Ringkasan Chapter 15

Residual Stresses, Distortion,

and Fatigue
RESIDUAL STRESSES
• Residual stresses are stresses that would exist in a body if all
external loads were removed.
• They are sometimes called internal stresses.
• Residual stresses that exist in a body that has previously been
subjected to nonuniform temperature changes, such as those during
welding, are often called thermal stresses.
 Development of Residual
Stresses
• Fig 5.1: three identical metal bars connected to two rigid
blocks. All three bars are initially at room temp.
• The middle bar is heated up, but its thermal expansion is
restrained by the side bars (Fig 5.1a) → compressive stresses
and increase with increasing temp until the yield stress in
compression is reached. When the middle bar is allowed to
cool off, its thermal contraction is restrained by the side bars
(Fig 5.1b) → the compressive stresses in the middle bar drop
rapidly, change to tensile stresses, and increase with
decreasing temp until the yield stress in tension is reached.
• Therefore, a residual tensile stress equal to the yield stress
at RT is set up in the middle bar when it cools down to RT.
The residual stresses in the side bars are compressive
stresses and equal to one-half of the tensile stress in the
middle bar.
• The WM and the adjacent BM = the middle bar, and the
areas farther away from the WM = two side bars (Fig 5.1c). Fig 5.1 Thermally induced stresses: (a) during
After cooling to the RT, residual tensile stresses exist in the heating; (b) during cooling; (c) residual stresses
WM and the adjacent BM, while residual compressive in weld.
stresses exist in the areas farther away from the WM.
Welding.
• A–A is not affected by the heat input, σx=0.
• B–B, σx is ~ zero in the region underneath the
heat source, since the weld pool does not have
any strength to support any loads
• In the areas farther away from the weld σx is
tensile,and balanced with compressive stresses
in areas near the weld.
• C–C the WM and the adjacent BM have cooled
→ have a tendency to contract → tensile
stresses (σx is positive). In the nearby areas σx is
compressive.
• D–D the WM and the adjacent BM have cooled
and contracted further → higher tensile stresses
in regions near the weld and compressive
stresses in regions away from the weld.
• Since section D–D is well behind the heat source,
the stress distribution does not change
significantly beyond it, and this stress Fig 5.2 Changes in temperature and stresses during
distribution is thus the residual stress welding.
distribution.
 DISTORTION
Cause
• Because of solidification shrinkage and thermal
contraction of the WM during welding, the workpiece
has a tendency to distort.
• shrink in the transverse direction (Fig 5.6a).
• shrink in the longitudinal direction along the weld (Fig
5.6b).
• Upward angular distortion (Fig 5.6c).
• The weld tends to be wider at the top than at the
bottom, causing more solidification shrinkage and
thermal contraction at the top of the weld than at the
bottom. Consequently, the resultant angular distortion is Fig 5.6 Distortion in welded structures.
upward. In EBW with a deep narrow keyhole, the weld is Modified from Welding Handbook (2).
very narrow both at the top and the bottom, and there
is little angular distortion.
• When fillet welds between a flat sheet at the bottom
and a vertical sheet on the top shrink, they pull the flat
sheet toward the vertical one and cause upward
distortion in the flat sheet (Fig 5.6d).
• As shown in Fig 5.7, angular distortion
increases with workpiece thickness
because of increasing amount of the
weld metal → increasing solidification
shrinkage and thermal contraction.

Fig 5.7 Distortion in butt welds of 5083 Al

with thicknesses of 6.4–38mm.
 Fig 5.9 Reducing angular
distortion by using
Remedies double-V joint and
welding alternately on
either side of joint

Fig 5.8 Reducing angular

distortion by reducing vol of
WM and by using single-pass
deep-penetration welding.

Several techniques can be used to reduce weld distortion.

• Reducing the vol of the WM can reduce the amount of angular
distortion and lateral shrinkage. (Fig.5.8)
• The use of EBW can minimize angular distortion.
• Balancing welding by using a double-V joint in preference to a single-V
joint can help reduce angular distortion (Fig.5.9).
• Placing welds about the neutral axis also helps reduce distortion. Fig Fig 5.10 Reducing distortion
5.10 shows that the shrinkage forces of an individual weld can be by placing welds around
neutral axis.
balanced by placing another weld on the opposite side of the neutral
axis.
• Presetting (Fig 5.11a) is achieved by estimating the
amount of distortion likely to occur during welding and
then assembling the job with members preset to
compensate for the distortion.
• Elastic prespringing (Fig 5.11b) can reduce angular
changes after the removal of the restraint.
• Preheating (Fig 5.11c), thermal management during
welding, and postweld heating can also reduce angular
distortion.
Fig 5.11 Methods for controlling weld distortion: (a) presetting; (b)
prespringing; (c) preheating (8). (a), (b) Reprinted from Welding
Handbook (2). Courtesy of American Welding Society.
 FATIGUE
Fig 5.12 Fatigue stress cycling
Mechanism.
• Failure can occur in welds under repeated
loading, called fatigue, has three phases: crack
initiation, crack propagation, and fracture.
• Fig 5.12 shows a simple type of fatigue stress
cycling and how it can result in the formation of
intrusions and extrusions at the surface of a
material along the slip planes.
• A discontinuity point in the material (e.g.,
inclusions, porosity) can serve as the source for
a slip to initiate.
• Fig 5.13 shows a series of intrusions and
extrusions at the free surfaces due to the
alternating placement of metal along slip planes.
Eventually become severe enough and initial Fig 5.13 Fatigue surface
cracks form along slip planes. showing extrusions and
• The direction of crack propagation is along the intrusions
slip plane at the beginning and then becomes
macroscopically normal to the maximum tensile
stress
Fractography.
• the appearance of fatigue failures is often
described as brittle because of the little gross
plastic deformation and the fairly smooth fracture
surfaces.
• Fatigue failures are usually easy to distinguish from
other brittle failures because they are progressive
and they leave characteristic marks.
• Macroscopically, they appear as “beach,” “clam-
shell,” or “conchoidal” marks, which represent
delays in the fatigue loading cycle.
• Fig 5.14 shows a fatigue fracture surface, where
Fig 5.14 Fatigue fracture surface
the arrow indicates the origin of fracture. showing beach marks and origin of
fracture. Reprinted, with permission,
from Wulpi (12).
 S–N Curves
• Fatigue data are often presented in the form of S–N curves, where the applied stress (S)
is plotted against number of cycles to failure (N).
• As the applied stress decreases, the number of cycles to failure increases.
• There are many factors that affect the fatigue behavior, such as material properties,
joint configuration, stress ratio, welding procedure, postweld treatment, loading
condition, residual stresses, and weld reinforcement geometry.
Remedies:
1. Shot Peening
• Welding and postweld grinding can create tensile residual stresses at the weld
surface and promote fatigue initiation when under cyclic loading.
• Shot and hammer peening, on the other hand, can introduce surface compressive
stresses to suppress the formation of intrusions and extrusions and hence fatigue
initiation.
2. Reducing Stress Raisers
• Stress raisers can caused by improper welding and how they can be reduced or
eliminated.
• removing the reinforcement improves the fatigue life.