BIM 33203

IMAGE PROCESSING
CHAPTER 3: IMAGE ENHANCEMENT AND
RESTORATION (PART 2)

ALPINE SKI HOUSE

OUTLINE

▪ Sharpening spatial filters

▪ Derivative operators
▪ Laplacian operator
▪ Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT)
▪ Frequency domain filtering
▪ Image smoothing using frequency domain filters – lowpass filters
▪ Image sharpening using frequency domain filters – highpass filters
▪ Image restoration
▪ Noise models
▪ Mean filters
▪ Order-statistics filters
▪ Periodic noise reduction/removal (frequency domain based)
ALPINE SKI HOUSE 2
SHARPENING SPATIAL FILTERS

▪ The principal objective of sharpening is to highlight

transitions in intensity
▪ To highlight fine detail in an image or to enhance detail that
has been blurred, either in error or as a natural effect of a
particular method of image acquisition
▪ Blurring vs Sharpening
➢ Blurring/smooth is done in spatial domain by pixel
averaging in a neighbours >> a process of integration
➢ Sharpening is an inverse process, to find the difference
by the neighbourhood >> done by spatial differentiation

3
SHARPENING SPATIAL FILTERS
▪ Sharpening (i.e. high-pass filters):
➢ Highlight fine detail or enhance detail that has been
blurred
➢ The elements of the mask contain both positive and
negative weights
➢ Sum of the mask weights is 0
▪ Uses of image sharpening vary and include applications
ranging from electronic printing and medical imaging for
industrial inspection

4
DERIVATIVE OPERATOR

▪ The strength of the response of a derivative operator is

proportional to the degree of intensity discontinuity of
the image at the point at which the operator is applied
▪ Image differentiation on the other hand:
➢ Enhances edges and other discontinuities (noise)
➢ De-emphasizes area with slowly varying gray-level
values

5
FIRST- AND SECOND-ORDER DIFFERENCE
OF 1D FUNCTION
▪ The basic definition of the first-order derivative of a one-
dimensional function f(x) is the difference of:

▪ The second-order derivative of a one-dimensional function

f(x) is the difference of:

6
FIRST- AND SECOND-ORDER DERIVATIVE
OF 2D FUNCTION
▪ When we consider an image function of two variables,
f(x, y), at which time we will deal with partial
derivatives along the two spatial axes

7
LAPLACIAN FOR IMAGE ENHANCEMENT

▪ 2-D second-order derivatives usually employed for

image sharpening
▪ Isotropic filters whose response is independent of the
direction of the discontinuities in the image to which the
filter is applied:
➢ Rotation invariant >> rotating the image and then
applying the filter gives the same result as applying
the filter to the image first and then rotating the result

8
LAPLACIAN FOR IMAGE ENHANCEMENT

9
10
EFFECT OF LAPLACIAN OPERATOR

▪ Because the Laplacian is a derivative operator:

➢ It uses highlight intensity discontinuities in an image; and
➢ De-emphasizes regions with slowly varying intensity
levels
▪ This will tend to produce images that have:
➢ Gray-ish edge lines and other discontinuities, all
superimposed on a dark, featureless background

11
THE EFFECT OF FEATURELESS
BACKGROUND CORRECTION
▪ This can be done effortlessly by adding the Laplacian image
to the original function
▪ However, one must be really careful with the Laplacian filter
used

▪ If the definition used has a negative center coefficient, then

we subtract the Laplacian image to obtain a sharpened result

12
13
RECAP OF FOURIER SERIES
▪ Any function that periodically repeats itself can be
expressed as a sum of sines and cosines of different
frequencies each multiplied by a different coefficient – a
Fourier series

14
THE DISCRETE FOURIER TRANSFORM
(DFT)
▪ The Discrete Fourier Transform of f(x, y), for x = 0, 1, 2,
…, M-1 and y = 0, 1, 2, …, N-1, denoted by F(u, v) is
given by the equation:

for u = 0, 1, 2, …, M-1 and v = 0, 1, 2, …, N-1

15
DFT & IMAGES

▪ The DFT of a two dimensional image can be visualised

by showing the spectrum of the images component
frequencies

16
THE INVERSE DFT

▪ It is really important to note that the Fourier Transform is

completely reversible
▪ The inverse DFT is given by:

for x = 0, 1, 2, …, M-1 and y = 0, 1, 2,…, N-1

17
THE DFT AND IMAGE PROCESSING

▪ To filter an image in the frequency domain:

1. Compute F(u,v) of the image via Fourier Transform (FT)
2. Multiply F(u,v) by a filter function H(u,v)
3. Compute the inverse FT of the result

18
FREQUENCY DOMAIN FILTERING
FUNDAMENTALS
▪ Filtering in the frequency domain consists of modifying the
Fourier Transform of an image and then computing the inverse
transform to obtain the processed result
▪ Given a digital image, f(x, y) of size M x N, the basic
filtering equation in which we are interested has the form of:

the filtered the IDFT the DFT of the

a filter
(output) image input image
function

19
FREQUENCY DOMAIN FILTERING
FUNDAMENTALS
▪ A filter H(u, v) that attenuates high frequencies while passing
low frequencies (appropriately called a lowpass filter) would
blur an image
▪ A filter with the opposite property (called a highpass filter)
would enhance edges detail (sharpening), but causes a
reduction in the image contrast

20
FREQUENCY DOMAIN FILTERING
FUNDAMENTALS
a = 0.850

(a) Lowpass filter, (b) and (c): Highpass filters

(d), (e) and (f): Corresponding filtered images obtained using Equation 4.7-1. We
used a = 0.85 in (c) to obtain (f), with the height of the filter itself is 1.
21
IMAGE SMOOTHING USING FREQUENCY
DOMAIN FILTERS
▪ Smoothing (blurring) is achieved in the frequency domain by
high-frequency attenuation; that is, by lowpass filtering
▪ 3 types of lowpass filters:
➢ Ideal
➢ Butterworth
➢ Gaussian
▪ These three types of lowpass filter cover the range from very
sharp (ideal) to very smooth (Gaussian) filtering
▪ By characterization, low pass filters – only pass the low
frequencies and drop the high ones

22
IDEAL LOWPASS FILTERS
▪ A 2-D lowpass filter that passes (without attenuation) all
frequencies within a circle of radius D0 from the origin and
“cuts off” all frequencies outside this circle is called an ideal
lowpass filter (ILPF)
▪ It is specified by the function of:

where D(u,v) is given as:

D0 is a positive constant and D(u, v) is the distance between a

point (u, v) in the frequency domain and the center of the
frequency rectangle
23
IDEAL LOWPASS FILTERS
▪ The ideal lowpass filter is radially symmetric about the origin, which
means that the filter is completely defined by a radial cross section

▪ The name ideal indicates that all frequencies on or inside a circle of

radius D0 are passed without attenuation, whereas all frequencies
outside the circle are completely attenuated (filtered out).
24
IDEAL LOWPASS FILTERS

▪ When the lowpass filter is applied, ringing occurs in the

image
▪ The narrower the filter in the frequency domain, the more
severe are the blurring and ringing
▪ The more ringing in the image, the more blurring of the
image

25
IDEAL LOWPASS FILTERS

Image above demonstrates a test pattern (left) and it’s Fourier

spectrum (right) and a series of ideal low pass filters of radius
5, 15, 30, 80 and 230 superimposed on top of it
26
Original image Result of filtering
with ideal low
pass filter of
radius 5

Result of Result of
filtering with filtering with
ideal low pass ideal low pass
filter of radius filter of radius
15 30

Result of Result of
filtering with filtering with
ideal low pass ideal low pass
filter of radius filter of radius
80 230

27
 IDEAL LOWPASS FILTERS
▪ Filtering results in the previous slide denote the results of applying ILPFs
with cut-off frequencies at the radii with corresponding sizes
▪ The severe blurring in this image is a clear indication that most of the
sharp detail information in the picture is contained in the 13% power,
removed by the filter
▪ As the filter radius increases, less and less power is removed, resulting in
less blurring
▪ Note that the images in (c) through (e) are characterized by “ringing”,
which becomes finer in texture as the amount of high frequency content
removed decreases. Ringing is visible even in the image (e) in which only
2% of the total power was removed. This ringing behaviour is a
characteristic of ideal filters
▪ It is clear from this example that ideal lowpass filtering is not very
practical >> this image is quite close to the original
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BUTTERWORTH LOWPASS FILTERS

▪ The transfer function of a Butterworth Lowpass Filter (BLPF)

of order n, and with cut-off frequency at a distance D0
from the origin, is defined as:

▪ The BLPF transfer function does not have a sharp

discontinuity that gives a clear cut-off between passed and
filtered frequencies
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BUTTERWORTH LOWPASS FILTERS

30
 Original Result of filtering
image with Butterworth
filter of order 2
and cutoff radius
5

Result of filtering Result of filtering

with Butterworth with Butterworth
filter of order 2 filter of order 2
and cutoff radius and cutoff radius
15 30

Result of Result of filtering

filtering with with Butterworth
Butterworth filter of order 2
filter of order 2 and cutoff radius
and cutoff 230
radius 80

31
BUTTERWORTH LOWPASS FILTERS
▪ Figure in previous slide shows the results of applying the BLPF
with n = 1 and D0
▪ Note that a smooth transition in blurring as a function of
increasing cut-off frequency
▪ And no ringing is visible in any of the images processed with
this particular BLPF, i.e. a fact attributed to the filter’s smooth
transition between low and high frequencies
▪ A BLPF of order 1 has no ringing in the spatial domain.
▪ Ringing generally is imperceptible in filters of order 2, but
can become significant in filters of higher order.
▪ BLPFs of order 2 are a good compromise between effective
lowpass filtering and acceptable ringing.

32
BUTTERWORTH LOWPASS FILTERS

33
GAUSSIAN LOWPASS FILTERS
▪ The transfer function of a Gaussian lowpass filter is defined
as:

▪  is a measure of spread about the center. By letting  = D0,

we can express the filter using the notation of the other filters
in this section:

34
GAUSSIAN LOWPASS FILTERS

35
 Original image Result of filtering
with Gaussian
filter with cut-off
radius 5

Result of filtering Result of filtering

with Gaussian with Gaussian
filter with cut-off filter with cut-off
radius 15 radius 30

Result of filtering Result of filtering

with Gaussian with Gaussian
filter with cut-off filter with cut-off
radius 85 radius 230

36
 GAUSSIAN LOWPASS FILTERS
▪ Figure in previous slide demonstrates: (a) Original image. (b)–(f) Results of
filtering using GLPFs with cut-off frequencies at the corresponding radii.
Compare with output figures of Ideal and Butterworth lowpass filters
▪ Notice that there is no ringing in the case of the GLPF
▪ This is an important characteristic in practice, especially in situations (e.g.,
medical imaging) in which any type of artefact is unacceptable
▪ In cases where tight control of the transition between low and high
frequencies about the cut-off frequency are needed, then the BLPF presents
a more suitable choice
▪ The price of this additional control over the filter profile is the possibility of
ringing

37
LOWPASS FILTERING
EXAMPLES/APPLICATIONS
A lowpass Gaussian filter is used to connect broken text

38
LOWPASS FILTERING
EXAMPLES/APPLICATIONS
Different lowpass Gaussian filters used to remove blemishes in
a photograph

39
 LOWPASS FILTERING EXAMPLES
/APPLICATIONS

Original Gaussian
image lowpass filter

Spectrum
Processed
of original
image
image

40
IMAGE SHARPENING USING FREQUENCY
DOMAIN FILTERS
▪ Edges and other abrupt changes in intensities (fine detail in
images) are associated with high frequency components
➢ Image sharpening can be achieved in the frequency
domain by highpass filtering
▪ Highpass filters – only pass the high frequencies, attenuates
the low ones
▪ Highpass frequencies are precisely the reverse of lowpass
filters, therefore:

41
IDEAL HIGHPASS FILTERS

▪ A 2-D ideal highpass filter (IHPF) is defined as:

where D0 is the cut-off frequency

▪ The IHPF is the opposite of the ILPF in the sense that it
sets to zero all frequencies inside a circle of radius while
passing, without attenuation, all frequencies outside the
circle

42
IDEAL HIGHPASS FILTERS

Perspective plot, image representation, and cross section of a typical

ideal highpass filter

43
IDEAL HIGHPASS FILTERS
▪ Because of the way in
which they are related, it
can be expected for the
IHPFs to have the same
ringing properties as ILPFs
▪ Figure on the right shows
spatial representation of
an ideal frequency
domain highpass filters,
and its corresponding
intensity profiles through
their centers

44
IDEAL HIGHPASS FILTERS

Results of ideal high pass Results of ideal high pass Results of ideal high pass
filtering with D0 = 30 filtering with D0 = 60 filtering with D0 = 160 45
BUTTERWORTH HIGHPASS FILTERS

▪ A 2-D Butterworth highpass filter (BHPF) of order n and cut-

off frequency D0 is defined as:

▪ As with lowpass filters, we can expect Butterworth highpass

filters to behave smoother than BLPFs

46
BUTTERWORTH HIGHPASS FILTERS

Perspective plot, image representation, and cross section of a

Butterworth highpass filter

47
BUTTERWORTH HIGHPASS FILTERS

Results of Butterworth high Results of Butterworth high Results of Butterworth

pass filtering of order 2 pass filtering of order 2 high pass filtering of 48
with D0 = 30 with D0 = 60 order 2 withD0 = 160
GAUSSIAN HIGHPASS FILTERS

▪ The Gaussian highpass filter is given as:

where D0 is the cut off distance

49
GAUSSIAN HIGHPASS FILTERS

Results of Gaussian high Results of Gaussian high Gaussian high pass

pass filtering with D0 = pass filtering with D0 = filtering with D0 = 160 50
30 60
HIGHPASS FILTERING
EXAMPLE/APPLICATIONS
Original image Highpass filtering result

High frequency emphasis result After histogram equalization 51

FREQUENCY DOMAIN FILTERING &
SPATIAL DOMAIN FILTERING - SUMMARY
▪ Similar filtering jobs can be done in both spatial and
frequency domains
▪ Filtering in the spatial domain can be easier to
understand (conceptually)
▪ Filtering in the frequency domain can be much faster –
especially for large images

52
IMAGE RESTORATION
▪ Goal: improve an image in some predefined sense
▪ Image enhancement: subjective process
▪ Image restoration: objective process
▪ Restoration attempts to reconstruct an image that has been
degraded by using a priori knowledge of the degradation
process
▪ Modeling the degradation and applying the inverse process to
recover the original image
▪ Image restoration also can be done in:
➢ Spatial domain; or
➢ Frequency domain

53
IMAGE RESTORATION
▪ Degradation of images can have many causes such as:
➢ Defects of optical lenses
➢ Nonlinearity of the electro-optical sensor
➢ Graininess of the film material
➢ Relative motion between an object and camera
➢ Wrong focus during image acquisition
➢ Atmospheric turbulence in remote sensing or astronomy
▪ The objective of image restoration is to reconstruct the original
image from its degraded version
➢ We consider the restoration problem only from the point where a
degraded, digital image is given

54
IMAGE RESTORATION (WITH RESPECT TO
SPATIAL AND FREQUENCY DOMAINS)
▪ We model the degradation process by a degradation function
h(x,y), an additive noise term (x,y), in the spatial domain as:

where:
➢ f(x,y) is the (input) image free from any degradation
➢ g(x,y) is the degraded image
➢ is the convolution operator
▪ The goal is to obtain an estimate of f(x,y) according to the
knowledge about the degradation function h and the additive
noise 
▪ In frequency domain:
G ( u, v ) = H ( u, v ) F ( u, v ) + N ( u, v )
55
A MODEL OF DEGRADATION

56
NOISE MODELS

▪ We can consider a noisy image to be modelled as

follows:

where f(x, y) is the original image pixel, η(x, y) is the

noise term and g(x, y) is the resulting noisy pixel
▪ If we can estimate the model the noise in an image is
based on, this will help us to figure out how to restore the
image

57
 NOISE MODELS
▪ There are many different
models for the image noise
term η(x, y) - noise
probability density function:
▪ Gaussian
➢ Most common model
▪ Rayleigh
▪ Erlang (gamma)
▪ Exponential
▪ Uniform
▪ Impulse
➢ Salt and pepper noise
58
Original image

59
60
PERIODIC NOISE
▪ Arises typically from electrical
or electromechanical
interference during image
acquisition
▪ Provide variations to regular
noise patterns in an image
▪ Frequency domain techniques in
the form of Fourier
Transformation domain are the
most effective at removing
periodic noise

61
ESTIMATION OF NOISE PARAMETERS
▪ Periodic noise: inspection of the Fourier spectrum
▪ Others: try to compute the mean and variance of a
sub-image S (containing only constant gray levels)

62
RESTORATION IN THE PRESENCE OF NOISE
ONLY – SPATIAL FILTERING
▪ When the only degradation present in an image is noise, the
following equation:

becomes:
g ( x, y ) = f ( x, y ) +  ( x, y )
▪ Spatial filtering is the method of choice in situations when
only additive noise is present

63
RESTORATION IN THE PRESENCE OF NOISE
ONLY – SPATIAL FILTERING
▪ Spatial filters of different kinds can be used to remove
different types of noise
▪ Mean filters for noise removal include:
➢ Arithmetic mean filter
➢ Geometric mean filter
➢ Harmonic mean filter
➢ Contraharmonic mean filter

64
RESTORATION IN THE PRESENCE OF NOISE
ONLY – SPATIAL FILTERING
▪ Arithmetic mean filters
➢ Simplest form of the mean filters
➢ Let Sxy represent the set coordinates in a rectangular sub-image
window of size m x n, centered at point (x, y)
➢ The arithmetic filtering process computes the average value of
the corrupted image g(x, y) in the area defined by Sxy
ˆf ( x, y) = 1
 g ( s, t )
mn ( s ,t )S xy
▪ Implemented using convolution mask whereby all coefficients
have value 1/mn
▪ Noise is reduced as a result of blurring
➢ Mean filter smooths local variations in an image
65
 RESTORATION IN THE PRESENCE OF NOISE
ONLY – SPATIAL FILTERING
▪ Geometric mean filter
➢ Each restored pixel is given by product of the pixels in the
sub-image window, raised to the power 1/mn
1
  mn
fˆ ( x, y ) =   g ( s, t )
( s ,t )S xy 
➢ Smoothing results are comparable to the arithmetic mean
filter, but tends to lose less image detail in the process

66
67
RESTORATION IN THE PRESENCE OF NOISE
ONLY – SPATIAL FILTERING
▪ Harmonic mean filter:
➢ Works well for salt noise, but fails for pepper noise
➢ Does well also for other types of noise like Gaussian noise
➢ Noise filtering function of:
mn
fˆ ( x, y ) =
1

( s ,t )S xy g ( s, t )

68
RESTORATION IN THE PRESENCE OF NOISE
ONLY – SPATIAL FILTERING
▪ Contraharmonic mean filter:
➢ Yields a restored image based on the expression of:
 g ( s ,
( s ,t )S xy
t ) Q +1

fˆ ( x, y ) =
 g ( s ,
( s ,t )S xy
t ) Q

where Q is called the order of the filter

➢ Suitable for reducing/virtually eliminating the effects of
salt and pepper noise
➢ Q > 0 : eliminates pepper noise
➢ Q < 0 : eliminates salt noise
69
70
71
RESTORATION IN THE PRESENCE OF NOISE
ONLY – SPATIAL FILTERING
▪ Order-statistics filters are
➢ Spatial filters whose response are based on ordering (ranking)
the pixels contained in the image area encompassed by the
filter
➢ The response of the filter at any point is determined by the
ranking result
➢ Types:
❖ Median filter
❖ Max and min filters
❖ Midpoint filter
❖ Alpha-trimmed mean filter
72
RESTORATION IN THE PRESENCE OF NOISE
ONLY – SPATIAL FILTERING
▪ Median filters
➢ Best-known order-statistics filter
➢ Replaces the value of a pixel by the median of the gray
levels in the neighbourhood of that pixel

fˆ ( x, y ) = median{g ( s, t )}
( s ,t )S xy

➢ Provide excellent noise-reduction capabilities, with

considerably less blurring
➢ Effective in the presence of both bipolar and unipolar
impulse noise
73
74
RESTORATION IN THE PRESENCE OF NOISE
ONLY – SPATIAL FILTERING
▪ Max and min filters
➢ Max filter: implement the 100th percentile results
fˆ ( x, y ) = max {g ( s, t )}
( s ,t )S xy

❖ Useful for finding the brightest points in an image

❖ Reduces pepper noise
➢ Min filter: implement the 0th percentile results
fˆ ( x, y ) = min {g ( s, t )}
( s ,t )S xy
❖ Useful for finding the darkest points in an image
❖ Reduces salt noise

75
76
RESTORATION IN THE PRESENCE OF NOISE
ONLY – SPATIAL FILTERING
▪ Midpoint filter
➢ Simply computes the midpoint between the maximum and
minimum values in the area encompassed by the filter

ˆf ( x, y ) = 1  max {g ( s, t )} + min {g ( s, t )}

2 ( s ,t )S xy ( s ,t )S xy 

➢ Works best for randomly distributed noise, like Gaussian

or uniform noise

77
RESTORATION IN THE PRESENCE OF NOISE
ONLY – SPATIAL FILTERING
▪ Alpha-trimmed mean filter
➢ Suppose that we delete the d /2 lowest and the d /2
highest intensity values of in the neighbourhood Sxy
➢ Let gr(s, t) represent the remaining mn – d pixels
➢ A filter formed by averaging these remaining pixels is
called an alpha-trimmed mean filter where:
1
fˆ ( x, y ) =  g r ( s, t )
mn − d ( s ,t )S xy
➢ When
❖ d = 0 : reduces to arithmetic mean filter
❖ d = mn -1 : reduces to median filter
78
79
PERIODIC NOISE REDUCTION BY FREQUENCY
DOMAIN FILTERING
▪ Tools for periodic noise reduction/removal include:
➢ Bandreject filters
❖ Ideal
❖ Butterworth
❖ Gaussian
➢ Bandpass filters
➢ Notch filters
▪ Bandreject filters
➢ Remove or attenuate a band of frequencies about the
origin of the Fourier transform

80
PERIODIC NOISE REDUCTION BY FREQUENCY
DOMAIN FILTERING
▪ Ideal bandreject filter is implemented via following function:
 W
1 if D(u, v)  D 0 −
2

 W W
H (u , v) = 0 if D 0 −  D(u, v)  D 0 +
 2 2
1 W
if D(u, v)  D 0 +

 2
▪ Butterworth bandreject filter of order n
1
H (u , v) = 2n
 D(u , v)W 
1+  2 2
 D (u , v) − D0 
▪ Gaussian bandreject filter
2
1  D 2 ( u ,v ) − D02 
−  
2  D ( u ,v )W 
H (u , v) = 1 − e 81
PERIODIC NOISE REDUCTION BY FREQUENCY
DOMAIN FILTERING

82
Use of bandreject filtering for periodic noise removal

83
PERIODIC NOISE REDUCTION BY FREQUENCY
DOMAIN FILTERING
▪ Bandpass filters
➢ Performs the opposite operation of a bandreject filter via:

H bp (u, v) = 1 − H br (u, v)
➢ Performing straight bandpass filtering on an image is not a
common procedure
❖ it generally removes too much image detail
➢ However, bandpass filtering is quite useful in isolating the
effects on an image caused by selected frequency bands

84
Example of bandpass filtering for extracting noise patterns

Image corrupted by sinusoidal noise Noise pattern of image on the left

85
 PERIODIC NOISE REDUCTION BY FREQUENCY
DOMAIN FILTERING
▪ Notch (reject) filters
➢ Rejects (or passes) frequencies in predefined neighbourhoods about a center
frequency
➢ Due to the symmetry of the Fourier Transform, notch filters must appear in
symmetric pairs about the origin, in order to obtain meaningful results
➢ The one exception to this rule is if the notch filter is located at the origin, in
which case it appears by itself
➢ The number of pairs of notch filters and the shape of the notch areas can be
arbitrary (one or more pairs; and rectangular or etc.)
➢ Transfer function of notch reject filters are given by:
𝐻NP (𝑢, 𝑣) = 1 − 𝐻NR (𝑢, 𝑣)

where 𝐻NP (𝑢, 𝑣) is the transfer function of the notch pass filter corresponding
to the notch reject filter of 𝐻N𝑅 (𝑢, 𝑣)
➢ Types of notch filters:
❖ Ideal notch filter
❖ Butterworth notch filter of order n
❖ Gaussian notch filter 86
PERIODIC NOISE REDUCTION BY FREQUENCY
DOMAIN FILTERING

87
 ESTIMATING THE DEGRADATION FUNCTION
▪ 3 principal ways to estimate the degradation function for use in
image restoration:
➢ By image observation
❖ In order to reduce the effect of noise in our observation, we would
look for areas of strong signal content

➢ By experimentation
❖ Obtain the impulse response of the degradation by imaging an
impulse (small dot of light) using the same system settings

➢ By modeling
❖ Consider environmental conditions that cause degradations
✓ Physical characteristic of atmospheric turbulence (Hufnagel and
Stanley, 1964)
88
 Image restoration – noise removal
http://bu.edu.eg/portal/uploads/Computers
%20and%20Informatics/Computer%20Scienc
e/838/crs-
6520/Files/Ch5_Image%20Restoration.pdf

FURTHER Image restoration in image processing

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LBPdd2eE
INFORMATION Cjw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AHOV45
07GBQ

Image restoration example

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YhLF95crT
Ws

89
THAT’S ALL!
END OF CHAPTER 3
(PART 2)

ALPINE SKI HOUSE