Instrument

Fundamentals of

Level Transmitter and

Level Gages

Trainer : Abdulhamid Hamad

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Abbreviations :

• BPCS : Basic Process Control System

• LT Level Transmitter
• LG Level Gauge
• DP Differential Pressure
• ID Internal Diameter
• SIS Safety Instrumented System
• SS Stainless Steel
• FPSO Floating, Production, Storage and Offloading

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Introduction

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 Introduction
What is the level measurement?
▪ Unlike pressure and temperature, liquid level has no absolute value.
▪ It is always relative to some reference point such as the bottom of a
tank or container.
▪ It is the height or depth of a liquid and is specific to a particular vessel.

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 Introduction
Why is LEVEL MEASUREMENT important?

In the oil & gas industries, it is necessary to know the level of

process liquids for the following reasons:

▪ Protect personnel from injury due to spillage

▪ Protect the environment by preventing release of toxic materials
▪ To monitor & control certain process and product loading
operations
▪ To establish the quantities of process products and utility liquids
▪ Protect process equipment from damage due to over/under
filling

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Introduction

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 Introduction

Types of Level Measurement

In any process industry, level measurement is very important for
safety and process purpose.

Level can be measured by two methods:

1. Direct method

2. Indirect method

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 Introduction
Targets Level Measurement
Integral to process control in many industries, level measurement
sensors fall into two main types:

1. Point level measurement sensors

2. Continuous level sensors

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 Introduction
Level Measurement

▪ Point level measurement sensors :

These are used to mark a single discrete liquid height–a preset level
condition. Generally, this type of sensor functions as :

• high alarm

• signaling an overfill condition

• marker for a low alarm condition.

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 Introduction
Level Measurement
▪ Continuous level sensors :
These are more sophisticated and can provide level monitoring of
an entire system.

• They measure fluid level within a range, rather than at a one

point.
• They are producing an analog output that directly correlates to
the level in the vessel.

• To create a level management

system, the output signal is linked to
a process control loop and to a visual
indicator
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 Introduction
Variety of Level Measurement techniques
Various methods are utilized to measure level quantity such as:

• Sight glass
• Float
• hydrostatic
• Dip tube
• Displacer
• Ultrasonic
• Radar
• Magnetostrictive
• Weight
• capacitive.

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Level measurement Installations

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 Level measurement Installations

Level Instruments Design Rules

The following points are considered during level sensors selection or
during time of plant design:
• Pressure Vessel Connection
• Range selection
• Alarm & Trip level
• Standpipes vs. sensor cages
• Level sketches
• Data
• Emulsion
• Calibration
• Stilling wells
• Heat tracing
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 Level measurement Installations

Vessel
What are different types of vessels
What are basic inputs required ?
•P&ID (Design level),
•IPDS (Design level),
•Mechanical data sheet (Design level),
•Piping Specification (Design level),
•Instrumentation Design Basis (Design level),
•Client / Process Licensor Specific requirements

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 Level measurement Installations

Pressure Vessel Connection

• Level instrument tapping on vessel outlet piping are not
recommended.

• Level measurement instruments should be isolatable for

maintenance, dismantling/removal and calibration without
affecting production

• Level instruments may be internally or externally mounted.

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 Level measurement Installations

Pressure Vessel Connection

They should be provided with individual isolation facilities allowing
for sensor removal, and cage/chamber cleaning.

Pressure vessel mounting principle

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 Level measurement Installations

Pressure Vessel Connection

Instruments Tapping Points
It is very much important to identify and take account of common
cause failures.

A common cause failure is

defined as “the failure of one
or more devices due to
common stress event”.

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 Level measurement Installations

Pressure Vessel Connection

Instruments Tapping Points

• Safety Instrumentation System SIS instruments shall

have independent tapping directly from the equipment or pipe.

• Instruments used for Safety Instrumented System (SIS) shall be

provided separately from those for control and measurement.

• ONLY elements such as orifice plates and bluff bodies of vortex

meters may be shared with control measurements and SIS.

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 Level measurement Installations

Pressure Vessel Connection

Instruments Tapping Points
• For the orifice flow element, a separate set of tapping for each flow
transmitter for shutdown/interlock shall be considered.

• 6) Level Transmitters for interlock shall be from independent

tapping (for 2oo3 all three LTs shall be from independent tapping
directly on equipment).

• If Control and SIS sensors share a common level bridle, any

common valve that can isolate both the control and SIS transmitter
shall have administrative controls in place, audited car seal or valve
locks, to assure the valves are in the open position.
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 Level measurement Installations

Range Selection
Weight and available space constraints particularly to allow removal
of the instrument should be taken into account when selecting a level
measurement technology.

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 Level measurement Installations

Alarm & Trip level

Appropriate (minimum) differential between the alarm and the trip
should be considered.

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 Level measurement Installations

Standpipes vs. Sensor cages

The terms standpipe and sensor cages are often mixed up. In order
to clarify, the following definitions are used:

• Standpipe/Bridle

This is an external extension of the pressure

vessel, to which multiple instruments can be
connected.

▪ The distance between the standpipe and the

vessel nozzle should not exceed 1 – 1.5 m.

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 Level measurement Installations

Pressure Vessel Connection

The Level Instrument

nozzle can be directly
installed on vessel.

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 Level measurement Installations

Pressure Vessel Connection

Level Transmitter and Level Gauge Mounted on Stand Pipe
Standpipes are generally used in following scenarios –
• Multiple Level Gauges
• More than 3 no instruments on same equipment
• Project specifications

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 Level measurement Installations

Standpipes vs. Sensor cages

• Sensor cage/chamber
This is an individual cage/chamber in which the level sensor is
installed, part of a single level instrument.

• Drain valves should be installed at the bottom connection of

the sensor cage and provisions should be made for the
appropriate disposal of the drained material.
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 Level measurement Installations
Level Sketches
Level sketch or vessel sketch is the drawing prepared by
Instrumentation engineer to show various Level instruments nozzle
details (Flange size, rating) on vessels / drums, their elevations which
is used as input and as output.

Level sketches should indicate all level related instruments for all
applications under :
• normal operating
• alarm
• trip settings.

Level sketches should describe level threshold in both ‘length’ and ‘%’
measured range.
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 Level measurement Installations
Data
These are :
❑ Equipment Details
❑ Process Details
❑ Level Details

Equipment Details
• Vessel Tag no.
• Nozzle Nos,
• Elevations (in mm preferable),
• Tank Lines (Lower & Upper)
• Zero elevation line (either from TL or at other reference point),
• Piping Specification, material
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 Level measurement Installations
Data
These are Process Data & Level Data

Process data

Process data should be carefully addressed with all detailed fluid

features as well as the different layers to be measured.

• Process fluid,
• Specific Gravity or Density,
• Alarm Levels (Low, Low Low, High, High High)
• Process & design conditions (Pressure & Temperature),

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 Level measurement Installations

Data
Level data
For each level measurement, the following data should be defined as
a minimum:

• Instrument tag no,

• Type of instruments (Radar, DP Level Trans., Magnetic Level Gauge),
• C – C (Center to center) distance in mm preferably,
• Isolation Valves and sizes,
• Drain & Vent valves and sizes,
• Scope Breaks (Instrumentation, Piping, Static)
• Instrument Nozzle size, connection, rating, Elevations
• Stand Pipe, size and connection details

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 Level measurement Installations

Data

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 Level measurement Installations

Emulsion considerations
An oil emulsion is a mixture of oil, water, and an emulsifying agent
like paraffin.
It contains fine water droplets dispersed in oil. In a crude oil
emulsion, the quantity of water droplets is usually less than 10%.

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 Level measurement Installations

Emulsion considerations

Particular attention should be paid to any interface measurement

in the presence of emulsion. Density of water in oil emulsion will
change depending on water fraction.

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 Level measurement Installations

Emulsion considerations
Level measurement shall be arranged after Distance of separation
time

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 Level measurement Installations

Emulsion considerations
Interface level detection
Compared to standard level measurements in liquids, the detection
and measurement of interfaces has its own particular challenges,
leaving many interface applications without reliable level
measurement.

Ideally, an interface would be a clear

separation between two media with
different densities. Practically, however,
a transition or emulsion layer often
exists between the two media

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 Level measurement Installations

Interface level detection

Consequently, multiple interfaces exist if one considers the transition
from the first medium to the emulsion layer, and then from the
emulsion layer to the second medium.

So with the addition of

each different medium
two new interfaces are
presented.

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 Level measurement Installations
Interface level detection
Process conditions not only affect and change the properties of the
media but also influence the performance of the selected interface
measuring technology.

For example,
• Traditional displacer or differential pressure technologies operate
based on the different densities of the media.

• Changes in process temperature and densities of the media will

cause measurement errors.

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 Level measurement Installations
Interface level detection
Differential pressure (DP)
DP transmitters can be used to measure the interface between two
fluids that have different densities (ρ).
Unlike hydrostatic level measurement, the difference
between the densities (ρ1 - ρ2) of both liquids has to
be considered for the calculation of the differential
pressure.

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 Level measurement Installations

Consideration while level measuring in presence of emulsion

An emulsion layer at the interface of two fluids may or may not be

seen by the instrument depending upon the hook‐up arrangement.
When using a sensor cage/stand pipe, the following can be
considered:
• the interface level device in the sensor cage/stand pipe does
not ‘see’ the emulsion in the vessel, so the measured value
only represents the average interface level

• the interface level device in the sensor cage/standpipe ‘sees’

the emulsion layer so the measured value represents
accurately the interface level
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 Level measurement Installations

Note: the accuracy of the interface level measurement in the

presence of the emulsion will depend upon the number of nozzles
provided.

The number of nozzles that can be provided on a tank or vessel is

often limited due to the space ant the mechanical integrity of the
vessel or tanks.
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 Level measurement Installations

Calibration
Calibration should be performed prior to the factory acceptance test
and prior to shipment. A calibration certificate should be provided
that detail the traceability of the test equipment used.

Particular attention should be paid to calibration of Radar,

Capacitance and Nucleonic instruments:

• The lower range value should be calibrated without any process

fluids.

• The higher range value should be calibrated with the maximum

fluid level to be measured.
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 Level measurement Installations

Stilling wells
A stilling well is a perforated pipe to allow free movement of fluid.
This pipe is equipped with a top mounted flange which is supported
at the bottom of the vessel.
• Stilling wells provide a stable gauge
reference point

• Stilling wells may act as a ‘wave guide’ for

the radar energy.

• provide a relatively ‘quiet’ product surface

during filling and emptying of the vessel,
especially if ‘swirl’ exists.
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 Level measurement Installations

Stilling wells
Stilling wells are very useful accessories to many types of liquid level
measurement gauges, including float and ultrasonic.

However, if used on a liquid-liquid interface level measurement

application, care must be taken to ensure the stilling well is always
submerged:

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 Level measurement Installations

Stilling wells
If not completely submerged, the interface level in the well might
not match the interface level in the rest of the vessel.

Here are two examples of how this might happen:

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 Level measurement Installations

Stilling wells

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 Level measurement Installations

Heat tracing

• All instrument nozzles should be located such that the risk of

blockage and solidification in the nozzle is minimized.

• If there is risk of hydrate formation or freezing in the instrument

nozzles or instrument impulse lines, application of heat tracing
should be considered.

• Note, however, that there may be safety requirements connected

with the heat tracing, i.e. hazardous area equipment
requirements or over temperature protection.

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Level Measurement Gauges

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 Level Measurement Gauges

What is Level?

The LEVEL of a liquid is the position of the surface of the liquid

above or below a fixed reference point, or datum line.

What is Datum Line?

The Datum Line is the zero point to which a measurement is

referenced.

A zero point in level measurement is simply a starting point for

making a measurement. However, it does not necessarily mean that
there is no liquid in the tank or vessel.
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Level Measurement Gauges

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 Level Measurement Gauges

Methods of Level Measurement:

1. INNAGE

2. OUTAGE OR ULLAGE Method

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 Level Measurement Gauges

INNAGE Type –
• The datum line is at the bottom of the tank or vessel.
• The measurement is taken IN the liquid from the bottom to the
surface of the liquid.

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 Level Measurement Gauges

INNAGE Type –
Advantage of innage gauging:
• The height of the liquid in the tank is directly measured.

• The effects reference gauge point movements are therefore

eliminated. (As a tank fills, the tank walls can expand; this expansion
result in movement of the reference gauge point and/or the datum
plate.)

Disadvantages of innage gauging:

- The tape may be lowered too far, causing the bob to tilt.
- Sedimentation on the tank bottom may prevent the gauge from
actually reaching the bottom or may cause the bob to tilt In highly
viscous products
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 Level Measurement Gauges

OUTAGE OR ULLAGE Type:–

• The datum line is at the top of the tank or vessel.
• The measurement is taken OUT of the liquid from the top of the
tank to the surface of the liquid.

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 Level Measurement Gauges

OUTAGE OR ULLAGE Type:–

An outage bob is used for outage gauging.
Outage gauging is commonly used when the contents are :
• Corrosive
• toxic
• extremely viscous
• clear (such as water or gasoline)

Advantage:
- Only the bob is immersed in the liquid and cleanup is quick
Disadvantages:
- The height of the liquid in the tank is indirectly measured:
- The actual height must be calculated

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 Level Measurement Gauges

Bob attached to a steel gauging tape

Gauging tapes are made of steel or corrosion-resistant material
wound onto a reel with a crank and a handle.
• The graduations on gauging tapes are specific for either outage
gauging or innage gauging.

▪ The outage tape ends at zero (at the

point of contact between the snap
hook and the bob eye)

▪ The innage tape does not end at zero,

the tip of the innage bob is the zero
point.
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 Level Measurement Gauges
Float level Measurement
the simplest form of solid or liquid level measurement is with a float
device that rides on the surface of the fluid or solid within the storage
vessel.

The float itself must be of substantially lesser

density than the substance of interest, and it
must not corrode or otherwise react with
the substance.

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 Level Measurement Gauges
Method of operation
Floats may be used for manual “gauging” of level, as illustrated
here:
▪ A person lowers a float down into a
storage vessel using a flexible measuring
tape, until the tape goes slack due to
the float coming to rest on the material
surface

▪ At that point, the person notes the

length indicated on the tape (reading off
the lip of the vessel access hole). This
distance is called the ullage
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 Level Measurement Gauges
Safety Measures

When doing Innage or Ullage

measurement , you need to
be above fuel tank position,
so Breathing apparatuses ,
Mask and Harnesses are a
must

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 Level Measurement Gauges

Level Gauge
▪ Level gauge is a device which is used to show the level of fluids in
fields

▪ Level gauge is a direct method for measuring the level.

▪ Level gauge consists of a metal body, machined to have an internal

chamber and one or more front windows

▪ On each window a special high resistance glass is used with sealing

joint and metal cover plate hold by bolts and nuts.

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 Level Measurement Gauges
Types of Level Gauge:

There are commonly 3 types of level gauges used:

1. Tubular Level Gauge

2. Reflex level gauge
2. Transparent level gauge
3. Magnetic type level gauge

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Level Measurement Gauges

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 Level Measurement Gauges
Tubular Level Gauge
A very simple means by which liquid level is measured in a vessel is
by the gauge glass method .

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 Level Measurement Gauges
Tubular Level Gauge
In the gauge glass method, a transparent tube is attached to the
bottom and top (top connection not needed in a tank open to
atmosphere) of the tank that is monitored.

The height of the liquid in the tube will be

equal to the height of water in the tank.

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 Level Measurement Gauges

Reflex level gauge:

The principle of the reflex level indicator

is based on the reflection of light. In the
gas or steam phase, the light is reflected
by the prismatic grooves of the sight
glass so that bright indication is
achieved.

In the liquid phase, the light is absorbed,

resulting in a dark indication of the level.

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 Level Measurement Gauges

Reflex level gauge:

One side surface of Reflex Glass to use flat

glass has several grooves for reflecting prism.
The principle of the Reflex Glass is based on
the difference in the refractive indices of
liquid and gas

The face fitted towards the chamber shaped

to have prismatic grooves with section angle
of 90°.

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 Level Measurement Gauges

Reflex level gauge:

The reflex level gauge is assembled firmly with gasket, reflex glass,
cushion gasket and gauge cover on the body by U bolts.

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 Level Measurement Gauges

Reflex level gauge:

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 Level Measurement Gauges
Reflex level gauge:

The liquid level is well-known by

different brightness of the glass in the
liquid and in the gas/vapor zone.

The reflex level gauges do not need a

specific illumination. The day light is
enough for seeing the level

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 Level Measurement Gauges
Reflex level gauge:

Advantages
• The most advantage of this type is for easy level reading of boiling
liquids. When liquids are boiling, their bubbles make the surface
level indistinct.

• This level gauge is designed and manufactured for easy and

accurate reading the liquid level of highly foamy liquids.

• Used for highly dense and viscous liquids, as the body is made of
forged construction only.

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 Level Measurement Gauges

Transparent Level Gauge

The liquid is encapsulated between two transparent
sight glasses. This allows the liquid to be looked
through and thus provides a clear indication of the
level.

The fluid level is indicated as the

result of the different transparency
of the two media.

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 Level Measurement Gauges

Transparent Level Gauge

• Transparent level indicators are available in double-cover plate
design for pressure

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Level Measurement Gauges

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 Level Measurement Gauges
Transparent Level Gauge
Sight glasses in steam boilers are exposed to harsh operating conditions:
• Thermal, ( Expansion)
• Mechanical ( Erosion)
• Chemical (Corrosion)

• Transparent Level Gauges can be fitted

with Mica shields to protect glass
surfaces from corrosive action of the
process fluid

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 Level Measurement Gauges
Transparent Level Gauge
Mica shields should be MANDATORY applied where the steam :
• Pressure exceeds 40 bar
• Temperature exceeds 200 ° C.

Mica shields provides the best protection possible, to flat transparent,

sight glasses in water and liquid level gauges and columns in high
pressure steam boilers.

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 Level Measurement Gauges
Transparent Level Gauge

Designation of elements:
1. Graphite gasket 6. Body
2. Mica shields 7. Screw
3. Transparent glass 8. Cover
4. Gasket 9. Protective pad
5. Nut 10. Mica shield with a hole
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 Level Measurement Gauges

Transparent Level Gauge

• The transparent level gauge is particularly recommended for
applications where the glass needs to be protected from corrosive
fluids and high temperatures.

• A backlighting illuminator can be fitted to the rear

to improve visibility

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 Level Measurement Gauges

Transparent Level Gauge

Advantages:
▪ Very simple
▪ Inexpensive
▪ Direct reading is possible

Disadvantages:
▪ Not suitable for automated control.
▪ Maintenance – requires cleaning
▪ Fragile – easily damaged

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 Level Measurement Gauges

Magnetic Level Gauge

▪ Magnetic level gauge work on the

principle of communicating vessels.

▪ the level in the measuring chamber

will be the same as the level in the
vessel.

▪ The measuring chamber is fitted with

a float, which has a magnet inside.

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 Level Measurement Gauges

▪ The float with magnet will float on the medium and the magnet in
the float will turn the flaps of the indicating rail.

▪ The float in the measuring tube is standard not pressurized and has
no magnetic or mechanical guidance

▪ Each flap in the indicating rail is fitted with a permanent magnet

which makes this level gauge unaffected by shocks, vibrations and
high temperatures

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 Level Measurement Gauges
How to change a level glass of a Level gauge
Following steps to be taken to change the glass:

1. Isolate the level gauge from process from HP and LV valve.

2. Drain the level gauge process fluid from drain isolation valve.

3. Insure no leakage occurred from HP and LP valves.

4. Remove the all U-Clamp bolt and removed the glass and gasket and
make smooth the surface of chamber and cover flange surface.

5. Fix the sealing gasket after some grease applied on chamber

window surface. By applying the grease it is easy net time to remove
the gasket on next time.
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 Level Measurement Gauges

6. Fix the mica sheet in case of transparent glass.

7. Fix the glass then fix cover flange and cushion gasket then fix
the U-Clamp and bolt .

8. Tighten the bolt in cross direction. Never tighten the bolt in

one direction if tight the glass one direction then possibility
to break the glass.

9. Tighten the all U-clamp bolt equally.

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 Level Measurement Gauges

Refraction Level Gauge

Operation is based on the principle that the bending of light, or
refraction, will be different as light passes through various media.
Light is bent, or refracted, to a greater extent in water than in steam.

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 Level Measurement Gauges

Refraction Level Gauge

For the portion of the chamber that contains steam, the light rays
travel relatively straight, and the red lens is illuminated.

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 Level Measurement Gauges

Refraction Level Gauge

For the portion of the chamber that contains water, the light rays are
bent, causing the green lens to be illuminated.

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 Level Measurement Gauges

Refraction Level Gauge

The portion of the gauge containing water appears

green; the portion of the gauge from that level upward
appears red.

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 Level Measurement Gauges

Float Level Measurement

• The ball float method is a direct reading liquid level mechanism

• The design consists of a ball float attached to a rod, which in

turn is connected to a rotating shaft
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 Level Measurement Gauges

• The ball floats on top of the liquid in the tank. If the liquid level
changes, the float will follow and change the position of the pointer
attached to the rotating shaft.

• Float can be used to measure level indirect i.e change the

movement to pneumatic or Electrical

Advantages Disadvantages
• Large level measurement • Installation costs
• Intrinsically safe • Mechanical wear

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 Level Measurement Gauges
Magnetic level indicators

Floats are designed specifically

for each application, taking
into account process variables
such as Temperature, Pressure
and Specific Gravity.

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 Level Measurement Gauges
Application Limitations

• Float and tape systems have a common problem with the tape
hanging up. This often occurs if the long guide pipes are not perfectly
vertical, where the tape rubs against the inside of the pipes.

• Another common problem is with corrosion or dirt, where the tape

can be held in place while the float is moving.

• These problems are more likely to result in a lower than actual

reading.

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 Level Measurement Gauges
Displacer transmitter

Displacer level instruments exploit Archimedes’ Principle to detect

liquid level by continuously measuring the weight of an object (called
the displacer) immersed in the process liquid.

According to Archimedes’s law (illustrated in

the figure below), the apparent weight of
the displacer when immersed in a liquid, is
its nominal weight in air minus the weight of
the displaced liquid.

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 Level Measurement Gauges
Displacer transmitter
Principle of operation
The main factor that is matter, is the density of the process fluid,
since buoyant force is directly proportional to fluid density.

Buoyant force Fb is caused by

increasing pressure with depth , so:

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 Level Measurement Gauges
Displacer Material

The standard materials shall be as a minimum: –

• Displacer: 316 SS
• Torque tube: Inconel (Iron - nickel-chromium )
• Chamber: Carbon Steel

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 Level Measurement Gauges
Displacer Installation
• Inside main Tank
The displacer is cylindrical in form with a continuing cross-sectional
area and created long or short as needed.

The weight of the displacer acting

on the torque arm, will cause
an angular displacement of the
free end of the flexible torque
tube and this movement will be
used to measure the level.

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 Level Measurement Gauges
Displacer Installation
• Inside Chamber
This instrument may also be fitted
in a separate measuring chamber,
fitted to the main vessel.

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 Level Measurement Gauges
Displacer transmitter

Construction
• The displacer itself is usually a sealed
metal tube, weighted sufficiently so it
cannot float in the process liquid.
Servo Operated Displacer Level Gauge

• It hangs within a pipe called a “cage”

connected to the process vessel through
two block valves and nozzles.

• These two pipe connections ensure the

liquid level inside the cage matches the
liquid level inside the process vessel.
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 Level Measurement Gauges
Servo Operated Displacer Level Gauge

The displacer is suspended from a strong and flexible measuring

wire wound on a measuring drum. A transducer measures the
apparent weight of the displacer partly immersed in liquid.

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 Level Measurement Gauges
Servo Operated Displacer Level Gauge

When the level starts moving downwards, the transducer will

sense the change in weight. The servo motor drives the measuring
drum to unwind the measuring wire until the displacer is partly
immersed in liquid.

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 Level Measurement Gauges
Servo Operated Displacer Level Gauge

When the level rises, the servo motor drives the measuring drum to
wind up the measuring wire until the displacer is again partly
immersed in liquid

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 Level Measurement Gauges
Servo Operated Displacer Level Gauge

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 Level Measurement Gauges
Displacer Level Gauge

• Normal heights range from fourteen inches to one hundred

twenty inches.

• Accuracy of displacer type level transmitters shall be +/- 0.5%.

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 Level Measurement Gauges
Displacer Level Gauge
Principle of operation

As liquid level increases, the

displacer experiences a greater
buoyant force, making it
appear lighter to the sensing
instrument, which interprets
the loss of weight as an
increase in level and transmits
a proportional output signal.

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 Level Measurement Gauges
Displacer Level Gauge
External displacer type
instruments with side-side
connections and rotatable
head shall normally be used
for level measurement up to
1219 mm

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 Level Measurement Gauges
Displacer Level Gauge
Advantages
• Both floats and displacers work well with clean liquids and are
accurate and adaptable to wide variations in fluid densities.

Disadvantages
• Displacers are affected by changes in product density.

• Because the displacer is immersed in the process fluid it will be

vulnerable to particulate deposition. This will change the
displacer mass and the effective displacement causing a
calibration shift.

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Level Switches

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 Level Switches

Level switches
level switches are non-invasive alarm switches that mount to the level
gauge chamber and are magnetically actuated by the float through the
chamber wall.

These switches provide a low cost, reliable alarm and control without
modification to the chamber

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 Level Switches
Magnetic Level Switch
Magnetic level switches are used for on-off control. Float movement
is transmitted through the process flange with magnets, sealing the
contacts from the process fluid.

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 Level Switches
Magnetic Level Switch
A float with a built in magnetic system actuates a small
reed contact through the wall of the guide tube. These
reed switches form a resistance measuring chain that
continuously generates a voltage proportional to the
height of the level.

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 Level Switches

Reed contacts operating principle

A float with a built in magnetic system actuates a small reed contact

through the wall of the guide tube.

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 Level Switches

Reed contacts operating principle

Thus the switching operation is without direct contact to the liquid,
free of wear and tear, and does not require any power supply.

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 Level Switches

Ultrasonic Level Switch

Contact ultrasonic level switches use ceramic discs
called piezoelectric crystals to transmit and receive
ultrasonic energy.

A transmit crystal (T) is positioned on one side of a

transducer gap and a receive crystal (R) is positioned
on the opposite side.

Tip sensitive style gaps can sense level to

within 1/4" from the end of the transducer.
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Inferential Level Measurement

Level Measurement Transmitters

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 Level Measurement Transmitters

Displacer transmitter
Using Deferential Transformer LVDT

Electronic displacer level

transmitter technology operates by
detecting changes in buoyancy
force caused by liquid level change.

These forces act upon the spring

supported displacer causing
vertical motion of the core within a
linear variable differential
transformer.

111
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Displacer transmitter
• As the core position changes
with liquid level, voltages are
induced across the secondary
windings of the LVDT.

• These signals are processed in

the electronic circuitry and used
to control the current in the 4-
20 mA current loop.

• The enclosing tube acts as a

static isolation barrier between
the LVDT and the process media.
112
 Level Measurement Transmitters
linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
Also called linear variable displacement transducer, or simply
differential transformer is a type of electrical transformer used for
measuring linear displacement (position).

• It has three solenoidal coils placed

end-to-end around a tube.

• The center coil is the primary, and

the two outer coils are the top and
bottom secondaries.
As the core moves, the primary's linkage to the two secondary
coils changes and causes the induced voltages to change.
113
 Level Measurement Transmitters
linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
• The coils are connected so that the output voltage is the difference
(hence "differential") between the top secondary voltage and the
bottom secondary voltage.

• When the core is in its central position, equidistant between the

two secondaries, equal voltages are induced in the two secondary
coils, but the two signals cancel, so the output voltage is
theoretically zero.

• In practice minor variations in the way in which the primary is

coupled to each secondary means that a small voltage is output
when the core is central.

114
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Ultrasonic transmitter

Ultrasonic is the sound above human hearing range.

Most suitable for level measurements of:

• Hot,
• Corrosive and
• Boiling liquids.

115
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Ultrasonic transmitter
The normal frequency range used for ultrasonic level measurements
is within a range of 40 200 KHz.

A successful measurement
depends on reflection from
the process material in a
straight line back to the
transducer.

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 Level Measurement Transmitters

Principle of ultrasonic level measurement

Ultrasonic waves detect an object in the same way as Radar does it.
Ultrasonic uses the sound waves, and Radar uses radio waves.

• When ultrasonic pulse signal is

targeted towards an object, it is
reflected by the object and echo
returns to the sender.

• The time travelled by the ultrasonic

pulse is calculated, and the distance of
the object is found.

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 Level Measurement Transmitters

Principle of ultrasonic level measurement

118
 Level Measurement Transmitters

Principle of ultrasonic level measurement

Total tank height will always be the

sum of fillage and ullage, though.

If the ultrasonic level transmitter is

programmed with the vessel’s total
height, it may calculate fillage via
simple subtraction:

119
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Ultrasonic transmitter
Dead zone

Radar, ultrasonic, and 3DLevelScanners have a default blanking

distance commonly referred to as a dead zone. That distance is
not accounted for, or measured by the sensor.

For example, the area from the process

connection to the bottom of the device
(19 inches) is a dead zone.

120
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Ultrasonic transmitter

A measurement to the bottom of the dead zone would be considered

a full tank.

121
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Ultrasonic transmitter

122
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Ultrasonic transmitter
Limitations of Ultrasonic Level Transmitter:
Ultrasonic level transmitters are the best level measuring devices
where the received echo of the ultrasound is of acceptable quality.

• It is not so convenient if the tank depth is high or

the echo is absorbed or dispersed.

• The object should not be sound absorbing type.

• It is also unsuitable for tanks with too much smoke

or high density moisture.

123
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Ultrasonic transmitter
Limitations of Ultrasonic Level Transmitter:

• It is also desirable that the surface be both flat and perpendicular

to the sound wave.

• In liquid-level applications, the aiming angle

must be within 2 degrees of the vertical. If the
surface is agitated or sloping (as in the case of
solids), the echo is likely to be dispersed.

124
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Ultrasonic transmitter

Advantages:

• The main advantages of ultrasonic level instrumentation are that

the transducer does not come into contact with the process
material.

• They have no moving parts and a single top of vessel entry makes
leaks less probable than fully wetted techniques.

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 Level Measurement Transmitters
Ultrasonic transmitter

Disadvantages:

• Things such as powders, heavy vapors, surface turbulence, foam

and even ambient noise can affect the returning signal

• Ultrasonic devices will not operate on vacuum

• Ultrasonic devices will not operate on high pressure applications.

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 Level Measurement Transmitters
Ultrasonic transmitter : Internal structure Signature

• Successful measurement depends on the transmitter being

mounted in the correct position so that the internal structure of
the vessel will not interfere with the signal path

• The transducer transmits a sound burst and the echo is recorded

as a signature of the tank.

• Any obstructions in the vessel will send an echo and create a

profile. Later on, this signature or profile is locked into the
ultrasonic unit’s memory so it will not respond to echoes created
by these obstructions.

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 Level Measurement Transmitters
Radar Level Transmitter
Radar level instruments measure the distance from the
transmitter/sensor (located at some high point) to the surface of a
process fluid.

• The fundamental difference between a radar level

instrument and an ultrasonic level instrument is
the type of wave used.

• Radar level instruments use radio waves instead

of sound waves used in ultrasonic instruments.

• They are ideal where vapor, dust, or a foaming

surface prevents ultrasonic measurement.
128
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Radar Level Transmitter

Microwave frequencies used in these applications include:

• Low microwave frequency (6–11 GHz),

• Mid frequency (24–29 GHz)

• High frequency (75–85 GHz).

129
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Radar Level Transmitter

Microwave frequencies used in these applications include:

• Low microwave frequency (6–11 GHz),

Low and mid frequency signals

with wavelengths in the range of
50 mm to 10 mm are less affected
by vapor, foam , dust and more
likely to pass through them
unaffected.

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 Level Measurement Transmitters
Radar Level Transmitter

Microwave frequencies used in these applications include:

• High frequency (75–85 GHz).

high frequency radars are more likely to have problems with:

▪ condensation,
▪ vapor, foam,
▪ build-up on the antenna,
▪ dust.

High frequency signals can achieve

small beam angles with small antennas.
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 Level Measurement Transmitters
Radar Level Transmitter
Principle of operation
Radar in much the same way as ultrasonic level sensors, working by
measuring the time-of-flight of a traveling wave and then determine
the level of the process material.

132
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Radar Level Transmitter

Types of Radar

There are two basic types of level radar instruments:

1. guided-wave radar

2. non-contact wave radar.

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 Level Measurement Transmitters
Radar Level Transmitter

• Guidedwave radar
Guidedwave radar instruments use wave guide “probes” to guide
the radio waves into the process liquid .

Note that guided-wave radar

instruments are used in applications
where the dielectric of the process
liquid is quite low.

134
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Radar Level Transmitter

• Noncontact radar
Noncontact radar instruments send
radio waves out through open space
to reflect off the process material.

135
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Radar Level Transmitter

All radar level instruments use an antenna to broadcast or send

radio signals to the process liquid whose level is to be determined.
The diagram below illustrates these two approaches:

136
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Magnetostrictive Level Transmitter

Magnetostrictive level measurement is currently the best liquid level

measurement and control technology.

Magnetostrictive Level Transmitters are used for continuous

measurement of liquid level and interface.

Magnetostrictive Level Transmitters can

provide two independent outputs:

1. interface;

2. overall level.
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 Level Measurement Transmitters
Magnetostrictive Level Transmitter

Magnetostrictive Level Transmitters are composed of three parts:

1. probe rod,
2. circuit unit
3. magnetic float.

The flexible cable type and the outer buoy type are derived from the
basic model. And has a variety of communication modes :

• 4~20mA,
• 0~5V,
• 0~10V,
• HART,
• RS-485
138
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Magnetostrictive Level Transmitter

Installation
Liquid level is sensed by a lightweight, donut-shaped float containing
a magnet.
• This float is centered around a long
metal rod called a waveguide, hung
vertically in the process vessel

• or hung vertically in a protective cage

like the type used for displacement-
style level instruments

139
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Principle of Operation
Magnetostriction and Magnetostrictive Material
The theory of this is as follows:
ferrimagnetic material can spontaneously magnetize and forming
magnetic domain.

Within each magnetic domain,

lattice deformation happens in
the direction of magnetization
intensity.
Ferromagnetic materials that are isotropic and have few impurities
are most effective in magnetostriction because these properties
allow their molecular dipoles to rotate easily.
140
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Principle of Operation
Magnetostriction
Magnetostriction is a property of ferromagnetic materials which
causes them to expand or contract in response to a magnetic field.

This effect allows magnetostrictive materials to convert

electromagnetic energy into mechanical energy. As a magnetic field is
applied to the material, its molecular dipoles and magnetic field
boundaries rotate to align with the field. This causes the material to
strain and elongate

141
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Principle of Operation
Magnetostriction
As an example interaction of electromagnetic fields in a stator of
electrical motor produces periodicity of the force along the airgap

142
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Principle of Operation
Magnetostriction Sensor
The basic part of the magnetostrictive sensor is the sensing element
called the waveguide.

The waveguide is made of

ferromagnetic materials such
as iron, nickel, cobalt and their
alloys.

The position magnet which is

round in shape moves around
this waveguide.
143
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Magnetostrictive Level Transmitter

Principle of Operation
Initially when position has to be determined the sensor electronics
sends a current pulse called the interrogation pulse through the
waveguide and starts the timer.

1. So a magnetic field is created around the waveguide due to

interrogated Pulse.

2. When the magnetic field of the position magnet interacts with

the magnetic file around the waveguide a strain pulse is
generated which travels at the speed of sound on both sides.

144
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Magnetostrictive Level Transmitter

Principle of Operation

145
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Magnetostrictive Level Transmitter

Principle of Operation
3. On one side this strain pulse is detected by the strain pulse
detection system and then processed by the electronics and
converted into electrical pulse.

4. The position is determined based on the time the strain pulse takes
to reach the strain pulse detection system.

The unuseful pulse which travels opposite to the electronics is damped

by damping module to prevent any interference by reflections from the
waveguide tip.
146
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Magnetostrictive Level Transmitter

Application
It can be applied when the difference in specific gravity drops to 0.02.

Magnetostrictive Level Sensors Commonly used for the measurement

of the:
• oil-water interface
• acid tanks,
• propane containers,
• desalter
• sewage tanks.

147
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Capacitive level Transmitter

Capacitive level transducer is an example of indirect measurement of

level. Like ultrasonic sensors, capacitance sensors can handle point or
continuous level measurement.

The principle of capacitive level

measurement is based on the
capacitance change of a capacitor.

Capacitance (C)
Dielectric constant Ɛr= (Ɛ0) × material Dielectric constant
Electrode Surface Area
Dielectric constant (Ɛ0) is the electric field constant (Ɛ0 = 8.8 × 10‐12 C/(Vm).
148
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Capacitive level Transmitter

The probe and the tank wall form a capacitor whose capacitance is
dependent on the amount of product in the tank:

• Empty tank has a lower capacitance

• Filled tank a higher capacitance

149
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Capacitive level Transmitter
More Practical details
A second pair of capacitive sensors
(shown as C2) is used as a reference
in addition to main sensor C1.

150
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Capacitive level Transmitter
More Practical details

151
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Capacitive level Transmitter
More Practical details

152
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Capacitive level Transmitter
More Practical details

The level of liquid is derived as

• Calibration is made to achieve a more accurate measurement.

• Dry (basic) calibration is used to determine C1DRY and C2DRY.

• The gain and offset can be derived from 0" level and 4" calibration
153
 Level Gauges
Capacitive level Transmitter
Capacitive Level sensor animation

154
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Capacitive level Transmitter

Application

The technique is frequently referred as RF as radio frequency signals

applied to the capacitance circuit.

The sensors can be designed to sense material with dielectric

constants as low as 1.1 (coke and fly ash) and as high as 88 (water) or
more.

155
Level Measurement Transmitters

156
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Capacitive level Transmitter

Prob Installation
The design of the probe comprises of sense rod and grounding part.
The probe can be made of stainless steel which resists stains and
corrosion and gives rigid support to the level sensor.

157
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Prob Installation

158
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Capacitive level Transmitter
Prob Installation
LRV is limited to the length of sensor prob
A site calibration is only necessary if the 0%‐value or the 100%‐value
should be adjusted to suit specific measurement requirements

159
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Capacitive level Transmitter

Prob Installation :

Two types of probs are there:

• Rigid probes
• Flexible probes

• Rigid probes offer higher stability, especially in

turbulent systems, where swaying of the probe
can cause signal fluctuations.

• Flexible probes must be used when there is

insufficient clearance for a rigid probe, or in
applications that demand very long lengths.
160
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Capacitive level Transmitter

Dual-probe capacitance level sensors

Possible configurations of the capacitance probe for interface
measurement :

(a) with one electrode only

(b) with two electrodes

161
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Capacitive level Transmitter

Application :
Dual-probe capacitance level sensors

Dual-probe capacitance level

sensors is used to sense the
interface between two immiscible
liquids with substantially different
dielectric constants.

162
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Capacitive level Transmitter

Dual-probe capacitance level sensors

At this interface the difference between the conductivity of the
conductive media should be greater than 100 μS/cm and the
conductivity of the non‐conductive media should be lower than 1
μS/cm.

An oil‐water emulsion has all the conductivity range between 1 and

100 μS/cm depending on the oil‐water bubble repartition. This means
that a capacitance probe will detect the media above 100 μS/cm (i.e.
conductive media) and will not detect the emulsion layer (between 1
and 100 μS/cm) as well as the non-conductive media layer (i.e. <1
μS/cm).
163
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Capacitive level Transmitter
Advantages:

• Works well on dielectric fluids

• Simple mechanical construction

• No moving parts requiring regular inspection and maintenance, or

leading to wear and tear

• High temperature fluid compatibility since no sensitive components

make contact with the fluid

• Sealed pressurised or evacuated vessels will not affect performance

164
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Capacitive level Transmitter
Disadvantages
• Doesn’t work with conductive fluids without insulated outer tube

• Requires calibration to distinguish difference between liquid and air.

• Sensitive to changes in media causing dielectric constant to change
• Probe protruding into liquid causing obstruction, attracting fouling
and hygienic cleanliness issues
165
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Capacitive level Transmitter
Disadvantages

• Thick or sticky media will leave a coating on the probe creating an

insulation layer causing malfunction, or affect performance

166
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Vibrating fork level detectors
provide a reliable monitoring of the limits of level of any type of
pumpable liquids in tanks and pipes.

There are numerous applications, from simple

functional level detection limit (minimum and
maximum control), up to the protection devices
in zones of the plant of level of security whole
(SIL2/3)

167
 Level Gauges

Vibrating fork level detectors

Principle of Operation
• A fork extends into the space; a piezo-electric crystal causes the
fork to vibrate at a specific frequency when in free air.

• When immersed in another medium, the frequency changes,

which the instrument’s electronics detect.

168
 Level Measurement Transmitters

Vibrating fork level detectors

Principle of Operation
• In many situations, just indicating when the fork is immersed is
enough. This signal is processed to give out as a relay output either
N.O or N.C.

• However, some more-sophisticated devices can characterize what

the fork is immersed in by the degree of change in frequency. This is
because the sensor behaves differently when immersed, e.g., in
water versus oil; so, it can indicate if it’s above or below the
water/oil interface point.

169
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Vibrating fork level detectors

Main advantages:

• Universal application: Unresponsive to the product

properties such as conductivity, dielectric constant,
viscosity, pressure and temperature.

• Without calibration or maintenance tasks.

• Functional safety SIL2/3.

• Precise switching point.

170
 Level Measurement Transmitters

Level Measurement Sensor Selection:

Selecting a level meter, might need to consider the following questions:

1. Are you measuring a liquid or solid?

2. What are the application's temperature and pressure ranges?
3. Is point level or continuous measurement required?
4. What level measurement range do you need?
5. Is the measured material electrically conductive?
6. Will the material coat or build up on surfaces?
7. Does turbulence, foam, or vapor occur at the surface of the liquid?
8. Will you need contact or non-contact level measurement?
9. What kind of output do you need–analog, relay, digital display, etc.?

171
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Level Measurement
Here are four types of applications with suggested technology
approaches for each.

Point level for liquids: Continuous for liquids:

• Conductive level probes, • Pressure

• Float, • Displacer
• Thermal, • Magnetostriction
• Ultrasonic
• Radar.
• Capacitance

172
 Level Measurement Transmitters
Level Measurement

Point level for solids: Continuous for solids:

• Capacitance, • Ultrasonic

• Vibration, • Radar.

173
Level Measurement using Pressure Transmitters

174
 Level Measurement –Hydrostatic Pressure
Hydrostatic level measurement

• Inferential level measurement techniques obtain a level indication

indirectly by monitoring the pressure exerted by the column of
liquid.

• Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure exerted by a fluid at a given

point, due to the weight of the fluid above it.

• Hydrostatic pressure sensors are used for the measurement of level

or filling height of a liquid.

175
 Level Measurement –Hydrostatic Pressure

Hydrostatic level measurement

Hydrostatic pressure
measurement is suited for
level measurement due to
the hydrostatic effect of
non-flowing fluids

Regardless of the shape and volume of a vessel, the

hydrostatic pressure at the measuring point of a tank or
vessel is proportional only to the filling height
176
Level Measurement –Hydrostatic Pressure

177
 Level Measurement –Hydrostatic Pressure

Density:

Specific Gravity

Known As relative Density

is the ratio of the density of the substance to that of water 1000 Kg /m3

can be expressed by the equation:

178
 Inferential Level Measurement

• The pressure at the base of a vessel containing liquid is directly

proportional to the liquid level in the vessel.

• Mathematically, we have the pressure and level dependency of:

P=S⋅H

Where:
P = Pressure (Psi)
S = Specific Gravity
H = Height of liquid column (in)
179
 Inferential Level Measurement

Example Problem
A pressure gauge located at the base of an open tank containing a
liquid with a density of 54.5lb/ft3 registers 11.7psi. What is the depth
of the fluid in the tank?

180
 Inferential Level Measurement

Example :
• Find the head of water in inch if the pressure reads 1.8 psi
Taking that Water Specific Gravity is : 0.036

P=S⋅H

The formula is simple one, will work the same if using other units?

181
 Inferential Level Measurement

All these equations give Head in term of applied pressure and the
Head is calculated in meter, what ever the used pressure unit

182
 Level Measurement –Hydrostatic Pressure
• Task 1: Calculate the pressure acting in water at 1.5 m
• Task 2: Calculate the pressure acting in water at 3 m

183
Level Measurement –Hydrostatic Pressure

184
 Level Measurement –Hydrostatic Pressure
To be Continue …..

185
 Level Measurement –Hydrostatic Pressure
Task 1:
Calculate the head (H) of water in meter when the pressure is
measured to be:
• P= 14.2 psi H = ………………………………………………………
• P= 0.98 bar H = ………………………………………………………
• P= 98.1 kN/m2 H = ………………………………………………………
• P= 0.97 atm H = ………………………………………………………
• P= 9997 mm H2O H = ………………………………………………………
• P= 393.6 in H2O H = ………………………………………………………
• P= 981 Pa H = ………………………………………………………
• P= 393.6 in WC H = ………………………………………………………
• P= 9997 mm WC H = ………………………………………………………
186
 Inferential Level Measurement

Bubbler tubes
Bubblers, are all hydrostatic measurement devices. This technology is
used in vessels (tanks) that operate under atmospheric pressure.

187
 Inferential Level Measurement

Bubbler tubes
Bubbler tubes provide a simple and
inexpensive but less accurate (+1-2%)
level measurement system for

188
 Inferential Level Measurement

Bubbler tubes
Application
corrosive or slurry-type applications open or vented containers,
especially those in harsh environments such as:

• cooling tower sumps,

• swimming pools,
• reservoirs,
• vented fuel tanks,
• drain sumps,
• air washers, etc

189
 Inferential Level Measurement

Principle of operation
In the bubble tube system, liquid level is determined by measuring
the pressure required to force a gas into a liquid at a point beneath
the surface as shown in the figure

190
 Inferential Level Measurement
Principle of operation

• Bubblers use compressed air or an inert

gas (usually nitrogen) introduced
through a dip pipe called the bubble or
sensing tube immersed at a fixed depth
into the vessel.

191
 Inferential Level Measurement
Principle of operation

• The air flow restrictor reduces the airflow to

a very small amount.

• As the pressure builds, bubbles are released

from the end of the bubble tube.
• Pressure is maintained as air bubbles
escape through the liquid.

• Changes in the liquid level cause the

air pressure in the bubble tube to vary.

192
 Inferential Level Measurement
Principle of operation

• At the top of the bubble tube is where a pressure sensor

(transmitter) detects differences in pressure as the level changes.

193
 Inferential Level Measurement
Pressure Variation
• The amount of pressure variation is approximately equal to the
hydrostatic pressure of process fluid at a height equal to the
diameter of the bubble, which in turn will be approximately equal
to the diameter of the bubble tube.

194
 Inferential Level Measurement
Principle of operation
Pressure Variation
Example,
A 1/4 inch diameter dip tube will experience pressure oscillations
with a peak-to-peak amplitude of approximately 1/4 inch elevation of
process liquid.

195
 Inferential Level Measurement
Principle of operation

Pressure Variation
• Usually, this is a small variation when considered in the context of
the measured liquid height in the vessel.

• A pressure oscillation of approximately 1/4 inch compared to a

measurement range of 0 to 10 feet, for example, is only about 0.2%
of span.

• Modern pressure transmitters have the ability to “filter” or “damp”

pressure variations over time, which is a useful feature for
minimizing the effect such a pressure variation will have on system
performance.
196
 Inferential Level Measurement
Principle of operation

Pressure Variation

• A way to help minimize this effect is to place

small V-shaped notches at the end of the dip
tube, to help bubbles escape at sizes smaller
than the tube’s diameter:

197
 Inferential Level Measurement

Method precaution
Although reasonably accurate level measurement can be obtained
without liquid entering the bubbler tube, bubble tube blockages still
occur.

Blockages can be minimized by keeping the pipe tip about 3 inches

from the bottom of the tank.

198
 Inferential Level Measurement
Bubbler tubes
Advantages
• Simple assembly
• dip tube installed with the open end close to the bottom of the
process vessel.
• Suitable for use with corrosive fluids.
• Intrinsically safe
• High temp applications
Disadvantages
• Requires compressed air and installation of air lines
• Calibration is directly affected by changes in product density.
• Not suited to pressurized vessels or non-vented vessels.
• The tip of the pipe can collect material from the process, solidify,
and plug the hole.
199
Level Measurement using Differential Pressure D/P
Transmitter

200
 Level-Suppression & elevation

DP Transmitter
❑ The principle of differential pressure level measurement is
based on hydrostatic head

❑ Hydrostatic pressure measurement is the most common

means for liquid and interface level measurements. For most
applications, differential transmitters are preferred because
the range selection is flexible and widely understood.

❑ They are used with open and enclosed vessels. Differential

transmitters are usually connected to the side of a vessel or
tank with isolation facilities.
201
 DP Transmitter Installation

DP Transmitter Installation

• A typical DP transmitter installation for low pressure sensing is

shown in Figure

• A DP transmitter is used to measure the gas pressure (in gauge

scale) inside a vessel.
202
 DP Transmitter Installation

• In this case, the low pressure side of the transmitter is vented

to atmosphere, and the high pressure side is connected to the
vessel through an isolating valve.

• The isolating valve facilitates the removal of the transmitter.

• The output of the DP transmitter is proportional to the gauge

pressure of the gas in the tank, i.e., 4 mA when pressure is 20
kPa (1atm) and 20 mA when pressure is 30 kPa
203
 DP Transmitter Installation

Three Valve Manifold

• To obtain maximum sensitivity, a pressure capsule that has a
sensitive range which just exceeds the maximum hydrostatic
pressure range of the liquid column should be used.

• However, as already mentioned, the gas pressure (Pgas.) is often

much higher than the hydrostatic pressure (i.e. level head) that
is to be measured.

• If the gas pressure is accidentally applied to only one side of the

DP capsule (say during installation or removal of the DP
transmitter), overranging of the capsule could occur and the
capsule would be damaged
204
 DP Transmitter Installation

• A three valve manifold is a device that is used to ensure that the

capsule will not be over-ranged and allows isolation of the
transmitter from the process loop.

• The three valve manifold consists of two block valves – a high

pressure and a low pressure block valve (V1 & V2) - and an
equalizing valve (V3)
205
 DP Transmitter Installation

When the transmitter is put into or removed from service, the valves
must be operated in such a manner that the high pressure gas phase
is not applied to only one side of the DP capsule.

206
 DP Transmitter Installation

Operational Sequences of Three-Valve Manifold - Valving a d/P

Transmitter Into Service
1. Check all valves closed.
2. Open the equalizing valve - this ensures that the same pressure will be
applied to both sides of the transmitter, i.e. zero differential pressure.
3. Open the High Pressure block valve slowly, check for leakage from both
the high pressure and low pressure side of the transmitter – still zero d/P.
4. Close the equalizing valve - this locks the pressure on both sides of the
transmitter – now look for leaks, should still be zero d/P.
5. Open the low pressure block valve to apply the process pressure to the
low pressure side of the transmitter and establish the working differential
pressure.
6. The transmitter is now in service

207
 DP Transmitter Installation

Operational Sequences of Three-Valve Manifold - Valving a d/P

Transmitter Into Service

208
 DP Transmitter Installation

Operational Sequences of Three-Valve Manifold - Valving a

Transmitter-out-of-Service
1. Close the low pressure block valve to trap pressure in the low side
– check for leaks and ensure the indicated d/P does not change.

2. Open the equalizing valve to force d/P to zero.

3. Close the high pressure block valve to isolate the transmitter.

4. Bleed down (i.e. vent) the pressure trapped in the d/P cell body –
should continue to read zero d/P 5. The d/P transmitter is now
out-of-service, isolated and depressurized.

209
DP Transmitter Installation

210
 DP Transmitter Installation

5 Way Manifold Valve

Some differential pressure transmitters are equipped with 5
way valve manifolds. These valve networks allow for blocking,
equalizing, and bleeding of the transmitter’s two pressure ports,
the valves being arranged in this pattern:

211
 DP Transmitter Installation

5 Way Manifold Valve

Normal valve positions:

• Both block valves open.
• Both equalizing valves closed.
• Vent valve closed.

Removing differential pressure transmitter from service:

• Close one block valve.
• Open both equalizing valves (which one first does not matter).
• Close the other block valve.
• Open the vent valve.
• Tag all valves, notifying of transmitter’s planned return time/date.
• Disconnect the transmitter from the manifold.
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 Inferential Level Measurement

Open Tank Level Measurement Application

The simplest level transmitter application is the measurement of
level in an open tank. Figure below shows a typical open tank level
measurement installation.

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 Inferential Level Measurement

If the tank is open to atmosphere, the high pressure side of the D/P
level transmitter will be connected to the base of the tank.

• The low pressure side will be vented to atmosphere.

• In this manner, the level transmitter acts as a simple pressure
transmitter. We have:

Phigh = Patm + S ⋅ H
Plow = Patm

• Differential pressure DP = Phigh - Plow = S ⋅ H

• The level transmitter can be calibrated to output 4 mA when the tank

is at 0% level and 20 mA when the tank is at 100% level
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 Inferential Level Measurement

Closed Tank Application

If the tank is closed, and a gas phase exists on top of the liquid, this
gas phase pressure must be compensated for.

• A change in the gas pressure will cause a change in the measured

pressure resulting in a corresponding transmitter output not
related to level.
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 Inferential Level Measurement

Closed Tank Application

• Pressure Compensation can be achieved by applying the gas
pressure to both the high and low pressure sides of the level
transmitter.

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 Inferential Level Measurement

Closed Tank Application

• In the closed tank we have:

Phigh = Pgas + S ⋅ H
Plow = Pgas
DP = Phigh - Plow = S ⋅ H

• The effect of the gas pressure is canceled and only the pressure
due to the hydrostatic head of the liquid is sensed.

• When the low pressure impulse line is connected directly to the

gas phase above the liquid level, it is called a dry leg
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 Dry & wet leg calculation
DP Transmitter Level Measurement for Closed Tank

In closed tank DP level measurement, LP leg is connected to the top

of tank.
There are two methods in closed tank :

1. Dry leg method

2. Wet leg method

Sometimes we can make a dry leg installation into wet leg by filling
water into the LP impulse line also.
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 Level-Suppression & elevation
Dry Leg & Wet Leg
We can only decide for a particular DP transmitter is having Wet leg
or Dry leg from the field installation & its process application.

• The hydro static pressures applying on DP transmitters will vary

depending on wet leg or dry leg. so we have to consider these &
calibration formula also varies accordingly.
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 Level-Suppression & elevation
Dry Leg
Dry Leg : if LP impulse line is filled with air, gas or any other gases.

Dry leg method is used in normal close tank where vapor is not
condensate and temperature of process is equal to atmospheric
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 Level-Suppression & elevation
Wet Leg
Wet Leg : if LP impulse line is filled with liquid like water, glycol,
glycerin or liquid inside tank

Wet leg method is used where vapor has a tendency to make the
condensate and temperature of process is high or low from the
atmospheric .
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Level-Suppression & elevation

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 Level-Suppression & elevation

Transmitter mounted leveled with the min. level

❑ The DP Transmitter calibration parameters will vary depending
on installation & seal system also. Generally we can see three
possibilities of installation of a transmitter in the field.

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 Level-Suppression & elevation
• Calculating ΔP

Phigh = Pgas + S⋅H (static Head)

Plow = Pgas
ΔP = Phigh – Plow = S⋅H

The effect of the gas pressure is

cancelled and only the pressure due
to the hydrostatic head of the liquid
is sensed.

The level transmitter can be calibrated to output 4 mA when the tank

is at 0% level and 20 mA when the tank is at 100% level
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 Level-Suppression & elevation

Closed Tank Level Measurement using DP Transmitters

▪ Transmitter installed Exactly at
HP tapping point ( Ideal &
preferred way of installation)

▪ Transmitter installed above HP

tapping point ( Not preferable,
Chance of bubble formation in
the impulse line)

▪ Transmitter installed below HP

tapping point (Error can be
compensated effectively)
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 Level-Suppression & elevation
Measuring the level in open tank
• the high-pressure side of the level transmitter will be connected
to the base of the tank
• the low-pressure side will be vented to atmosphere.

We have:
Phigh = Patm + S⋅H
Plow = Patm

Differential pressure ΔP = Phigh – Plow = S⋅H

The level transmitter can be calibrated to output 4 mA when the tank

is at 0% level and 20 mA when the tank is at 100% level
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 Level-Suppression & elevation

When a DP transmitter is used for the purpose of measuring level, it

will be called a level transmitter even though it is measuring
pressure.
For DP Transmitter Configuration, we have to find out by calculation :
• Zero Level
• Span Level.

Accordingly we have to configure the DP transmitter with following :

• Lower Range Value (LRV)
• Upper Range Value (URV)

To do so, we need to use Field communicator to update the new

configuration.
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 Level-Suppression & elevation
DP Transmitter installed at the exact HP tapping point

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 Level-Suppression & elevation
DP Transmitter installed at the exact HP tapping point

➢ At Zero level = 0 mmwc

➢ At Span level = H x Specific gravity
= 500 x 1.0
= 500 mmWC
➢ Then Range = 500 – 0 = 500 mmWC

So, we have to set Lower Range Value (LRV) = 0 mmwc and Upper
Range Value (URV) = 500 mmWC in the DP Transmitter using HART
communicator.
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 Level-Suppression & elevation

DP Transmitter Installed Below Tapping Point for Open Tank

If transmitter is installed below the

tank then it’s called zero suppression
then calculation is below:

When zero suppression is

used then H1 height always
filled with process fluid.
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 Level-Suppression & elevation
DP Transmitter Installed Below Tapping Point for Open Tank

At zero level (LRV) = H1 x SG

= 100 x 1.0
= 100 mmwc
At 100% level (URV) = (H1 + H2) x SG
= (100 + 500) x 1.0
= 600 mmwc

Range = URV – LRV = 600 – 100 = 500 mmwc

So, we have to set :
• Lower Range Value (LRV) = 100 mmwc and
• Upper Range Value (URV) = 600 mmwc
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 Level-Suppression & elevation
➢At zero level
LRV = pressure acting on HP leg – Pressure acting on LP leg
=H2 x specific gravity – 0
= 200 x 0.9 – 0
= 180 mmwc

➢At 100 % level

URV = pressure acting on HP leg – Pressure acting on LP leg
= (H2+H1) x specific gravity – 0
= (200 + 500) x 0.9 – 0
= 630 mmwc

➢Range = URV – LRV = 630 – 180 mmwc = 450 mmwc 232

 Level-Suppression & elevation

Interface liquid–liquid level calculation example

The differential pressure,
DP = h interface x g x [ ρ2 – ρ1 ] + ρ1 x g x H ………… Equation 1

The range is:

At h interface = 0 then DP = ρ1 x g x H
At h interface = H then DP = ρ2 x g x H

ρ1 : Liquid1 Density (kg/m3)

ρ2 : Liquid2 Density (kg/m3)
hinterface : Interface Level between the Liquid 1 and Liquid 2 (m)
g: 9.81 (m/s2)
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 Level-Suppression & elevation

Interface liquid–liquid level calculation example

Interface measurement requires its own connection into the upper
and the lower phase.
Equation [1] is applicable if there is only one variable. For an
interface level measurement it should be hinterface.

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 Level-Suppression & elevation

Separated Interface Heavy liquid– Light liquid level

This strategy naturally lends itself to separation processes, where a
mixture of light and heavy liquids are separated by their differing
densities:

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 Level-Suppression & elevation
Separated Interface Heavy liquid– Light liquid level calculation
Example, suppose we must calibrate a differential pressure transmitter
to measure the interface level between two liquids having specific
gravities of 1.1 and 0.78, respectively, over a span of 3 feet.

The transmitter is equipped with remote seals, each containing a

halocarbon fill fluid with a specific gravity of 1.09. The physical layout of
the system is as follows:

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Level-Suppression & elevation

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 Level-Suppression & elevation

At first, it may seem as though determining the calibration points

(lower- and upper-range values: LRV and URV)

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 Level-Suppression & elevation

Note 1: LRV Calculation

We know from our previous exploration of this setup that any
hydrostatic pressure resulting from liquid level above the top remote
seal location is irrelevant to the transmitter, since it is “seen” on both
sides of the transmitter and thus cancels out.

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 Level-Suppression & elevation

Note 2: LRV Calculation

First, calculating the hydrostatic pressure “seen” at the high port of the
transmitter :
Phigh = 4.5 feet of heavy liquid + 4.5 feet of light liquid
Phigh = 54 inches of heavy liquid + 54 inches of light liquid
Phigh ”W.C. = (54 inches of heavy liquid)(1.1) + (54 inches of light liquid)
x (0.78)
Phigh ”W.C. = 59.4 ”W.C. + 42.12 ”W.C.
Phigh = 101.52 ”W.C.

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 Level-Suppression & elevation

Note 3: LRV Calculation

Next, calculating the hydrostatic pressure “seen” at the low port of
the transmitter:

Plow = 9 feet of fill fluid

Plow = 108 inches of fill fluid
Plow ”W.C. = (108 inches of fill fluid) x (1.09)
Plow = 117.72 ”W.C.
The differential pressure applied to the transmitter, which becomes
the lower range value (LRV) for calibration:

Pressure LRV = 101.52 ”W.C. − 117.72 ”W.C. = −16.2 ”W.C.

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 Level-Suppression & elevation

Note 1: URV Calculation

Phigh = 7.5 feet of heavy liquid + 1.5 feet of light liquid

Phigh = 90 inches of heavy liquid + 18 inches of light liquid
Phigh ”W.C. = (90 inches of heavy liquid)(1.1) + (18 inches of light
liquid) x (0.78)
Phigh ”W.C. = 99 ”W.C. + 14.04 ”W.C.
Phigh = 113.04 ”W.C.

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 Level-Suppression & elevation

Note 2: URV Calculation

The hydrostatic pressure of the compensating leg is exactly the same
as it was before: 9 feet of fill fluid having a specific gravity of 1.09,
which means there is no need to calculate it again. It will still be
117.72 inches of water column. Thus, the differential pressure at the
URV point is:

Pressure URV = 113.04 ”W.C. − 117.72 ”W.C. = −4.68 ”W.C.

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 Level-Suppression & elevation
Note 2: Workshop Calibration preparation
we may generate a 5-point calibration table (assuming a 4-20 mA
transmitter output signal range) for this interface level measurement
system:

Instead of Negative pressure, we can apply 16.2 to 4.68 inches of

water column pressure to the low remote seal diaphragm with the
other diaphragm at atmospheric pressure to simulate the desired
range of negative differential pressures.
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 Level-Suppression & elevation
Note 2: Workshop Calibration preparation

Span Calculation

Span = URV − LRV

Span is equal to the span of the interface level (3 feet, or 36 inches)
multiplied by the difference in specific gravities (1.1 − 0.78):

Span in ”W.C. = (36 inches)(1.1 − 0.78)

Span = 11.52 ”W.C.

245
Level Transmitter Calibration

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 Calibration of DP transmitter

Which Instrument is at Fault in this System?

The operator has hand-gauged the storage vessel with a tape
measure and determined the actual level to be 9 feet, but the level
indicator (LI) registers 7.5 feet.

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 Calibration of DP transmitter

Which Instrument is at Fault in this System?

The calibrated range of the 4-20 mA transmitter is 0 feet to 12 feet.
You measure the current signal with your multimeter and find that it
is 14 mA.

• Which instrument is at
fault in this system?

• How do you know?

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 Calibration of DP transmitter

Which Instrument is at Fault in this System?

Answer:
The transmitter is at fault, not the indicator. The reason is;

PV/Span = 9 feet /12 feet

= 0.75 = 75%

From 4 to 20 mA, 75% will

Output of 16mA ,
However the current output
Is 14 mA

Transmitter needs Calibration

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 Calibration of DP transmitter

Transmitter Calibration Range of a Vessel Level

The following storage vessel holds liquid heptane, a hydrocarbon
with an approximate specific gravity of 0.68.

A pressure transmitter located at

the bottom infers heptane level by
hydrostatic pressure (head).
Determine the calibration range of
this pressure transmitter in order to
properly translate the range of
vessel level (0 to 14 feet) into an
output signal of 4 to 20 mA.

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 Calibration of DP transmitter

Transmitter Calibration Range of a Vessel Level

Procedure :
1. Please express the transmitter’s calibration range in units of
inches W.C. (inches of water column).

2. Determine the following :

• Transmitter output signal

(mA) at 8 feet of level.

• Find Heptane level at 5.7 mA

signal output

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 Calibration of DP transmitter

Transmitter Calibration Range of a Vessel Level

To get Heptane expressed in units of inches W.C:

Span = 14 ft = (12 (in/ft) x 14 ft ) = 12x 14 = 168 in of Heptane

Pressure of (Heptane) = Pressure of Water
SG (Heptane)x H (in of Heptane) = SG (Water) x H (in of WC)

0.68 x 168 in = 1 x inWC

In WC = (168 x0.68) /1 = 114.24 in WC

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 Calibration of DP transmitter

Transmitter Calibration Range of a Vessel Level

Answer
Lower range-values (LRV): 0 inches W.C. input = 4 mA output
Upper range-values (URV): 114.24 inches W.C. input = 20 mA output

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 Calibration of DP transmitter

Transmitter Calibration Range of a Vessel Level

Answer
Transmitter output signal (mA) at 8 feet of level = 13.14 mA

First of all convert 8 ft (Heptane) to in WC

0.68 x 8ft= 1 x inWC
0.68 x (12X8) in = 1 x inWC
8 ft = 65.28 in WC

((65.28 -0)/114.24) = (mA – 4 /16)

mA = 13. 14 mA
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 Calibration of DP transmitter

Transmitter Calibration Range of a Vessel Level

Answer
Heptane level at 5.7 mA signal output = 1.4875 feet

(PV-0)/114.24 = 5.7-4 /16

PV = 12.13 inWC

or

(PV-0)/14ft = 5.7-4 /16

PV = 1.487 ft
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 Calibration of DP transmitter
Alternative Set-up- Non smart
transmitter

256
 Calibration of DP transmitter
Calibration Procedure
➢Set up the differential pressure transmitter, HART communicator,
power supply, hand pump, and the multimeter as below (see below
calibration setup Diagram).

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 Calibration of DP transmitter
Calibration Procedure

➢Apply a pressure to the transmitter equal to a lower range pressure

(usually it correspond to 4 mA in the transmitter output).

For example : any of below cases can be found

• we have 0 to 100 mBar calibrated range, then:
LRV is 0.
• we have -2 to 100 mBar calibrated range, then:
LRV is -2 psi.
• we have 5 to 100 mBar calibrated range, then:
LRV is 5 psi.
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 Calibration of DP transmitter
Calibration Procedure

➢Read the pressure in the transmitter LCD (or in the HART

communicator). Adjust (if any) through the HART communicator so
that the output of the transmitter (on LCD) is the same with the
applied pressure

➢Read the mA output of the transmitter by using a multimeter. Adjust

(if any) through the HART communicator so that the output of the
transmitter (on multimeter) is 4 mA.

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 Calibration of DP transmitter

➢Apply a pressure to the transmitter equal to an upper range URV

pressure (usually it correspond to 20 mA in the transmitter output).

➢Read the pressure in the transmitter LCD (or in the HART

communicator). Adjust (if any) through the HART communicator so
that the output of the transmitter (on LCD) is the same with the
applied pressure.

➢Read the mA output of the transmitter by using a multimeter. Adjust

(if any) through the HART communicator so that the output of the
transmitter (on multimeter) is 20 mA.

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261