan-Boltzmann Law are related

▪ Both laws deal with blackbody radiation. A blackbody is an idealized object that
absorbs all radiation incident upon it and emits radiation at all wavelengths.
▪ Derivation: The Stefan-Boltzmann Law can be mathematically derived from Wien's
Law, demonstrating a deeper connection
▪ They focus on different aspects of blackbody radiation. Wien's Law addresses the
peak wavelength of emitted radiation, while the Stefan-Boltzmann Law addresses the
total power emitted.
▪ Applications: They are often used together to analyze and understand the properties of
blackbody radiation.

➢ This graph shows that a black body with a higher absolute temperature has a more
prominent peak of energy output at a shorter wavelength.
➢ It also shows that black bodies with a higher absolute temperature have greater maximum
energy outputs compared to black bodies with lower absolute temperatures.

➢ These curves also explain what we observe from a radiating body:

➢ At low temperatures, the peak is in infra-red (or longer) wavelengths. The intensity in the
visible range is too small to be noticeable. We do not see any light emitted from the body.

➢ As the temperature increases, the peak wavelength moves towards the visible range. We
see the body glowing red (as red has the longest visible wavelength). With further
increases, the peak wavelength moves to orange, then yellow wavelengths.

➢ As the peak moves towards the centre of the visible range, with the peak in the green
wavelengths, the high intensity across the visible spectrum makes the body appear to
glow white-hot

➢ At higher temperatures still, the peak moves towards the blue end of the spectrum.
➢ Wien’s law shows that the peak wavelength of a black body decreases as it gets hotter,
this will lead to an increase in the frequency since frequency is inversely proportional to
wavelength:
v=fλ

➢ This will therefore lead to an increase in the energy output of the wave. Since E=hf,
energy output is directly proportional to the peak wavelength of the black body.
 ➢ Wien’s law shows that the peak wavelength of a black body decreases as the absolute
temperature increases, this will lead to an increase in the frequency since frequency is
inversely proportional to wavelength:

➢ substitute equation (i) to equation (ii)

➢ So, the shorter the wavelength of the EM radiation, the higher its energy. Short
wavelength, high frequency radiation like x-rays have the highest energy while long
wavelength, low frequency radiation like radio waves have the lowest energy.

Examining Wien's Law through Real-Life Examples

▪ Take an electric stove element for example. At first, as it starts heating up, it will simply
feel hot without necessarily showing visible signs of heat. But as you continue to add
heat, it will eventually begin to glow, typically starting with a dull red. This is because
the amount of heat energy is enough to cause it to emit visible light. As the temperature
increases, the colours change from red to yellow and ultimately to white - exactly as
predicted by Wien's Law.
▪ Every glowing object has a temperature corresponding to the colour of the light it emits.
This phenomenon is a direct result of Wien's Law. All objects follow this principle.

Wien's Law - Key takeaways

▪ Wien's Law, in essence, is a distillation of three key principles:
I. The intensity of black-body radiation increases as the temperature rises.
II. The peak of this radiation occurs at a specific wavelength.
III. This peak wavelength is inversely proportional to the black body's temperature
 ▪ The mathematical formula for Wien's Law is:

Comparison and contrast of wien’s law from Stefan-boltzmanns law

* Both laws apply to ideal blackbodies and offer valuable insights into blackbody-
temperature relationships.
* Both Wien's Law and Stefan-Boltzmann Law describe the relationship between
blackbody radiation and temperature.
* Wien's Law is used to estimate the temperature of stars based on their observed color
(e.g., blue stars hotter than red stars). Stefan-Boltzmann Law is used to calculate the total
amount of energy radiated by stars and planets, understand the greenhouse effect, and
analyze blackbody radiation curves.
* Wien's Law emphasizes the spectral distribution of energy, while Stefan-Boltzmann Law
focuses on the total energy output.

Limitations of Wien’s law

* Wien's Law assumes perfect absorption and emission at all wavelengths, which isn't true for real
objects. Their non-ideal emissivity can lead to inaccurate temperature estimations.

* Wien's Law only tells us about the peak intensity, neglecting the complete distribution of energy
across the spectrum. This can be limiting for detailed analysis.

* The derived equation primarily applies to the visible range. Using it directly for infrared or
ultraviolet might require adjustments or additional considerations.

Applications of Wien's Law in Field of Astronomy

* It allows astronomers to approximate the surface temperature of stars based on the peak
wavelength of radiation they emit. This is because hotter stars emit light at shorter wavelengths,
while cooler stars emit light at longer wavelengths. For example, a blue star is hotter than a red
star.

* Wien's Law can be used to study the lifecycle and properties of stars, as well as other objects like
galaxies and nebulae. For example, by studying the colors of stars in a galaxy, astronomers can
learn about the galaxy's age and composition.

* Wien's Law can also be used to estimate the temperature of other objects, such as planets and
asteroids. For example, by measuring the infrared radiation emitted by a planet, astronomers can
estimate its surface temperature.
 Examining Wien's Law Through Real-Life Examples
▪ Take an electric stove element for example. At first, as it starts heating up, it will simply feel hot
without necessarily showing visible signs of heat. But as you continue to add heat, it will
eventually begin to glow, typically starting with a dull red. This is because the amount of heat
energy is enough to cause it to emit visible light. As the temperature increases, the colours change
from red to yellow and ultimately to white - exactly as predicted by Wien's Law.
▪ Every glowing object has a temperature corresponding to the colour of the light it emits. This
phenomenon is a direct result of Wien's Law. All objects follow this principle.

H-R Diagrams
What are H-R diagrams?
This is a scatter plot of stars showing the relationship between the stars' absolute
magnitudes versus their spectral class (this is the apparent magnitude of an object if it
were located at a distance of 10 parsecs) or luminosities versus temperatures in kelvin

• Luminosity relative to the Sun, on the y-axis, goes from dim (at the bottom) to
bright (at the top)
• Temperature in degrees kelvin, on the x-axis, goes from hot (on the left) to cool (on
the right)
The Sun has a Temperature of 5400K and has a luminosity of 1 since the y-axis is
luminosity compared to the sun. The y-axis which is luminosity has been plotted as a log
scale (Luminosity (L⊙)).The x-axis also has a logarithmic scale which is the one for
temperature

The Different Regions and positions of stars

Hertzsprung and Russell found that the stars clustered in distinct areas:
Most stars are clustered in a band called the main sequence
• For main sequence stars, luminosity increases with surface temperature
A smaller number of stars clustered above the main sequence in two areas, red
giants, and red super giants
• These stars show an increase in luminosity at cooler temperatures
• The only explanation for this is that these stars are much larger than main sequence
stars from L=4π (R²) σT⁴
Below and to the left of the main sequence are the white dwarf stars
• These stars are hot, but not very luminous
 • Therefore, they must be much smaller than main sequence stars
• White dwarfs are extremely hot, but have low luminosity, this is because white
dwarfs are small, and hence much less luminous (L=4π (R²) σT⁴) and thus
explaining why it is located in this part of the HR diagram.
The Hertzsprung - Russell diagram only shows stars that are in stable phases
Transitory phases happen quickly in relation to the lifetime of a star
• Black holes cannot be seen since they emit no light

White dwarf star

Any of a class of faint stars representing the endpoint of the evolution of intermediate and
low-mass stars. White dwarf stars, so called because of the white colour of the first few
that were discovered, are characterized by
• A low luminosity
• A mass on the order of that of the Sun,
• A radius comparable to that of Earth.
• A white dwarf has a solar mass of less than 1.4 solar masses (1 solar mass is
approximate mass of the sun)

• Because of their very large mass and small dimensions such stars are very dense
and compact stellar corpses with densities of 1,000,000 times that of water.

Red giant
A red giant is a luminous giant star of low or intermediate in a late phase of stellar
evolution. The outer atmosphere is inflated and tenuous, making the radius large and
the surface temperature around 5,000 K (4,700 °C; 8,500 °F) or lower. A red giant is
formed after a star has run out of hydrogen fuel for nuclear fusion, at which they start to
expand, this in turn causes the temperature of the star to significantly decrease,
causing the star to cool, turning from white or yellow to red.

• The appearance of the red giant is from yellow-white to reddish-orange

• Red giants are many times more luminous than the Sun because of their great size.
Red-giant-branch stars have luminosities up to nearly three thousand times that of
the Sun.
• they have a radii tens to hundreds of times larger than that of the Sun
Super red giants
A red supergiant is an aging giant star (high mass star) that has consumed its core's
supply of hydrogen fuel. Helium has accumulated in the core, and hydrogen is now
undergoing nuclear fusion in the outer shells. These shells then expand, and the now
cooler star takes on a red colour.
• They are the largest known stars and a lot of them lead to formation of white dwarfs.
• Red super giants are cool and large.
• Red super giants differ from Red giants in that they are older, more massive, more
brilliant, and colder than main-sequence stars.
 • The star is cooler than others which is why it appears red. Eventually, the red
super giant will run out of helium and start fusing to carbon, then neon and
magnesium, then oxygen, and finally silicon, which produces an iron core.
• lack of hydrogen fusion means that the core can no longer counteract the
immense gravity, and the outer layers come crashing inward.
• As the outer layers contract, the temperature and pressure in the core
increases. Which causes helium to fuse into carbon via the triple alpha
process.
• The process starts with alpha particles, with each made up of two protons and
two neutrons. So in the triple alpha process stars fuse together 3 alpha particles,
creating a new particle six protons and six neutrons which is a carbon nuclei
which goes on to fuse into further elements.
• This fusion releases more energy than fusing hydrogen to helium, causing an
increase in radiation pressure. This increased radiation pressure pushes matter
outwards thus expanding the star

Main sequence star

A main sequence star is any star that is fusing hydrogen in its core and has a stable balance
of outward pressure from core nuclear fusion and gravitational forces pushing inward. Main
sequence stars are characterised by the source of their energy. They are allundergoing fusion
of hydrogen into helium within their cores.
• Mass is the most important properties of the main-sequence stars. It determine their
luminosity, surface temperature, radius, and lifetime.
• The higher nuclear fusion rate makes the star more luminous.
• The high luminosity requires a star to have either high temperature or large size, or
both.
• The higher luminosity also means that it will run out of fuel faster than less massive
stars.

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STELLAR CLASSIFICATION
Introduction to Stellar Classification
Stars are classified according to their size, color, mass, luminosity, Surface
Temperature & main sequence life span.

Stars emit light because of their temperature, and their color is determined by that
temperature. Hot stars, which have higher temperatures, emit mostly blue light,
shifting toward shorter wavelengths, hence appearing blue. Cooler stars, with lower
temperatures, emit more in the red and infrared range, giving them a red
appearance. Wien's Law describes the relationship between temperature and peak
wavelength, providing a scientific explanation for the observed color variations in
stars.

The law states that the relationship between the peak output wavelength and the
temperature of a black body is given by the equation;

λmax T = 2.898×10−3mK
This formula indicates that as the temperature (T) increases, the peak wavelength
decreases, shifting towards the blue end of the spectrum for hotter stars.

NB: A black body is a theoretical body which completely absorbs all radiation and
perfectly emits EM radiation at all wavelengths. Therefore, a black body is a good
absorbed and emitter of radiation.

The Stellar Alphabet

There are 7 Spectral classes of stars: O, B, A, F, G, K & M.

Oh Be A Fine Girl/Guy, Kiss Me
Only Brilliant Astronomers Fix Grave Kepler Mistakes

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The sun is a yellow star

Massive stars exhibit higher luminosity, higher surface temperature, and shorter
main sequence lifespans. The reason for their shorter main sequence lifespan is
attributed to the greater gravitational forces in their cores. These forces elevate
temperature and density, leading to an accelerated rate of fusion. As a consequence,
massive stars deplete their hydrogen fuel more rapidly due to the increased rate of
fusion.

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Brief Overview of different stellar classes
1. O-Class Stars:

• Hottest and most massive.

• Blue in color.

• Short lifespan.

2. B-Class Stars:
• Hot and bright.

• Blue-white in color.

• Shorter lifespan compared to other

classes.

3. A-Class Stars:

• White or bluish-white.
• Considerable brightness.
• Shorter lifespan than Sun.

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4. F-Class Stars:
• White.

• Intermediate in temperature and

brightness.

5. G-Class Stars:

• Like our Sun (e.g., Sun is a G-type star).

• Yellow in color.

• Moderate temperature and brightness.

6. K-Class Stars:
• Orange in color.

• Cooler and less luminous than G-class

stars.

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7. M-Class Stars:
• Red in color.

• Cooler and less massive.

• Longest lifespan.

The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram.

Hertzsprung-Russell diagram (H-R Diagram) represents a graph of luminosity
against star temperature.

Luminosity is the rate at which energy of all types is radiated by an object in all
direction.

The luminosity of a star is the power output of a star.

The S.I unit for Luminosity is watt, w

The hotter a star is the greater the intensity (The total power radiated by a star)

Stefan Boltzmann law describes the relationship between temperature and the
luminosity and the size of a star.

The law states that the power output from a black body is directly proportional to
its surface area and the fourth power of its temperature in kelvin

L= 4πr2σT4

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Where L is Luminosity in watts, r is the radius of spherical object, T is temperature
in Kelvin and σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 x 10-8 Wm-2k-4 )

If the vertical axis in the HR Diagram is in the form of 1×10k, each step on the scale
corresponds to a factor of 10 increase or decrease in luminosity compared to the
Sun. For example:

• 1×100: Same luminosity as the Sun.

• 1×101: Ten times more luminous than the Sun.

• 1×102: One hundred times more luminous than the Sun.

The Horizontal axis in the HR Diagram is the Surface Temperature in Kelvin

Most stars fall inside a narrow band called the main sequence. In this main
sequence stars have a variation of temperature and luminosity.

In main sequence massive stars have greater luminosity and higher

temperature and vice versa.
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White dwarfs have high temperature and low luminosity and by Stefan Boltzmann
law

L= 4πr2σT4

Since L is low and T is high then r must be small

White Dwarfs produce white light because they emit all wavelength in the visible
spectrum.

White dwarfs are hotter than our sun and less luminance than sun.

Red Giants are very luminous but cooler than sun and by Stefan Boltzmann law

L= 4πr2σT4

Since L is high and r is high then T must be small.

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 The Life Cycle of Stars
The life cycle of stars go in predictable stages.
The exact route a star's development takes depends on its initial mass.
After these stages, the life-cycle branches depending on the whether
the star is:
• Low mass: stars with a mass less than about 1.4 times the mass of
the Sun (< 1.4 MSun)

• High mass: stars with a mass more than about 1.4 times the mass
of the Sun (> 1.4 MSun)

LOW MASS STARS

• In the first stage, dust and gas are put together under the
influence of gravitational forces. Density pressure and temp rise
sufficiently for fusion to start.
• The main sequence star is a star which is stable and fuses
hydrogen to helium in its core. When hydrogen runs out the star
will cool down and radiation pressure will drop. The core of the
star then contracts under gravitational forces and energy is
released.
• The star expands to a red giant and helium fusion starts when
helium runs out, the core collapses under gravitational forces and
energy is released.
• The outer layer of the star is injected into space (planetary
nebulae) and temperatures do not rise again and the star dies and
becomes a white dwarf.
 • It is believed theoretical that a white dwarf develops into a black
dwarf after billions of years.

MASSIVE STARS
• High mass stars have greater gravitational forces, greater temp,
and pressure and so the rate of fusion is higher. This means high
mass stars have a shorter life span in the main sequence stage.
• A supernova is a violent explosion that releases a lot of energy as
the high mass star collapses due to instability.
• A large mass star after the supernova becomes a black hole or
neutron star
• If the mass of the star is 3 times the mass of a sun it becomes a
black hole but if the mass is more than that it becomes a neutron
star
• Black holes emit no light and cannot be detected ( not visible )
and nothing can escape from them including light because of the
immense gravitational field.

Initial Stages for All Masses

The first four stages in the life cycle of stars are the same for stars of all
masses.

1. Nebula
• All stars form from a giant cloud of hydrogen gas and dust called a
nebula.
• Gravitational attraction between individual atoms forms denser
clumps of matter
• This inward movement of matter is called gravitational collapse

2. Protostar
• The gravitational collapse causes the gas to heat up and glow,
forming a protostar.
• Work done on the particles of gas and dust by collisions between
the particles causes an increase in their kinetic energy, resulting in
an increase in temperature.
• Protostars can be detected by telescopes that can observe
infrared radiation.

3. Nuclear Fusion
• Eventually the temperature will reach millions of degrees Kelvin
and the fusion of hydrogen nuclei to helium nuclei begins
• The protostar’s gravitational field continues to attract more gas
and dust, increasing the temperature and pressure of the core.
• With more frequent collisions, the kinetic energy of the particles
increases, increasing the probability that fusion will occur.

4. Main sequence star

• The star reaches a stable state where the inward and outward
forces are in equilibrium.
 As the temperature of the star increases and its volume decreases
due to gravitational collapse, the gas pressure increases.
• A star will spend most of its life on the main sequence.
• 90% of stars are on the main sequence.
• Main sequence stars can vary in mass from ~10% of the mass of
the Sun to 200 times the mass of the Sun.
• The Sun has been on the main sequence for 4.6 billion years and
will remain there for an estimated 6.5 billion years.
Next Stages for Low Mass Stars:
The fate of a star beyond the main sequence depends on its mass.
• The cut-off point is 1.4 times the mass of the Sun.
• A star is classed as a low-mass star if it has a mass less than 1.4
times the mass of the Sun.
• A low-mass star will become a red giant before turning into a
white dwarf.

5. Red Giant
• Hydrogen fuelling the star begins to run out.
• Most of the hydrogen nuclei in the core of the star have been
fused into helium.
• Nuclear fusion slows.
• Energy released by fusion decreases.
• The star initially shrinks and then swells and cools to form a red
giant.
 Fusion continues in the shell around the core.

6. Planetary Nebula
• The outer layers of the star are released.
• Core helium burning releases massive amounts of energy in the
fusion reactions.

7. White Dwarf
• The solid core collapses under its own mass, leaving a very hot,
dense core called a white dwarf.

Next Stages for Massive Stars

5. Red Super Giant
The star follows the same process as the formation of a red giant.
• The shell burning and core burning cycle in massive stars goes
beyond that of low-mass stars, fusing elements up to iron.

6. Supernova
• The iron core collapses.
• The outer shell is blown out in an explosive supernova

7. Neutron Star (or Black Hole)

• After the supernova explosion, the collapsed neutron core can
remain intact having formed a neutron star.
 the pressure on the core becomes so great that the core collapses
and produces a black hole.

TRIGONOMETRIC PARALLAX
Trigonometry - The study of the relationships between the angles and
the lengths of the sides of triangles.
Parallax - Difference in the apparent position of an object viewed along
two different lines of sight.
Parallax angle - The difference in angular observation of a given star,
which is used in the trigonometric parallax method for measuring the
distance to a star.
Parsec - The distance a star must be from the Sun in order for the
parallax angle Earth-star-Sun to be 1 arcsecond.
Arcsecond - An angular measurement in which 1 degree can be splitinto
60 arcminutes, which can then be further split into 3600
arcseconds.
Light year – The distance light travels in one year.
1 light year = s x t
3 x 108 ms-1 x (365 x 24 x 60 x 60) s = 9.46 x 1015m
Astronomical unit - The radius of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun.
1 A.U. = 1.5 x 1011 m

Trigonometric parallax – Method used to measure distances to

relatively close stars done by comparing their measured angle in the sky
at six monthly intervals and using these measurements to calculate
distance using trigonometry.

Why trigonometric parallax is used

You cannot run experiments on celestial bodies as they are extremely
far away and thus measuring distances to these celestial bodies is
difficult.
The maximum range of astronomy by radar is very limited and is
confined to the Solar System, this is because the signal strength drops
off steeply with distance to the target.
Another limitation of using radars is that some stars are hundreds,
thousands or even tens of thousands of light years away, to bounce a
radar signal of a star that is 100 light years away would require you to
wait 200 years to get a signal back.

Procedure of calculating distance using trigonometric parallax

1. The angular displacement of a star is measured over a period of 6
months against a fixed background of far stars.

2. The radius of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun is known to be 1

astronomical unit which is equal to 1.5 x 1011 m

3. Trigonometric relations between the lengths of the sides of a

triangle and its angles are used to calculate distance to star.
By taking this diagram and cutting it in half we get a right angled
triangle with parallax angle, θ formed as shown below.

Where r = Radius of Earth’s orbit around the Sun in metres, m

d = Distance to star in metres, m
At small angles, as we are usually using in astronomy, tan θ ≈ θ.
The distance, d, will come out in the same units used to measure r, so
we have:

We use 6 month periods as this is when the Earth is on the exact

opposite side of the orbit which gives larger angles thus reducing the
percentage uncertainty in calculation of distance to star.
Trigonometric parallax is only used to measure distances to relatively
close stars as for more distant stars the star will seem to not have an
apparent shift in the sky even after 6 months, this leads to very small
parallax angles which gives us large percentage uncertainty in distance
to star.
The accuracy of trigonometric parallax depends on the accuracy of the
angle measurements.
A fixed background of far stars is used to establish a repeatable, precise
local coordinate system that we can use as a reference for the
measurement of parallax.

The Parsec (Parallax Second)

Parsec is a measure of distance. It is an abbreviation of parallax second.

It is the distance a star must be from the Sun in order for the angle
Earth-star-Sun to be 1 arcsecond.
1° = 60 arcminutes = 3600 arcseconds
1° = 60’ = 3600”
θ= 1
3600
1 parsec = 1.5 x 1011 m = 3.09 x 1016 m
tan (1/3600) 1 light year =
9.46 x 1015 m
1 parsec = 3.09 x 1016 m = 3.27 light years
9.46 x 1015 m
If the angle measurements are in arcseconds, θ, then the distance, d, tothe star,
measured in parsecs is obtained from:
d= 1
θ
To convert from arcseconds to degrees, multiply by 1
3600
STANDARD CANDLES

Table of contents;

1. Introduction
2. Common terminology and definitions
3. Types of Standard candles
4. Method to use standard candles to determine distance
5. Common uncertainties when using standard candles
6. Worked examples and common questions

1. Introduction
Standard candles are stellar objects of known luminosity.

Using standard candles to determine distances can be done for close stars and galaxies as well
as far ones by carefully choosing what type of standard candle to use and comparing with the
target star/galaxy.

2. Common terminology and definitions

In the discussion of standard candles, a few common words are used repeatedly and it is important
to properly understand these words.

Luminosity – luminosity is the rate at which energy of all types is radiated by an object or it is also
known as the total power output of a stellar object across its entire surface. It is importantto
note that luminosity of stars is an intrinsic property and is constant for a given star irrespective
of its distance to Earth.
Intensity (radiant energy flux) – Intensity is the amount of energy received on Earth per unit area
from a given source of radiation. Unlike luminosity, intensity can change due to a numberof
factors such as planets and dust clouds being in the way of the radiation reducing the amount of
energy reaching Earth giving us incorrect readings. This error can be mostly minimized by observing
the intensity of these stars for longer periods of times to get an average.

3. Types of standard candles

(a) RR Lyrae stars
 - RR Lyrae stars are special stars that exhibit a changing brightness at a repeating cycle
with a constant time period for the changing brightness. These are stars that have left the
main sequence phase but have not exhausted all their fuel and so they experience radial
pulsations as they expand and shrink over their surface as the forces in the core of the star
are changing.

The brightness variation

typical of RR Lyrae stars.
Cr. Pearson Edexcel IAL Physics book
2 page 190

- Henrietta Leavitt, an astronomer from Harvard College Observatory in the early 20th
century discovered that the time period of these stars is directly proportional to its
luminosity, where a more luminous star will have a longer time period and vice versa. This
was coined as the period-luminosity relationship and is used by astronomers to calculate
distances of stars and galaxies up to 760 kiloparsecs.
- They are the standard candles with least mass and luminosity making them suitable for
shorter distance calculations.

(b) Cepheid variables

- Cepheid variables are very similar to RR Lyrae stars such that they have a constantly
changing brightness with a repeating cycle of constant time period.
- Cepheid variables are much larger in mass and size and have a larger luminosity than RR
Lyrae stars and so have a longer period following the period-luminosity relationship and
therefore can be used to determine distances to stars and galaxies up to 40megaparsecs.
- In the early 20th century, Edwin Hubble used cepheids to determine distances to distant
nebulae and used these calculations to derive the Hubble Law

(c) Type 1a Supernovae

- Type 1a Supernovae occur when a white dwarf in a binary system with another star
gradually accretes mass from its partner star until it reaches a mass of 1.44 times the
mass of our sun, known as the Chandrasekhar Limit, at which point it cannot sustain its
weight and collapses under its own gravity, exploding into a Type 1a supernova.
- Since type 1a supernovae occur at the same mass for all white dwarves, its luminosity is
constant and very bright, often times brighter than its host galaxy, allowing them to be
used as standard candles to judge distances of up to 10 gigaparsecs.

4. Method of determining distance using standard candle technique

1

To determine distances of distant stars using standard candles, we must know the luminosity of
the standard candle.
We can calculate the temperature of a star using Wien’s law

and then use the Stefan-Boltzmann Law to calculate its luminosity.

Alternatively, we can monitor the intensity of the star as it changes with time using a photometer
to create a brightness-time graph from which we can determine the time period and using the
period-luminosity relationship, get the luminosity of the star.

After the luminosity of the star or galaxy is known, we can use the following steps to determine its
distance:

- Measure the radiant flux energy of the star using photometers

L
- Apply the formula 𝐼 = and calculate the distance to the star/galaxy ‘d’ (we know that
4πd2
the energy received from an object reduces further away obeying the inverse square law and so its
energy would be spread across its surface area of a sphere 4𝜋𝑑2 where d is the distance from the
earth to the star)

5. Common uncertainties when using standard candles as a measure of distance

When observing the intensity of a star from earth, the value might be affected by visual barriers
such as dust clouds around the star and planets between the star and earth aswell as visibility
issues due to atmospheric differences on earth.

Another uncertainty arises when using supernovae as standard candles as they fade away
gradually over time and so if they are not spotted instantly the intensity values observed would be
slightly less leading to the supernova seeming further away than it is.

The mass and luminosity of RR Lyrae and Cepheids are not constant as they have been observed
to be shrinking due to intense solar winds blowing away large amounts of mass off the surface
of the star and therefore calculations done using the values observed may not be accurate.
2

the AGE of
the
UNIVERSE
3

learning OBJECTIVES

Define the doppler effect and explain its application to the light
from other stars and galaxies

Use the equation for red shift of light, .

Describe Hubble's law and the equation for objects at

cosmological distances.

the DOPPLER EFFECT

The doppler effect is the apparent change in the observed frequency and
wavelength of a wave due to the relative movement between the source of the
wave and the observer.
As long as there is relative motion between a source and observer, the doppler
effect will exist.
 4

TOWARDS the observer

As the source (A) moves towards the observer, the waves in front of the source get squashed,
implying that their apparent frequency increases.
Since v = λf, f = v/λ - therefore when the wavelength decreases, frequency increases.
The person on the right will hear a higher pitched sound

AWAY from the observer

As the source moves away from the observer, the waves get stretch and the distance between
wavefronts increase (wavelength increases), the waves get stretched.
Since v = λf, f = v/λ - when the wavelength increases, frequency decreases.
The person on the left will hear a lower pitched sound

the DOPPLER EFFECT in electromagnetic waves

• The visible light spectrum is obtained by dispersing the light from

visible LIGHT a source and separating them into its constituent colors.
• White light is a combination of all the colors, and so, if we were
SPECTRUM to disperse it, it would appear as shown below.
5

light from • In sound waves, as the frequency and wavelength change, the pitch of the
sounds heard changes.
DISTANT • On the other hand, with light waves, as the frequency and wavelength
changes, the color observed changes.
GALAXIES • With this knowledge, we can investigate the spectrum of light from galaxies
and if they appear more red, then the galaxy would be moving away from us.
• We do this by studying their absorption spectrum.

• A spectrum of EM radiation transmitted through a substance showing dark

absorption bands due to absorption of waves at specific wavelengths.
• The dark bands are as a result of atoms in the atmosphere of a star absorbing
SPECTRUM photons of specific energies to excite their electrons to higher energy levels.
• Since E = hc/λ, light of specific wavelengths are 'missing' or appear to be
dark since they have been absorbed.
6

When we compare the absorption spectrum of light from the sun and from a distant galaxy,
we realize that the dark bands have shifted to red end of the spectrum.
The general pattern and distance between these lines remain the same.

The shift of the spectral lines gives us the evidence of red shift and that galaxies are receding
from us.

DOPPLER If a light source, say a star, moved away from an observer

(Earth) at significant velocities, the frequency of the
EFFECT in light observed would be shorter and therefore, the light
would have a larger wavelength.
action The Fraunhofer lines (spectral lines) would have shifted to the
red end of the spectrum.

This fractional increase in wavelength received by an observer

on earth due to a star of galaxy receding is called red shift.
7

the Z NUMBER

We can calculate the speed at which a galaxy is moving away from us using the equation:

• The Z in the equation is the z ratio, or the

z number and it indicates the rate of
expansion relative to a subject
galaxy/star.
• V is the recessional velocity of the subject
galaxy, star
• c would be the speed of light, 3 * 10 ^ 8
m/s

The remaining entities are wavelength, change in

wavelength, frequency, and change in frequency (refer
to WAVES in Unit 2)
 8

rican astronomer who

hroughout his life, he made
Edwin Hubble was an Ame
he realm cosmology.
lived from 1889 – 1953. T
essential contributions in t

One such contribution wa

that described the direct r
recessional velocities of g
from earth.

In this case;

a GRAPHICAL
REPRESENTATION
of the Hubble’s
law
9

The data from observation of different galaxies and their absorption spectra allowed us to
calculate their velocity using the z formula.
The distance an object is from us is calculated using the trigonometric parallax method for
up to a few thousand light years, then we use standard candle method.
These values are tabled and plotted in a graph of velocity against time.
As you can see, there is noticeable scatter in the plots. This is as a result of the earth’s local
motion. As earth would revolve through space, the light observed from distant stars may
vary, hence the scatter.
The gradient of the graph is the Hubble’s constant.

Since all galaxies showed red shifts in their spectra, Hubble concluded that all the galaxies
must be moving apart from each other and the universe is expanding.

o The Hubble’s constant has had many values

over the years and so the subscript 0 indicates
the value of the Hubble’s constant today.
o This enunciates the difficulty of accurately
determining astronomical distances
the HUBBLE’S o Since the launch of the ESA Planck Surveyor –
a space observatory, the uncertainties in
CONSANT is… not measurement and hence, the uncertainty in
the Hubble’s constant values have
a constant? significantly reduced
o Hubble got the value to be 500 km/s/Mpc, a
massive difference from the current accepted
value of 70.9 km/s/Mpc
o Another reason why it isn’t a constant is due
to the fact that the energy density of the
universe is changing as it expands {the fate of
the universe}.
the BIG BANG!
10

We have successfully concluded that the universe is

expanding with time.

If we were to reverse time, the universe would be

shrinking…

Tracing back time and realizing that the universe came

the from something is the basis of the big bang theory
Our universe evolved from an infinitesimally small
BEGINNING point called a singularity.

of In an event called the big bang, matter was thrown

into space away from this singularity.
EVERYTHING It is theorized that the initiation of time itself was
followed by this event.

If we can find the Hubble’s constant, it can tell us

how quickly the universe is expanding.
From this, we can work out when it all started.
For an object to travel a distance d from the beginning
0
of time, at a speed v ,
0

The time taken T can be calculated from basic

0

the equation of speed:

usefulness of
HUBBLE’S
CONSTANT
Finding the AGE of the UNIVERSE

DEFINITION of terms

• The doppler effect - is the apparent change in the observed

frequency and wavelengthof a wave due to the relative
movement between the source of the wave and the
observer.
• The visible light spectrum is obtained by dispersing
the light from a source andseparating them into its
constituent colors.
• The absorption spectrum is a spectrum of EM radiation
transmitted through a substance showing dark bands due
to absorption of waves at specific wavelengths.
• The red shift is the fractional increase in wavelength received
by an observer on earthdue to a star of galaxy receding.
• Hubble’s law states that the recessional velocity of a galaxy is
directly proportional to the distance from the earth.
• The big bang theory is a theory that suggest that the universe started off from a
singularity in an explosive event called the big bang.
TERMS
Average Density - total mass (or energy) divided by the total volume.
Critical Density - The average density of matter in the universe, below which the Universe
will keep expanding forever

CRITICAL DENSITY
Critical Density is given by the formula

Where ;
● H₀ is the Hubble's constant (Approximately 70.9km/s/Mpc)
● G is the gravitational constant (6.674×10−11 N⋅m2/kg2)
HUBBLE'S LAW
Hubble's Law states that the recession velocity of a galaxy is directly proportional to the
distance to it

It is mathematically expressed as
v=H₀d

Where,
● v is the recession velocity of a galaxy (Velocity at which one galaxy is moving
away from another)
● d is distance to the galaxy
● H₀ is the Hubble’s Constant, 70.9 km /s /Mpc

The Hubble’s Constant, H₀, is the constant of proportionality in Hubble’s Law Ironically
over the past few decades the value of it has been varying due to the uncertainty in the
values used to calculate it.

Since Hubble’s Constant is the gradient of the graph of recession velocity against distance
to the moving body, the value will vary when the observational data used to calculate it is
also changing

1
THE FUTURE OF OUR UNIVERSE
The future of our universe is a question that depends almost entirely on the mass of the
universe, more specifically the density of the matter.

Due to the presence of invisible matter, the actual mass of the universe is impossible to
calculate and therefore density is too.

Scientists have studied the universe as much as they can with the current technology and
knowledge that we have and have come up with theories regarding the different ‘ends’ to
our universe

THE DIFFERENT THEORIES

1. Closed Universe
● A closed universe is one with space that is curved in a manner that would
eventually cause the universe to stop expanding and collapse back on itself.
● In a closed universe, the density of matter is high enough, greater than the critical
density, to counteract the expansion, leading to a finite but unbounded space.
● The fate of a closed universe is often described as a "Big Crunch," where the
expansion reverses into a contraction.

2
 2. Open Universe:
● An open universe suggests that space is curved in a way that allows for infinite
expansion.
● In an open universe, the density of matter is not sufficient to halt the
expansion(less than the critical density), and the universe continues to expand
indefinitely.
● The fate of an open universe is characterized by eternal expansion without a Big
Crunch.

3. Flat Universe
● A flat universe has zero spatial curvature and is infinite
● In a flat universe, the expansion continues until it levels off and the size remains
constant.
● This is when the the actual density of the universe is equal to the critical density

MATTER
Matter is anything that has a mass and takes up space by having a volume

The universe is almost completely made up of ordinary matter, dark matter and dark
energy.

3
Ordinary matter is the matter that makes up atoms, molecules, stars, planets and all
visible things in our universe

Dark matter is matter that does not emit, absorb, or reflect light, making it invisible and
undetectable through electromagnetic radiation. It does not interact with photons, which
is why it is termed "dark."

From the actual luminosity of a galaxy, the rate of emission of radiation, we can get an
approximation for the mass of the galaxy and we also know that all galaxies have a
centripetal force acting on them that causes this circular motion

The measured rotational speeds of the stars in the galaxies show that the mass calculated
from the luminosity alone can not cause a centripetal force large enough to allow it to
keep rotating at those speeds

This is what led scientists to believe that there is a type of matter that is invisible and
doesn't interact with any EM Radiations that is causing said centripetal force

When we look at a graph of the velocity of stars in a galaxy against the distance from the
center of galaxy, we can notice that the actual graph(B) is different compared to the one
we expected (A)

The stars further away from the center of the galaxy should not be as fast as we have
observed

This shows that there is an invisible mass that is at the ends of the galaxies that causes a
force to keep the galaxy rotating at that speed even though it is further away from the
universe

4
Gravitational Lensing
Gravitational lensing is also considered as evidence for the existence of dark matter
because it reveals the presence of unseen mass that affects the path of light from more
distant objects.

This phenomenon is a consequence of Einstein's theory of general relativity, where the

gravitational field of a massive object, like a galaxy or galaxy cluster, can bend and
distort the path of light passing near it. This distortion acts as a lens, magnifying or
distorting the appearance of background objects.

Effects of the Presence vs Absence of Dark Matter on the Fate

If dark matter does exist, then the actual density will be be greater (because the mass is
will be larger) than the critical density and the universe would contract back inwards
and the Big Crunch will take place

If dark matter does not exist then the actual density of the universe would be lower than
the critical density and the universe would expand forever because the gravitational
force would not be large enough to stop the expansion

This is why dark matter is a very important part in the fate of the universe

Dark Energy
Dark Energy is a theoretical form of energy that is anti-gravity and occupies almost 70%
of the universe and is presumed to be the reason for the universe’s expansion

When scientist's first watched distant supernovae get faster instead of getting slower
with all of its gravitational force, they came up with a theory that there is an energy that
is accelerating the universe

Both dark matter and dark energy are hypothetical and furthermore are things that we
do not know the nature of, as of yet.

There could be new physics that we could learn and could change the fate of our
universe, the varying values of the critical density and the fact that we can only limit our
observations to the visible universe makes it much harder to pinpoint the answer to the
question of the fate of our universe.