GE 9 (REVEIWER)

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY AND ETHICS

Western culture began with philosophy.
Epistemology and ethical systems emerged in the 18th century. By the late 1800s, language,
logic, and meaning took center stage, and the 20th century saw one of the greatest intellectual
surges ever. Philosophy is now used in science, combat, politics, and artificial intelligence
(Super Scholar, 2020).
Philosophy means "love of wisdom." Philosophers aim to comprehend basic facts about
themselves, the world, and their connections to each other. Philosophy is similar academically.
I. "Philosophy is the love of wisdom "
Pythagoras of Croton (born on the Greek island of Samos, c. 580 B.C.) coined the
Greek term "philosopher," meaning "lover of wisdom," to contrast with "wise
man" (sophist).
II. Branches of Philosophy (Angelo, 2018):
Literature and studies have identified many branches of philosophy. One might
have to ask which of them is correct.
The Branches of Philosophy are as follows:
1. Metaphysics (ta meta ta physiká). The term of the work in Aristotle's list that comes meta
("after") his physics texts. The first history of philosophy by Aristotle is in the book.
- Aristotle called metaphysics "First Philosophy" or "Theology". Study of things' first (or, final)
causes (or, principles). Real or appearance?
Natural Theology which "Talk about the gods" was what the Greeks meant by "theology." This
talk can be divided into Natural Theology, which is the study of gods or God without reference
to revelation,
Divine Theology (which is not philosophy), which is the study of gods or God with reference to
revelation: demonstrations based on revealed truths
2. Epistemology. Questions of trust, assurance, and knowing. (Descartes: Is it feasible to know
anything with total certainty? because is there anything that cannot be doubted?) Is it feasible to
know anything? Can we know everything? What are the different types of beliefs? ("Theories of
knowing" like "correspondence" and "cohesion").
3. Axiology. This branch of philosophy talks all about Ethics, Aesthetics, and Social. Let us then
explore each of them:
 Ethics. It examines moral issues like right and wrong, good and evil, and how we should
live.
 Aesthetics. Beauty and art are the subject of this study. it means "judge about good and
bad.
 Social. It is the study of politics (i.e., life in the society or state, from the Greek polis:
'city-state';
4. Logic. "The art of thinking" (dialectic): formal and casual logic. (2) The study of the "logic of
language"—signs versus their meanings, sense versus folly, definition, clarity, and obscurity—
only as it impacts philosophy issues.
5. Natural Philosophy (now called 'natural science'). Philosophy and science philosophy ask "Is
science a philosophy?"
6. The Philosophy of X. Where any topic can be X. The Theory of X asks, what is X? its
subject's limits? What's its purpose? Example:
 Philosophy of Mathematics (Foundations of Mathematics). Mathematics—reality or
notes on paper? Geometric point? Numbers?
 Philosophy of Science. Science theory: what is it? Are data "theory laden"? If science
has truth, what is it? Social Science Theory.
 Philosophy of Religion. (the neutral study of religion: What is religion?)
 Philosophy of Language
 Philosophy of Law (e.g. physis vs. nomos)
 Philosophy of Education
 Philosophy of Medicine (health and illness - - by what criterion is something classified
as being one or the other?)
 Philosophy of Economics (Is economics a science?)
 Philosophy of History. both critical and theoretical philosophy of history: (a) Is there a
pattern or cycle to historical events?

I. The Origin of Ethics:

A. Mythical Accounts (Introduction of Moral Codes)
Ethics—the methodical study of morality—could only have arisen when humans began to
contemplate the best way to live
The Code of Hammurabi, presented by the sun god Shamash, is on a black Babylonian stone in
the Louvre in Paris.
Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) story of God giving Moses the Ten Commandments on Mount
Sinai
Plato's debate Protagoras (428/427 348/347 BCE) recounts Zeus's compassion for the weak
humans who couldn't compete with the beasts.
B. Problem of Divine Origin:
Modern theists (see theism) believe that God is good and would never accept of harming
children or not aiding friends.
Divine revelation is the only safe way to determine morality, even if it exists separately of God
or the gods.
Religion's morality was traditionally linked to ethics.
C. Prehuman Ethics (Nonhuman Behavior)
History cannot explain morality's roots because no human culture existed before it had morality.
Anthropology is useless because all human cultures studied so far had their own values.
Evolutionary theory states that those who do not fight to live and propagate will be removed by
natural selection, making such apparent altruism odd.
D. Anthropology and Ethics
Traditional Chinese society viewed children's duty to their parents differently from modern
Western society. However, almost all cultures value kinship and exchange. For clear reasons, all
cultures limit slaying and injuring other members
anthropologist compared differences between societies in matters such as the wrongness of
killing (including killing in warfare, euthanasia, suicide, infanticide, abortion, human sacrifice,
and dueling);
Westermarck showed great variety in what cultures deemed good conduct in all these areas.
II.The History of Western Ethics
After discovering the origin of ethics from the perspective of various civilizations, the western
part of the world had its chance and flourishing history of ethics. Let us then explore the vast
ocean of the development of Ethics in the Western world.
A. The Ancient Middle East and Asia As cultures learned to write, they recorded their social
ideals. The first recorded reports of ethics are these.
B. The Middle East The oldest ethics texts are 3,000-year-old lists of rules for Egyptian royal
sons. They usually offer wise advice on how to live happily, avoid problems, and improve one's
job by pleasing peers.
C. Indian Ethics Indian ethics began philosophically, unlike ancient Egypt and Babylonia. The
Vedas' philosophy and religious conjecture about reality includes ethics. 1500–1200 BCE. The
oldest philosophy writings in the world, they may be the first philosophical ethics.. Honesty,
rectitude, charity, peace, decorum, and inner purity pursue these aims. Falsehood, egoism, abuse,
cheating, theft, and harming living things are denounced
The Charvaka, or secular school, mocked sacred rituals, saying the Brahmans (priestly order)
created them to make money.
D. Chinese Ethics
The Dao, or Supreme Principle, is Laozi's most famous concept. The Dao is built on Chinese
simplicity and honesty. Living simply, honestly, and true to oneself and ignoring the diversions
of daily life is the Dao. Daodejing, Laozi's text on the Dao, is only aphorisms and solitary
passages, making it hard to take an ethical theory from it.
E. Ancient Greece Ethics Western philosophy began in ancient Greece. Next, we'll examine
Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle's views. Ethical thought from earlier ages spurred philosophy's
rapid bloom. Like other cultures, 7th- and 6th-century BCE lyric writing had moral rules but no
clear ethical stance. Plato and Aristotle often cited the seven sages, the most famous poets, and
early thinkers. Only scraps of original works and suspect later reports of this period's ideas
survive.
Pythagoras (c. 580–c. 500 BCE), noted for his geometry theory, is an early Greek scholar about
whom little is known.
1. Socrates Socrates, who said "the unexamined life is not worth living," was a great moral
guide. He did not preach like the Buddha or Confucius.
Socrates would ask the Sophists or their students to explain justice, faith, sobriety, or law, then
debunk their claims.
He also used Socratic thought to prove his own points by pointing out his opponents' mistakes
3. Aristotle - Plato created the Academy in Athens. Aristotle, Plato's junior colleague and
Western philosophy's sole foe, studied there.
Aristotle was often scathing of Plato, but they shared a lot of common ground
Aristotle opposed Plato's Forms theory. Thus, Aristotle does not claim that knowing the Form of
the Good is necessary for goodness.
Aristotle supported slavery and the slaying of wild animals for food and apparel. This viewpoint
shaped human nature and ethics.
Aristotle agreed with Plato that the life of the mind is the most rewarding, but he was more
practical in proposing that it would also include monetary wealth and close bonds.
Aristotle also inspired later moral theory. He uses the Golden Mean—the Buddha's medium
road between self-indulgence and self renunciation—here.
Aristotle's megalopsychia, which is sometimes rendered as "pride," means "greatness of soul."
This is self-confidence. Christians considered pride a sin and modesty a virtue.
Most Western versions begin with Aristotle's justice debate.
Aristotle separated theory and real wisdom. His idea of real advice goes beyond picking the best
means to achieve one's aims.

UNIT 2: ETHICAL BEHAVIOR

Morals are defined as standards for what behavior is considered right or wrong.
A. Understanding Moral Agency: Moral agency is the ability to make ethical decisions based
on what is right or wrong. This capacity can be found in individuals or collective entities like
businesses or health care institutions. According to Christen et al., moral agency encompasses
three major concepts:
 a. the moral competency of the person or organization in question
 b. the normative framework on which ethical behavior is based, and
 c. the situational constraints that influence decision-making.
Moral competence refers to the capacity of an individual to "make decisions and judgments,
which are moral based on internal principles and to act according to them.
B. The Moral Agents: A moral agent is any person or collective entity with the capacity to
exercise moral agency. It is suggested that rational thought and deliberation are prerequisite
skills for any agent. In this way, moral agents can discern between right and wrong and be held
accountable for the consequences of their actions.
The outcome of moral agency is patientcentered care.
C. Moral Development This entry analyzes moral development as a perennial philosophical
view complemented by modern empirical research programs. The two initial sections summarize
what moral development is and why it is important for ethics and human nature theory., touching
on Confucius, Aristotle, Rousseau and Rawls.
“Critical Specifics” section, controversies are taken up in stage theories of moral development
focusing major rivalries in moral philosophy, critical and feminist theory.
D. Stages of Moral Development:
Level 1- Preconventional Morality. Preconventional morality is the first stage of moral
development, and lasts until approximately age 9. At the preconventional level children don’t
have a personal code of morality, and instead moral decisions are shaped by the standards of
adults and the consequences of following or breaking their rules.
Stage 1: Punishment/obedience orientation. Behavior is determined by consequences. The
individual will obey in order to avoid punishment.
Stage 2: Instrumental purpose orientation. Behavior is determined again by consequences.
The individual focuses on receiving rewards or satisfying personal needs.
Level 2- Conventional Morality. Conventional morality is the second stage of moral
development, and is characterized by an acceptance of social rules concerning right and wrong.
Stage 3: Good Boy/Nice Girl orientation. Behavior is determined by social approval. The
individual wants to maintain or win the affection and approval of others by being a “good
person.
Stage 4: Law and order orientation. Social rules and laws determine behavior. The individual
now takes into consideration a larger perspective, that of societal laws.
Level 3- Postconventional Morality. Postconventional morality is the third stage of moral
development, and is characterized by an individuals’ understanding of universal ethical
principles. These are abstract and ill-defined, but might include: the preservation of life at all
costs, and the importance of human dignity.
Stage 5: Social contract orientation. Individual rights determine behavior. The individual
views laws and rules as flexible tools for improving human purposes. That is, given the right
situation, there are exceptions to rules.
Stage 6: Universal ethical principle orientation. According to Kohlberg, this is the highest
stage of functioning. However, he claimed that some individuals will never reach this level. At
this stage, the appropriate action is determined by one’s selfchosen ethical principles of
conscience.

2.2.2. Moral Standards and its Dilemmas:

I. Moral Standards - A moral standard refers to the norms which we have about the types of
actions which we believe to be morally acceptable and morally unacceptable. Specifically, moral
standards deal with matters which can either seriously harm or seriously benefit human beings.
Shaw, Williams argued that law codifies a society’s customs, ideals, norms and moral values
and changes in laws undoubtedly reflect changes in what society considers right, wrong, good
and bad.
A. Sources of Moral Standards (Abun, 2018)
Related to moral standards issue, one may ask question, “Where are the sources of these
standards or where do we get those standards? If our ethics are not based on feelings, religion,
law, accepted social practice, or science, and then what are their sources? Many philosophers and
ethicists have helped us answer this critical question.
B. Common Good (Abun, 2018) Common good principle would argue that certain act may be
considered good if it promotes the interest of the majority over individual interest.
Utilitarianism emphasizes that the ethical action is the one that produces best for the greatest
majority interest and does the least harm for all who are affected.
C. The Rights Doctrine (Abun, 2018) Immanuel Kant classified rights as natural and positive
rights. Natural right is inborn right while positive or statutory right is what proceeds from the
will of a legislator.
The Justice Doctrine Plato as cited by Velasquez (1996) argued that in a society that lacks
norms of justice, he suggests, people inflict injustices on each other.
D. Natural Law and Virtue Doctrine (Abun, 2018) Humans are born good, they are given the
natural knowledge, capability of knowing what is good and bad which is already built in the
reason.
Peter Singer as cited by Arneson (1998) argued that human have special moral privilege based
on the superior cognitive abilities.
E. Moral Responsibility (Abun, 2018) After knowing that someone has done something wrong
based on either one or all of those moral standards, then that person should take the
responsibility.
Responsibility means something for which one is responsible to one’s act or the state or fact of
being responsible, answerable, or accountable for something within one's power, control, or
management.
F. Element of Moral Responsibility Knowledge and freedom Moral standards are the guide of
our moral behavior. Everyone including corporations should be guided by those moral standards.
Taking Full Responsibility, Not Full Responsibility and Exempted.
II. Moral Dilemmas (McConnell, 2018)
A. Concept of Moral Dilemmas - What is common to the two well-known cases is conflict. In
each case, an agent regards herself as having moral reasons to do each of two actions, but doing
both actions is not possible. Ethicists have called situations like these moral dilemmas.The
Platonic case strikes many as too easy to be characterized as a genuine moral dilemma.
B. Moral Residue and Dilemmas One well-known argument for the reality of moral dilemmas
has not been discussed yet. This argument might be called “phenomenological.” It appeals to the
emotions that agents facing conflicts experience and our assessment of those emotions. Return to
the case of Sartre’s student.
the experiential component, namely, the negative feeling that the agent has; and the cognitive
component, namely, the belief that the agent has done something wrong and takes responsibility
for it.
Simon Blackburn argues, compensation or its like may be called for even when there was no
moral conflict at all (Blackburn 1996, 135–136).
C. Types of Moral Dilemmas
In the literature on moral dilemmas, it is common to draw distinctions among various types of
dilemmas. Only some of these distinctions will be mentioned here. It is worth noting that both
supporters and opponents of dilemmas tend to draw some, if not all, of these distinctions..
Supporters of dilemmas may draw a distinction between dilemmas of type VV and WW.,
opponents of dilemmas may draw a distinction between dilemmas of type XX and YY.
Ross (1930, Chapter 2) held that all moral precepts can be overridden in particular
circumstances.
Lisa Tessman has distinguished between negotiable and non-negotiable moral requirements
(Tessman 2015, especially Chapters 1 and 3).
Erin Taylor (2011) has recently argued that neither universalizability nor the principle that
‘ought’ to imply ‘can’ ensure that there will be no interpersonal moral conflicts (what she calls
“irreconcilable differences”).