Grammar reference and practice 1

1.1 Present simple and present 2 Complete the sentences. Use the present continuous
continuous form of the verb in brackets.
1 Right now, I in the Clock
Present simple Café. (sit)
2 Some wild animals more used to
base form of verb (+ -s / -es for third person people. (become)
Affirmative
singular) 3 Ollie about his girlfriend.
Negative don’t / doesn’t + infinitive It’s really annoying. (always / talk)
4 What music to on your phone?
Questions do / does + subject + infinitive
(you / listen)
He always wears designer clothes. 5 I anything important right now.
Fashions and customs don’t always stay the same. (not do)
Do you like tattoos? Yes, I do. / No, I don’t. 6 We with our grandparents
this week because of the bad weather. (not stay)
Use 7 It very hot in here, isn’t it? (get)
We use the present simple to talk about: 8 Magazines us with images of
habits and everyday routines. beautiful young people. (always / bombard)
facts and general truths.
states. Some verbs that describe states are believe, 3 Choose the correct sentence endings.
hate, have, know, like, need, prefer, see, seem, think, 1 He annoys me because he
understand, want. a is always looking at his mobile.
b always looks at his mobile.
We use the following time expressions with the present
2 The text is in German, so I
simple: always, every day, often, regularly, usually,
a don’t understand it.
sometimes, hardly ever, never.
b am not understanding it.
1 Choose the correct answers. 3 Julie loves make-up. In fact, she
1 At what temperature is / does water freeze? a is wearing it every day.
2 I ’m not / don’t like the idea of cosmetic surgery. b wears it every day.
3 Paul don’t / doesn’t always do his homework. 4 I’d love to help you, but
4 Helen and Amira watch / watches a lot of television. a I’m making lunch at the moment.
5 My mum goes / go to the gym every Friday. b I make lunch at the moment.
6 We hardly never / ever take the train. 5 When wild animals are ill or injured, they
a always look for a hidden place to rest.
Present continuous b are always looking for a hidden place to rest.
6 The summer is nearly finished and
Affirmative is / are + -ing form
a it’s getting dark earlier.
Negative isn’t / aren’t + -ing form b it gets dark earlier.
Questions is / are + subject + -ing form
4 Rewrite the sentences that are incorrect.
The grass in the garden is getting very long. 1 Good morning. I look for a chic scarf as a present for
I’m not wearing my hair in a ponytail today. my sister.
Are you looking for a particular type of jacket?
Yes, I am. / No, I’m not. 2 School finishes early on the last day of term.

Use 3 Jack and Senyo are always playing that silly computer
We use the present continuous to talk about: game.
actions that are happening now, or around now.
I’m looking for a vintage dress. 4 We plan a party at the moment.
temporary situations.
I’m staying with my aunt and uncle at the moment. 5 They don’t think that it’s a very good idea.
changing or developing situations.
More and more people are becoming overweight. 6 Right now, I watch a really interesting programme about
irritating habits, often with always. teenagers in Nigeria.
He’s always playing that awful music.
We use the following time expressions with the present 7 Why are you buying two skirts that are the same?
continuous: right now, at the moment, nowadays, today.
8 He’s usually seeming very friendly and confident.

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1.2 Verb patterns 1 Complete the sentences. Use the infinitive form of
When two verbs appear together in a sentence, the first the verbs in brackets, either with or without to.
one can be followed by the infinitive (with or without to) 1 We couldn’t for very long. (wait)
or the -ing form of the second. 2 When I left, I promised in
touch. (stay)
It is important to remember the pattern for each verb.
3 What will we without a
Below are some of the most common ones.
goalkeeper in our team? (do)
Verb + infinitive with to (decide, expect, promise, choose,
4 Has Sam decided our club? (join)
seem, need, want)
5 You must time to exercise every
We decided to meet outside the Clock Café.
day. (find)
Verb + infinitive without to (shall, must, could, will, should)
6 Charles didn’t expect so many
You should eat less junk food.
wild animals in one place. (see)
Verb + -ing (suggest, consider, admit, enjoy, avoid, imagine)
I enjoyed listening to Dan’s music. 2 Complete the sentences. Use either the infinitive + to
Verb + infinitive or -ing (like, love, prefer) or the -ing form of the verbs in brackets. If both the
Paula doesn’t like staying up late. infinitive and the -ing form are possible, write both
Paula doesn’t like to stay up late. forms.
1 They always avoid by train if
Some verbs change their meaning depending on whether
possible. (travel)
they are followed by infinitive + to or verb + -ing.
2 I suggested for a walk, but then it
These include: remember, forget, stop, try, regret.
started to rain. (go)
remember + infinitive with to: to remember that you need
3 Eddie loves dinner for everyone.
to do something.
(make)
I remembered to buy milk.
4 Don’t forget some milk later, will
remember + -ing: to have a memory of doing something.
you? (buy)
I remember buying milk, but I don’t remember picking up my
5 He admitted the money, but not
purse in the shop.
the jewellery. (take)
forget + infinitive with to: we forget before the action.
6 I can’t imagine dinner in an
We forgot to buy a cake for Martha’s birthday.
expensive restaurant. (have)
forget + -ing: often in the phrase will never forget, to talk
7 Soraya doesn’t remember me all
about a memorable experience.
those years ago. (meet)
I’ll never forget spending that week in Rome.
8 Do you catch the bus into town, or do you prefer
stop + infinitive with to: to stop in order to do something.
? (walk)
She stopped to look in the shop window.
stop + -ing: to end an action. 3 Complete the sentences. Use either the -ing form or
She stopped looking in the window and walked off towards the infinitive form of the verbs below.
the station.
try + infinitive with to: to do your best. have work take spend mention wear
I’m trying to do my homework, so can you please make lock sleep
less noise? 1 I immediately regretted her
try + -ing: to do something that might solve a problem. mistake, and I apologized.
We’ve tried putting oil in the lock, but we still can’t open 2 Dad sometimes forgets the door
the door. at night, so Mum always checks it.
regret + infinitive with to: a formal way of giving bad news. 3 Please try . You’ll be very tired
We regret to inform you that the 14.05 train to York is tomorrow if you don’t.
cancelled. 4 At five o’clock exactly, everyone at the factory stops
regret + -ing: to feel sorry about something that you did in and goes home.
the past. 5 I hope Fiona remembered the
Ayesha really regrets saying those things to Suzy. meat out of the freezer last night.
6 We worked in the garden all morning, and stopped
lunch at one o’clock.
7 I’ll never forget such a wonderful
summer at Ryan’s house in Canada.
8 If your feet are hurting, you should try
different shoes.

Grammar reference and practice 1 85 85

 Grammar reference and practice 2

2.1 Narrative tenses Past perfect

Past simple Affirmative had + past participle
Negative hadn’t + past participle
Affirmative verb + -ed / -d
Questions had + subject + past participle
Negative didn’t + infinitive
Geeta had remembered to bring a torch.
Questions did + subject + infinitive
I hadn’t been on a coach tour before.
She described the holiday in detail. Had you tried a house-swap before this summer?
They didn’t see the sights. Yes, I had. / No, I hadn’t.
Did you go backpacking? Yes, we did. / No, we didn’t.
Many verbs have irregular past simple forms, e.g. Use
have had, see saw, buy bought. We use the past perfect to talk about:
an action or event that happened before another action in
Use the past.
We use the past simple to talk about: They had saved up a lot of money before they went on
completed past actions or past states. the cruise.
We visited several important sites during the week. to talk about two completed past actions, introduced by
a sequence of actions in the past. when or after. The past perfect always refers to the action
I tried to ask the man for directions in French. He smiled at that happened first.
me and replied in perfect English. When / After we had checked into the hotel, we found our
past habits. room and went to bed.
Before he bought a car, John travelled everywhere by bike. This is quite similar to when + past simple + past simple,
We use when + past simple + past simple to talk about two but the use of the past perfect generally suggests a longer
connected actions that happen at around the same time. period of time between the two actions.
When Rosa read Rachel’s note, she started laughing. When / After Rosa had read Rachel’s note, she started
laughing.
When can appear in the middle of the sentence, without
a comma. 1 Choose the correct sentence in each pair.
Rosa started laughing when she read Rachel’s note. 1 a Were you finding your watch when you tidied up?
b Did you find your watch while you were tidying up?
Past continuous 2 a I saw a big spider in my sleeping bag when I
opened it.
Affirmative was / were + -ing form b I was seeing a big spider in my sleeping bag when I
Negative wasn’t / weren’t + -ing form opened it.
3 a It was eight o’clock. The sun was setting and people
Questions was / were + subject + -ing form were enjoying the warm evening air.
It was raining when we arrived. b It was eight o’clock. The sun set and people enjoyed
We weren’t cycling very fast. the warm evening air.
Were you waiting very long for the coach? 4 a While you were putting your bag in the overhead
Yes, we were. / No, we weren’t. locker, something fell out.
b While you put your bag in the overhead locker,
Use something fell out.
We use the past continuous to talk about: 5 a We discussed our holiday destination when Kaya had
background descriptions. a great idea.
The sun was shining and everyone was smiling and laughing. b We were discussing our holiday destination when
actions in progress at a specific time in the past. Kaya had a great idea.
I was talking to a very interesting person this afternoon. 6 a Matilda’s shoe broke while she was walking around
longer actions interrupted by shorter actions. town, so she bought a new pair.
I was putting my bag in the luggage rack when I dropped b Matilda’s shoe was breaking while she was walking
my phone. around town, so she bought a new pair.
7 a Once the plane was starting its engines, Kieran
We use while to introduce an action in the past continuous.
realized that he was very nervous.
While isn’t followed by the past simple.
b Once the plane started its engines, Kieran realized
While you were talking to Denise, Jack phoned.
that he was very nervous.
We don’t use the past continuous with state verbs, e.g.
believe, need, etc.

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2 One of the verbs in each sentence is wrong. Rewrite Mum used to work as a tour guide.
one of the verbs in each sentence in the correct form. It didn’t use to be obligatory to wear a seat belt.
Use the past simple, past continuous or past perfect. Did your grandparents use to go on a working holiday every
1 Dina felt disappointed with the result because she never year? Yes, they did. / No, they didn’t.
failed an exam in her life. We can use would + infinitive in the same way as used to to
talk about past habits and repeated actions.
2 The driver stopped the bus and had opened a map. As children, they used to play together for hours.
Someone asked him if he was lost. As children, they would play together for hours.
However, would is not used to describe past states.
3 The trip went really well and everyone was having a NOT Grandad would be a postman when he was younger.
good time. Suddenly, the tour guide announced that
When we are talking about past habits, we generally use
there was a problem.
would only in the affirmative.
NOT We wouldn’t go on holiday to the same place every year
4 While Emma had taken Sammy back to the campsite,
when I was little.
we stayed on the beach and played volleyball.
NOT Would you go on holiday to the same place every year
when you were little?
5 When we arrived at the hotel, we’d decided not to
stay there. Although would and used to are very similar, used to simply
expresses a fact, while would emphasizes that the action is
6 When I came into the bedroom last night, you talked in typical of a person or a situation.
your sleep. When we were little, it used to rain on the first day of the
holidays.
When we were little, it would always rain on the first day of
3 Complete the sentences with the correct form of the holidays.
the verbs in brackets. Use the past simple, past
continuous or past perfect. If two tenses are 1 Complete the sentences with the correct form
possible, write both forms. of used to or would. If both used to and would are
1 Jane Knew (knew) the area well because correct, write both forms.
used to
she had gone (go) the year before. 1 My granny says that people be
2 Everyone turned round (turn round) when she happier in the past.
walked (walk) into the room. 2 I didn't use to like seafood, but I eat it all the
3 While you were enjoying (enjoy) your holiday, we time now.
had to (have to) look after the house. 3 I remember the way that Dad would / used to
4 She spoke (speak) Spanish very pretend to be a tour guide whenever we visited London.
Did
well considering she hadn't ever 4 you use to share
had (not have) any classes. a bedroom with both your sisters?
5 When Pete got (get) to know the 5 Every evening at exactly seven o’clock, we
used to / would
town, he felt (feel) much safer there. find our cat sitting on our
6 Tania was leaving (leave) but we doorstep.
managed (manage) to persuade her 6 In the past, many families used to / would spend
to stay. every summer holiday in the same small hotel.
7 When the traffic moved (move), our taxi 2 Rewrite the sentences in the past. Use the correct
speeded up (speed up). form of used to or would. If both used to and would
8 We decided (decide) to go for a walk after are possible, write both forms.
we had eaten (eat). 1 Fiona has four pairs of sunglasses.

2.2 used to and would 2 Leo doesn’t use his mobile much.

We use used to + infinitive to talk about: 3 Bukayo gets really scared when boarding a plane.
past habits that do not happen now.
When I was young, I used to walk 8 km to school 4 On long car journeys, my little sister always says ‘Are we
every day. nearly there yet?’
My family used to stay at the same campsite every year.
We don’t use used to for single actions. 5 Jack and Kim live in the same street.
My family used to stay at the same campsite every year.
NOT My family used to stay at the same campsite last July. 6 Do you and Lisa know each other?

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 Grammar reference and practice 3

3.1 Past simple and present Note that it is possible to use How long with a past simple
verb and for, but we can’t use since in the past simple
perfect answer.
How long did Tom have the rash for? (Tom no longer has
Past simple Present perfect
the rash.)
For actions that happened For actions that happened He had it for a month.
at a specific point in the at some point in the past; NOT He had it since February.
past, usually with a time the time is unknown or The verb go has two past participle forms: been and gone.
expression. unimportant. We use been when we know that someone has returned
Lee went to Portugal Carrie has stayed at that from a trip. We use gone when they have not returned.
last year. hotel twice. Josh has been to India. (= He is back now.)
For situations that For actions or states that Josh has gone to India. (= He is still in India.)
happened in a period of began in the past and that In the past simple, there is only one form for the past
time that has ended. continue up to the present, of go: went.
I lived in Germany from usually with for or since. Josh went to India last year. (We don’t know if he came back,
2002 to 2006. Freda has worked here for or if he is still there.)
several years.
Marek has been a teacher We can use the past simple or the present perfect with time
since 2010. expressions, such as: today, this morning, this evening, this
week, this year, etc. Compare the sentences:
With past time references, With ever, never, already, I wrote three emails this morning. (The speaker is talking in the
such as yesterday, last … just and yet. evening, so the period of time has ended.)
and … ago. Have you ever been here I’ve written three emails this morning. (The speaker is talking
We finished our exams before? in the morning, so the period of time continues.)
last week. No, I’ve never been here in
Karen started her new my life. 1 Choose the correct sentence endings.
school a few days ago. Have the girls arrived yet? 1 It’s two o’clock in the afternoon. Leo usually phones at
Isabel has already arrived. ten o’clock
Kirsty has just got here, but a but he didn’t phone me this morning.
Maryam hasn’t arrived yet. b but he hasn’t phoned me this morning.
2 I’m trying to contact my old penfriend but
With time references such With time references such a she moved to a new city.
as this morning, today and as this morning, today and b she has moved to a new city.
this week to talk about this week to talk about the 3 They keep getting lost because
something that happened whole of that period of time a they haven’t been here before.
in a part of that period that up to now. b they didn’t go here before.
is finished. I haven’t seen Fred this 4 I’ve stopped going skating because
I saw Fred this morning. morning. (It is still the a I’ve broken my leg the last time I went.
(The morning is finished.) morning.) b I broke my leg the last time I went.
Did Laura phone today? Has Laura phoned today? (It 5 She didn’t buy a coat in the market because
(It is now the evening, so is still the daytime.) a she didn’t find anything suitable there.
the main part of ‘today’ is b she hasn’t found anything suitable there.
finished.) 6 It’s strange. I can’t find Simon, but he
With the question form How With the question form How a was here a few minutes ago.
long ago … ? long … ? and with for or b has been here a few minutes ago.
How long ago did Darius since.
break his leg? How long have you had that
He broke it two years ago. rash?
I’ve had it for a month /
since February.

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2 Complete the sentences. Use the present perfect or The present perfect and the present perfect continuous
past simple form of the verbs below. can sometimes be used with little difference in meaning,
especially with verbs that express a continuous action such
be come get go live not eat own run as wait, live, work + for or since.
He’s waited a long time for this moment.
1 I know you live in England now, but how long
He’s been waiting a long time for this moment.
you in Ireland for?
2 The Romans to Britain over 2,000 years However, the present perfect can tell us that an action
ago. finished recently, while the present perfect continuous
3 Grandad in hospital since last week. emphasizes the activity itself.
4 Aziz every morning for a year, and he isn’t I’ve done my homework. (I recently finished my homework.)
going to stop now. I’ve been doing my homework. (That is how I’ve spent my time
5 How long ago your parents until just now.)
married? The present perfect continuous can’t be used with state
6 My aunt and uncle to India for six months. verbs, e.g. be, like, believe, have.
They gave me this lovely souvenir. I’ve been a teacher since 2008.
7 How long you your NOT I’ve been being a teacher since 2008.
pet snake? The present perfect continuous isn’t used to say how often
8 We had a sandwich last night but we something happened.
since then. They’ve visited us many times.
NOT They’ve been visiting us many times.
3.2 Present perfect simple and 1 Complete the sentences using the present perfect
present perfect continuous continuous form of the verbs below.
chat do get not study take wait
Affirmative and negative
1 I at this bus stop for half
I
have been an hour.
You
haven’t 2 You’re soaking wet! What you
We
been ?
They watching TV. 3 Marcia to her friend on the phone
He since 5.30.
has been
She 4 Mark very hard for his exam.
hasn’t been
It 5 We extra lessons to help us with
our maths.
Questions and short answers
6 The population taller over the
I past few decades.
you Yes, I have.
Have 2 Choose the correct sentence. Sometimes both are
we No, I haven’t. correct.
they been watching
TV? 1 a We’re late because we’ve been helping Dad clean
he Yes, he has. the garage.
Has she No, she b We’re late because we’ve helped Dad clean the
it hasn’t. garage.
2 a The Fielding family have lived in this area for at least
Use a century.
We use the present perfect continuous to talk about: b The Fielding family have been living in this area for at
a situation or action that began in the past and is still in least a century.
progress. The emphasis is on the duration of the activity. 3 a I’ve had a headache since lunchtime.
We can use for and since to show how long. b I’ve been having a headache since lunchtime.
You’ve been writing that letter for three hours. 4 a Ben’s been writing a science fiction story. In fact, he’s
an action that has happened repeatedly in the past and nearly finished it.
that is still happening now. b Ben’s written a science fiction story. In fact, he’s
Dan’s been taking guitar lessons. nearly finished it.
a very recent action which has either just finished or which 5 a It’s been raining, so the grass is quite wet.
has just been interrupted; the present perfect continuous b It’s rained, so the grass is quite wet.
often introduces a reason or explanation. 6 a The reason I’m covered in flour is because I’ve made
Kate and Lucy have been playing tennis. biscuits.
I’m tired because I’ve been working all day. b The reason I’m covered in flour is because I’ve been
making biscuits.

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 Grammar reference and practice 4

4.1 Expressing the future going to

We use be + going to to talk about:
Present simple intentions.
We use the present simple to talk about future events that Ben’s going to join a gym.
are fixed because they are based on a schedule, calendar or predictions about the future based on something we can
timetable. see in the present.
Pete’s flight lands at 11.00 tomorrow morning. Look at the sky. It’s going to be a beautiful day.
What time does the film start? Compare:
going to They aren’t going to stay very long.
Present continuous (That is their intention.)
We use the present continuous to talk about personal will / won’t They won’t stay very long. (I predict this.)
arrangements for a future day or date.
I’m meeting up with Olivia tonight. Sometimes there is little difference between going to and
I’m not doing anything later. the present continuous when talking about the future.
We’re going to have a party next weekend.
1 Choose the correct words.
We’re having a party next weekend.
1 We have / are having a meeting tomorrow to discuss
how to raise funds. We use the present continuous to talk about a definite plan
2 According to the timetable, the drama group for which the arrangements have been made. And we use
rehearses / is rehearsing at six o’clock. going to to show that the plan is only an intention.
3 What do you do / are you doing later? may / might
4 Does everyone go / Is everyone going to Luke’s party
on Saturday? We use may or might when we are less certain about the
5 They don’t hold / aren’t holding a meeting this week. future. Although may is considered to be more definite
6 The football match ends / is ending at 7.00, so we can than might, there is, in fact, very little difference in meaning
watch the film afterwards. between the two words.

2 Rewrite the sentences. Use the present simple or the 3 Complete the sentences with the correct form of will
present continuous form of the verbs in brackets. or be going to and one of the verbs below.
1 Jan and Kim have decided to go to Amy’s party on cause fall make not go not take start
Saturday. (go)
1 I hope this a long time. I’m very busy.
2 Fatima has just bought a plane ticket for a flight to 2 It is clear that further drought very serious
Madrid next Tuesday. (fly) problems in the area.
3 Look at that man! He off the roof!
3 The plane’s departure time is 9.20. (leave) 4 We to the meeting. We’ve got too much
work to do.
4 The summer lecture programme is scheduled to begin 5 Clean water probably the
on 15th June. (start) biggest difference to the people in the village.
6 They a campaign to help to promote the
5 Matt and Jamie have booked a badminton court for message.
later. (play)
4 Match 1–8 to a–h to make sentences.
1 I’ve got a cold, so I probably
will 2 Sarah and I won’t be at the picnic, but we
3 It’s great news. We’re
We use will and won’t to talk about:
4 Good luck. I hope I
promises and hopes for the future, often with verbs like
5 Mike isn’t sure, but he thinks
hope, expect or promise + that (you can omit that).
6 The temperature is dropping. It
I hope (that) you’ll be very happy here.
7 Carla isn’t certain, but she
We can also use the infinitive with to after these verbs.
8 They intended to join us on the protest, but they
We hope to arrange another meeting soon.
predictions, often after I think or I don’t think, or future facts a might meet us later.
that we are certain about. b aren’t going to come now.
I don’t think it will be difficult to pass this exam. c won’t go swimming later.
That plant won’t survive for long without water. d the journey will take about three hours.
future facts that we are less certain about, with probably. e going to get a dog, at last.
We will probably go to the park, but it depends on the f may see you at Jack’s party.
g ’ll see you again soon.
weather.
h ’s going to be very cold tonight.

90 Grammar reference and practice 4

4.2 Future continuous and future Future continuous
perfect Affirmative and negative
Future perfect I
You
Affirmative and negative
He / She / It will be
helping many people.
I We won’t be
You You
He / She / It will have They
helped many people.
We won’t have
You Questions and short answers
They I
Questions and short answers you Yes, you
be helping
he / she / it will.
I Will many
we No, they
you Yes, you people?
you won’t.
he / she / it have helped will. they
Will
we many people? No, they
you won’t.
they Use
We use the future continuous with a future time expression
to talk about actions that will be in progress at a definite
Use time in the future.
We use the future perfect to talk about: I’ll be travelling to Africa this time next week.
an action that will be completed before a definite time in
the future. It is not always necessary to use a future time expression,
particularly if the time frame is clear from the context.
We often use by + a time expression to say when the action Will you be helping out at the event? (some time between the
will be finished. start and the end of the event)
The traffic situation will have improved by eleven o’clock.
Call Chris tomorrow. He’ll have had more time to think about 2 Complete sentence b so that it has a similar meaning
the idea by then. to sentence a. Use the future perfect or future
continuous tense.
We can also use before + time expression. 1 a The concert finishes at 9.00.
Chris won’t have made his decision before tomorrow. b At 8.59, the concert .
A time expression is not always necessary, however. 2 a We leave school at 3.45.
I hope that we won’t have done all that hard work for nothing. b By 4.00, I school.
The campaign will raise awareness of the issue, but in the end, 3 a Nick is going to arrive home later than 12.00.
what will it have achieved? b Nick home by 11.55.
4 a It’s eleven o’clock. At eleven o’clock tomorrow, she’s
1 Complete the sentences with the future perfect form flying to Lisbon.
of the verbs in brackets. b This time tomorrow she to
1 By four o’clock this afternoon, Priyanka Lisbon.
her driving test. (take) 5 a The package will take several weeks to arrive.
2 Wait until tomorrow to speak to Mark. He b The package by tomorrow.
his mind up before then. (not 6 a The protest begins tomorrow morning at 9 a.m. and
make up) continues all day.
3 By this time tomorrow, Mr Reed b By 9.30 tomorrow, the protest
across the English Channel. (swim) .
4 By the end of this essay, I over
2,000 words. (write)
5 you your
exam results by this time tomorrow? (receive)
6 By this time on Friday, I this film
six times. (see)

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 Grammar reference and practice 5

5.1 First and second conditionals Second conditional

We use the second conditional to talk about an imaginary or
First conditional unlikely situation and its imagined result. They can describe
We use the first conditional to talk about a real or very likely present and future situations. The past forms are used to
action or situation and its probable result in the present or show the situation is different from reality.
future. If you apologized to Laura, she would forgive you.
If you lie a lot, he will never believe you. CONDITION RESULT
CONDITION RESULT If + past simple, would (or ’d) + infinitive
If + present simple, will + infinitive If I lived in Africa, my life would be different.
We can put the condition clause first. There is no comma. In the same way as for first conditional sentences, the result
He will never believe you if you lie a lot. can come first.
RESULT CONDITION My life would be different if I lived in Africa.
will + infinitive if + present simple RESULT CONDITION
would (or ’d) + infinitive if + past simple
Remember: in the condition clause, if is followed by
the present simple, even though the verb can refer to It is possible to use other modals in the result clause.
the future. If I said what I really thought, they might get offended.
If we miss the train, we’ll be late for school.
We can also use unless in second conditional sentences.
NOT If we’ll miss the train …
We can use were instead of was, especially in formal style.
In the result clause, we can use other modal verbs apart
I wouldn’t say that if it wasn’t / weren’t true.
from will.
If you tell the truth all the time, you might offend people. 2 Make second conditional sentences using the correct
form of the verbs in brackets.
It is possible to use a negative verb in either or both parts of
1 If they (have) more money, they
a conditional sentence.
(spend) more on the campaign.
If you don’t arrive on time, I won’t wait for you.
2 Ted (be) happier if he
Instead of if, we can use unless. Unless means if something (live) in a hot country.
does not happen. 3 If Claire (work) harder, she
Compare: (do) better in her exams.
If shops don’t do something to stop shoplifting, we will all have 4 If I (not want) to come, I
to pay higher prices. (tell) you.
Unless shops do something to stop shoplifting, we will all have 5 Bako (not accuse) her unless he
to pay higher prices. (have) a good reason.
1 Choose the correct sentence endings. 6 We (walk) there if it
(not be) so far.
1 If we leave now,
a we be in time for the bus. 3 Rewrite the first and second conditional sentences
b we’ll be in time for the bus. that are incorrect. In the incorrect sentences, only
2 If you don’t study for these exams, one verb is wrong.
a you might pass them. 1 If you told David the truth, he wouldn’t believe it.
b you might not pass them.
3 You’ll need to have a good reason 2 If we have time on our trip next week, we visit the
a if you accuse someone of something. famous castle.
b if you’d accuse someone of something.
4 Unless we do something, 3 You wouldn’t like it if I tell you lies.
a the thief will get away with it.
b the thief won’t get away with it. 4 If you see Anita, you’ll notice that there is something
5 I’ll call Lucy at three o’clock different about her.
a unless she’ll call me before then.
b unless she calls me before then. 5 It will be a great end to the event unless something will
6 If he continues to behave like this, go wrong.
a his friends won’t put up with it.
b his friends wouldn’t put up with it.

92 Grammar reference and practice 5

5.2 Modals of obligation, 1 Choose the correct words.
prohibition and permission 1 Nobody can / must borrow these books without
permission.
We use the modal verbs can (can’t), may (may not),
2 Visitors mustn’t / don’t have to feed the animals in the
must (mustn’t) and have to (don’t have to) to talk about
zoo, as this may harm the animals.
obligation, prohibition and permission.
3 Students must / may bring a small bottle of water into
can and may the exam, if they wish.
4 Drivers may / must stop at a red traffic light.
We can use the modal verbs can and may to give someone
5 According to the map, we have to / can walk as far as
permission to do something or to say what is allowed in
the river, but not beyond that.
general. May is more formal than can.
6 You must not / don’t have to take any photos inside the
When you reach the age of 18, you can / may vote.
art gallery. However, there are postcards available of all
can’t and may not the paintings.
We use the negative forms can’t and may not to refuse 2 Rewrite the sentences. Use must, mustn’t, have to
someone permission or to say what is not allowed. or don’t have to. If more than one answer is correct,
In the UK, people may not / can’t get married until the age write both forms.
of 16. 1 I think it is necessary that you wait for Lizzie.
You wait for Lizzie.
must and mustn’t 2 It isn’t necessary that you eat all your lunch.
We use must to talk about a rule, or something that is You eat all your lunch.
necessary to do. 3 Our teacher thinks it is necessary that we speak to the
You must be more careful with your things. police officer.
We use mustn’t to talk about something that people are not We speak to the police officer.
allowed to do. 4 It is against the law for people to cross the road here.
People mustn’t park their cars here. There’s a car park around People cross the road here.
the corner. 5 It is a rule that everyone is quiet in a library.
Everyone be quiet in a library.
have to and don’t have to 6 It’s OK if I don’t go to bed early on a Friday.
I go to bed early on a Friday.
We can use have to in a similar way to must.
7 It’s really important that I’m not late home today.
You have to ask permission to leave the room during
I be late home today.
lesson time.
8 It’s compulsory for children to do sport three times a
We use don’t have to to talk about something that isn’t week at school.
necessary for people to do. However, they can do it if they Children do sport three
want to. times a week at school.
You don’t have to carry your identity card everywhere you go.
(But some people do.)
We normally use must when the speaker thinks that
something is important, and have to when someone else
thinks it is. However, it is fairly common to use have to
instead of must when talking about an obligation that
comes from the speaker.

Grammar reference and practice 5 93

 Grammar reference and practice 6

6.1 The passive Past simple passive

The passive is formed with the verb be + past participle of = was / were + past participle
the main verb. This commercial was created by a famous advertising agency.
The advertising campaign wasn’t considered a success.
We use the passive:
We weren’t given anything to eat.
when we are more interested in the action than in the
Was the school built on time?
person who performs the action.
when we don’t know who performs the action, or when it is Present perfect passive
clear from the context who performs the action.
= has / have been + past participle
Passive verbs have the same tenses as active verbs, and the A lot of articles have been published about this.
rules for tense usage are the same. The campaign hasn’t been seen as an overwhelming success,
When we want to say who performs an action in a passive but we hope this will change.
sentence, we use the preposition by. Has the campaign been criticized?
ACTIVE  Unemployed members of the community started the Have the clothes been hung up?
business.
PASSIVE The business was started by unemployed members of 2 Complete the sentences using the correct past
the community. simple passive or present perfect passive form of the
verbs in brackets.
Present simple passive 1 Max (ask) to speak in front of the
= am, is, are + past participle whole school. He’s really excited about it.
Some of the profit is spent on improving living conditions. 2 We (not invite) to the end-of-year
Cotton isn’t grown in the UK. party yet.
Are farmers paid a fair price for their produce? 3 The railway station (build) ten
years before the town hall.
Present continuous passive 4 our car
= am / is / are being + past participle (manufacture) in the UK?
Stealth marketing is being used more and more as a way to sell 5 When you asked about José, what
products and services. you (tell)?
The profits aren’t being passed on to the people who make 6 you ever
these goods. (hurt) in an accident?
Are these measures being introduced in every country? Past continuous passive
1 Complete the present simple passive and present = was / were being + past participle
continuous passive sentences. Several designs were being considered at one time.
1 I keep seeing the same person behind me. There was confusion because people weren’t being given the
I followed? right information.
2 Glossy magazines commonly used to Was research being carried out at that time?
promote luxury goods.
3 Brand image is very important, and Past perfect passive
usually developed by experts at a marketing agency. = had been + past participle
4 The new advertising campaign The sisters were happy because they’d been given the chance
launched yet. to set up their own business.
5 Generally speaking, once the decision Many people were angry that they hadn’t been given the
announced publicly, there is nothing anyone can do chance to give their views.
about it. Had you been promised a refund on a previous occasion?
6 It is important to always take account of the consumer
while the products designed.
7 The bread baked in the oven
right now, and will be ready in about ten minutes.
8 During a marketing campaign, free samples of a product
offered to people in the industry.

94 Grammar reference and practice 6

3 Complete the past continuous passive and past 6.2 have / get something done
perfect passive sentences with had (or hadn’t) been, The verb have can be used in the passive structure have
was (or wasn’t) being, were (or weren’t) being. something done, which means to arrange for another person
1 The man looked thin because he to do something for you. Have can be used in any tense, but
held prisoner for several months. in this structure, it is always followed by an object + past
2 When we came out of the shop, we realized that our participle.
bikes stolen. I’m having my hair cut later. (Another person is cutting my hair.)
3 The workers didn’t have any money because they We’ve had our house professionally cleaned.
paid.
4 Kiara listened politely, but she had the feeling that she We can use have something done in the negative and in
told the truth. questions. In the present simple form, we use don’t / doesn’t
5 It was obvious that the letter have (not haven’t / hasn’t got).
written a long time ago. She doesn’t have her food delivered. She buys it at the
6 What were you doing while Anna supermarket herself.
chased by that dog?
In informal and spoken English it is possible to use get
Future passive instead of have in this structure (get something done). Get
= will be + past participle can also be used in different tenses.
The campaign will be extended to other countries. We’ll get a key made for you.
The report won’t be finished until November. I got my shoes repaired last week.
Will the clothes be sold here?
1 Complete the sentences with the correct form of
4 Complete the sentences using the future passive have something done.
form of the verbs below. 1 Kamili’s at the optician at the moment.
She her eyes tested.
ask forget give keep not make not start
2 Paul went to the garage yesterday.
spend take
He his motorbike repaired there.
1 Everyone who comes into this building 3 Jane and Liz have done something very patriotic.
to show their identity card. They their nails painted in red,
2 In a few days, this incident and white and blue.
everything will carry on as normal. 4 Carla’s partner had asked the hotel to put flowers and
3 Tomorrow afternoon, you on a chocolates in the room before their arrival.
tour of the old town. Carla’s partner flowers and
4 A decision on the school’s future chocolates put in the room before their arrival.
until next year. 5 Someone will be painting our fence later.
5 What all the money we collected We our fence painted later on.
on? 6 Is the house being professionally cleaned?
6 At the end of the competition, a prize we the
for the best design. house professionally cleaned?
7 Work on the new building for
another six months.
8 Don’t worry about the money. Once we count it, it
in a safe place.
5 Rewrite the active sentences in the passive. Use by if
necessary.
1 Someone was ringing the church bells.

2 Has someone fed the cat today?

3 Charleston United have beaten Sunderland City.

4 First, you mix together the two paints.

5 Joe started the argument.

6 We had already introduced Kate and Archie.

Grammar reference and practice 6 95

 Grammar reference and practice 7

7.1 Reported speech We can use the verb tell instead of say to report what
We use reported speech when we want to tell someone someone says.
about something that another person said. Tenses and If we use tell, we must follow it with a personal pronoun.
pronouns change in reported speech if the time and the Theo told me that he had a plan.
speaker change. The tense of the main verb changes in the NOT Theo told that he had a plan.
following ways:
However, we never use a personal pronoun after say.
Direct speech Reported speech NOT Theo said me that …
Present simple Past simple There are other reporting verbs that we can use apart
She said: ‘Ian snores She said that Ian snored from say and tell, e.g. add, admit, agree, explain, point out,
very loudly.’ very loudly. promise, reply, warn. Of the verbs in this list, only promise
Present continuous Past continuous and warn are followed by a personal pronoun.
‘May’s listening to music,’ I said that May was
I said. listening to music.
1 Complete the sentences in reported speech.
1 ‘We can’t go together,’ said Kaheem.
Present perfect Past perfect Kaheem said that we together.
‘I’ve made my decision,’ She said that she had 2 ‘Marina and Dan haven’t eaten anything,’ said Phil.
she said. made her decision. Phil said that Marina and Dan
Past simple Past perfect anything.
‘We waited a long time,’ Giles said that they had 3 ‘I finished the crossword,’ said Grandma.
Giles said. waited a long time. Grandma said that she the
Past perfect Past perfect crossword.
‘I’d already seen the film,’ Mari said she’d already 4 ‘They’re always playing computer games,’ said Mum.
said Mari. seen the film. Mum said that they computer
can could games.
‘You can try again,’ he He said that I could try 5 ‘The sunset will be beautiful,’ said Ellen.
said. again. Ellen said that the sunset
beautiful.
will would 6 ‘Dad is a really good cook,’ said David.
They said: ‘We’ll think They said that they David said that Dad a really
about it.’ would think about it. good cook.
It is usually necessary to change pronouns and possessive
2 Complete the sentences with the correct pronouns or
adjectives, too: possessive forms. Sometimes no change is needed.
‘My dog isn’t very well,’ Harry said. Harry said that his dog
1 ‘Colin can’t find his dog,’ said Ewan.
wasn’t very well.
Ewan said that Colin couldn’t find dog.
‘I’m buying a present for my dad,’ she said. She said that she
2 ‘Mum is annoyed with both of you,’ said Debbie.
was buying a present for her dad.
Debbie said that Mum was annoyed with both of
We also change references to time and place. .
3 ‘We aren’t going on the school trip today,’ said Wendy.
Time
Wendy said that weren’t going on the
now then / at that moment
school trip that day.
today that day 4 ‘You will love your present,’ my brothers told me.
this week that week My brothers told me that would love
last week the week before present.
yesterday the day before 5 ‘I know your sister,’ Chidi said.
tomorrow the next / following day Chidi said that knew sister.
a minute ago a minute earlier / before 6 ‘I really like Carol and her brother,’ said Steve.
Steve said that really liked Carol and
next week the following week
brother.
Place
here there

96 Grammar reference and practice 7

3 Choose the correct words. 1 Choose the correct sentence endings. Sometimes
1 He promised / warned that I might be in a dangerous both are correct.
situation. 1 The police officer asked me
2 I thought we would be late, but Sarah agreed / pointed a what was I doing?
out that the train wasn’t due to leave for another hour. b what I was doing.
3 Abe warned / explained that he was at home because 2 Nina asked her mum
the school was closed. a if she could go into town to meet a friend.
4 Although she denied it at first, Thea eventually b whether could she go into town to meet a friend.
admitted / promised that she had lost the book. 3 I spotted Tim and asked him
5 Ken explained / admitted that he wouldn’t tell anyone a if he wanted to play football in the park.
my secret. b if he wants to play football in the park.
6 At first, Diana said I was wrong, but in the end, she 4 Our neighbours asked us
promised / agreed that it would be better to do things a if we had seen their dog.
my way. b whether we had seen their dog.
5 The model plane that Grandad made was amazing, and
I asked
7.2 Reported questions and a him how he had made it.
commands b did it take long to make it.
We report questions with the verb ask. Ask can be followed 6 A tourist stopped us in the street and asked us
by a personal pronoun, or can be used without one. a where was he.
b where he was.
To report a yes/no question, we use the structure 7 We asked our teacher
ask (+ object) + if. The word order is the same as in an a when would start the exams.
affirmative sentence. This means that the subject comes b when the exams would start.
before the verb. 8 Guillaume came over and asked
John asked if I was feeling all right. a me if the news was true.
John asked me if I was feeling all right. b if the news was true.
NOT John asked me if was I feeling all right.
2 Write the active questions and commands as
We can use whether instead of if. There is no difference in reported questions and commands. Use the correct
meaning. form of the reporting verbs tell and ask.
Max asked if we wanted to go to the cinema. 1 ‘Wait here for me,’ said Luke.
OR Max asked whether we wanted to go to the cinema.
To report a wh- question, we use a wh- word followed by an 2 ‘Where does Paul live?’ asked Mum.
affirmative word order.
She asked (Fiona) what the time was. 3 ‘How’s your toe?’ asked Nancy.
NOT She asked (Fiona) what was the time.
4 ‘Give me the torch,’ she said.
We report orders and commands with the verb tell. We use
the structure tell + personal pronoun + infinitive with to.
5 ‘Don’t do anything until next week,’ Mr Carr said.
They told us to stand in the queue.
To report an order not to do something, we put not before 6 ‘Have you been ill?’ asked Soroush.
the infinitive with to.
She told me not to worry. 7 ‘Don’t play your music so loud, you two,’ said Dad.
Remember that it is still necessary to follow the rules about
8 ‘Are you Ted Fielding’s nephew?’ asked the man.
changing tenses, pronouns and possessive forms, as well as
references to place and time.
‘Come back here tomorrow evening,’ he said. He told me to
go back there the next / following evening.

Grammar reference and practice 7 97

 Grammar reference and practice 8

8.1 Third conditional 2 Complete the third conditional sentences with the
We use the third conditional to talk about unreal situations correct form of the verbs in brackets.
in the past. The condition is impossible, because we cannot 1 If you (listen) more closely, you
change what happened. Consequently, the result is also (know) what to do.
impossible. 2 I (play) in the match if I
If you had studied, you would have passed the exam. (bring) my football boots.
CONDITION RESULT 3 We (not say) anything if we
(realize) the trouble it
If + past perfect, would (’d) have + past participle
would cause.
In the same way as for other conditional sentences, the 4 If he (not ask) for directions, he
result can come first. (not arrive) on time.
You would have passed 5 If Jessica (be) worried about us,
if you had studied.
the exam she (phone) us.
RESULT CONDITION 6 My brother (win) the race if he
It is possible to use other modals in the result clause. (not fall).
If you’d mentioned it earlier, I might have been able to do 7 If they (want) to come along,
something about it. they
If we hadn’t taken the wrong road, we could have got there (tell) us?
sooner. 8 You (not fail) your exams if you
(do) more studying!
Unless is never used in third conditional sentences.
1 Choose the correct third conditional sentences.
8.2 I wish and if only
1 a If he had known the risks, he would change his mind.
b If he had known the risks, he would have changed I wish
his mind. We use wish + past simple to say that we would like a
2 a We would have enjoyed ourselves more if our teacher present situation to be different.
hadn’t been there. I wish we had a dog. (I would like to have a dog, but I haven’t
b We would enjoyed ourselves more if our teacher got one.)
hadn’t been there. Sam wishes he lived in the USA. (Sam would like to live in the
3 a Unless I had organized the demonstration, I would USA, but he doesn’t.)
have done it differently. We can use wish followed by a negative verb.
b If I had organized the demonstration, I would have I wish I didn’t have such a complicated life! (I would like my life
done it differently. to be easier, but it isn’t.)
4 a If she would understand the question, she might have
got the answer right. As with the second conditional, we can use were instead
b If she had understood the question, she might have of was.
got the answer right. I wish Joe was / were here. Do you wish Joe were here?
5 a I would have backed down if I had been in his We don’t use would to express a wish about the present.
position. NOT I wish Joe would be here.
b I would have backed down if I would have been in
To say that we regret something that happened in the past,
his position.
we use wish + past perfect.
6 a If someone had shown us the ropes, we would have
Karina wishes she had come on the trip with us. (She didn’t
known what to do.
come with us, and she now regrets that.)
b If someone would have shown us the ropes, we had
I wish I hadn’t said all those things.
known what to do.
7 a Gary didn’t throw the papers out if he realized that
If only
they were important.
It is also possible to use If only + past perfect to express a
b Gary wouldn’t have thrown the papers out if he’d
regret about something that happened in the past.
realized that they were important.
If only we hadn’t missed our bus.
8 a We could have bought a nice souvenir if we had had
more money. If only + past simple is also used to express a wish for
b We would have bought a nice souvenir if we could things to be different in the present. However, it is stronger
have more money. than wish.
If only I was / were taller.
If only I didn’t have such short legs!

98 Grammar reference and practice 8

1 Complete the second sentences using wish + a 8.3 Speculating about the past
negative or affirmative verb. We use the following forms to speculate about the past:
1 James doesn’t live in the countryside. may have, could have, might have, must have, can’t have.
James in the countryside.
They are all followed by a past participle.
2 Tamsin leads a stressful life.
Tamsin a stressful life. We use may have, could have and might have to talk about
3 Daria isn’t here with me. things that possibly happened in the past.
I here with me. Paul’s late. He may have / could have / might have got lost.
4 We gave away Dad’s watch.
Must have and can’t have have opposite meanings to each
I Dad’s watch.
other. We use must have to speculate about things that we
5 They didn’t ask me to be in the team.
are certain were true or happened in the past. We use can’t
I to be in the team.
have to speculate about things that we are almost certain
6 You and Ian were late for the meal last night.
were not true or did not happen in the past.
I late for the meal last night.
Julie isn’t here. She must have left early.
2 Choose the correct sentence endings. Jack has been at home all day. You can’t have seen him in town.
1 I’ve spent all my money. If only Note that it is not possible to use mustn’t have to speculate
a I saved it. about the past.
b I’d saved it. NOT You mustn’t have seen him in town.
2 Molly arrived late at school. If only
a she didn’t miss her train. 1 Choose the correct words.
b she hadn’t missed her train. 1 Nobody has seen Jackie for about an hour. She
3 I always speak to my French friend in English. If only must / might have left.
a I would speak French. 2 Paula always gets top marks in maths. She mustn’t /
b I spoke French. can’t have failed her maths exam.
4 Julio didn’t see his favourite band because they 3 Donna’s been at home all morning. You can’t / could
cancelled the concert. If only have seen her in town earlier.
a they hadn’t cancelled the concert. 4 I may / must have spoken to your Aunt Jane, but I’m
b they didn’t cancel the concert. not sure.
5 Our two dogs wake me up early every day. If only 5 It might / must have rained during the night, as all the
a they hadn’t been so excitable. roads are wet.
b they weren’t so excitable. 6 I don’t know when Sam visited our house. It can’t /
6 Caroline had a big lunch and couldn’t go swimming. could have been Tuesday, because Mum was at home
If only for the whole day, and she didn’t see him.
a she hadn’t had so much to eat. 2 Complete the sentences with may have, might have,
b she didn’t have so much to eat. could have, must have or can’t have, and the past
3 Complete the sentences with hadn’t, didn’t or participle of the verbs in brackets. If more than one
wouldn’t. answer is possible, give all the answers.
1 If we told you about Nick, you 1 Our dog ran away only a minute ago, so he
have found out. (go) far.
2 I wish Mike bought me such an 2 I asked so many people to come to the party,
expensive present. I feel a bit embarrassed. I suppose I (invite)
3 Zoe sometimes wishes she have Ben and Andy as well.
a twin sister. It can be confusing for other people. 3 After Holly left David’s house, she looked really upset. He
4 I’m thinking of buying this jacket, but I’m not sure. If only (say) something awful to her.
it have those plastic buttons. 4 The eclipse happened earlier this morning. We
5 My dad have met my mum if (miss) it.
he started learning German at 5 Any pupils who were in or near the building at the time
evening classes. (see) the burglars.
6 If only you told Clare If that’s the case, please speak to a teacher.
about my problem. Now everyone knows. 6 When I heard that we’d won the lottery I thought that
7 If I seen the evidence, I someone (make) a mistake.
have believed it.
8 Do you sometimes wish computers
exist?

Grammar reference and practice 8 99

 Grammar reference and practice 9

9.1 Defining relative clauses 1 Put the words in order to make sentences.
We use relative clauses to connect two ideas. A relative 1 places / where / used to / several / There were /
clause comes immediately after a noun. meet / we / .
Defining relative clauses give essential information about
2 has left / you / arrived with / boy / that / The / .
the noun. If we took out the relative clause, the sentence
would not make sense. Relative clauses are introduced by
3 an animal / quite fast / is / which / elephant /
relative pronouns and adverbs.
can run / An / .
The relative pronoun that can refer back to a person or a
thing. Who refers to a person, and which refers to a thing. 4 which / a town / cinemas / Bordley / is / two / has / .
Tweeting is an activity which / that didn’t exist ten years ago.
My sister is a person who / that is always sympathetic. 5 recently / Is that / won / a prize / girl / who / the / ?
When combining two sentences, we do not repeat the
6 I’d / show you / like to / live / where we / the street / .
subject or object of the relative pronoun.
There is the castle. I was telling you about it earlier.
There is the castle that I was telling you about earlier. 2 Complete the sentences with which, who, where,
NOT There is the castle that I was telling you about it earlier. when or whose.
It is possible to leave out the relative pronoun who, which or 1 The people we complained to were very
that when it refers to the object of the relative clause, but sympathetic.
not when it is the subject of the relative clause. 2 I wanted to buy a laptop was reliable and
I need a laptop (which / that) I can carry around easily. inexpensive.
BUT I need a laptop which / that is light but durable. 3 The man door we first knocked on wasn’t
very helpful.
The relative pronoun whom can be used instead of who in 4 I need to find a shop they sell gadgets
formal contexts to talk about a person when the person is and digital equipment.
the object of the relative clause. 5 He’s really looking forward to the day he
The man who / whom they arrested is one of my neighbours. learns to drive a car.
We use the relative pronoun whose to refer back to a person 6 I’d like to introduce you to the man life
or animal that possesses something, or for a relationship story I’m writing.
between two people. 3 Choose the correct sentence in each pair. In two
I’d like to meet the man whose phone I found. cases, both are correct.
Is she the girl whose brother is a doctor? 1 a What did you do with the money that was in
It is possible to use the relative adverbs when and where to your bag?
link ideas. b What did you do with the money which was in
your bag?
We use when to refer to a time at which something
2 a I can’t remember the name of the boy whose idea
happened.
it was.
Do you remember the time when we all went on holiday
b I can’t remember the name of the boy that idea
together?
it was.
We use where to refer to a place in which something 3 a Provincetown is the place where arrived the first
took place. ships from England.
This is the shop where I bought my mobile. b Provincetown is the place where the first ships from
England arrived.
Note that the relative pronoun whose, and the adverbs
4 a This morning, I ran into someone I hadn’t seen for
when and where, can’t be followed directly by a verb.
a long time.
b This morning, I ran into someone that I hadn’t seen
for a long time.
5 a The file which was attached to Jody’s email
contained a virus.
b The file was attached to Jody’s email contained
a virus.
6 a Did you speak to the neighbour which took your ball?
b Did you speak to the neighbour who took your ball?

100 Grammar reference and practice 9

9.2 Non-defining relative clauses 1 Choose the correct answers.
Non-defining relative clauses also combine two ideas, but in 1 I’ve got a lot in common with Jed,
a different way. a who he is a friend from Facebook.
David and Chris have known each other since they started b who is a friend from Facebook.
school. They are on the same course. 2 We went to a market in Langton,
David and Chris, who have known each other since they a which isn’t very far from Sam’s home.
started school, are on the same course. b that isn’t very far from Sam’s home.
3 We’re going to Joe’s flat,
Here, the relative clause, which is introduced by who, is
a where is on the 15th floor.
between commas. The commas have a similar function to
b which is on the 15th floor.
brackets. The non-defining relative clause gives additional
4 Dan’s friend Rajesh, wants to become an
information about the subject, rather than essential
astronaut.
information. If the relative clause were taken out, the
a whose dad is a postman,
sentence would still make sense.
b who his dad is a postman,
David and Chris […] are on the same course.
5 My great-grandmother, was an amazing
We can use which, when, where and whose in non-defining person.
relative clauses. a who I met her only once,
b who I met only once,
Just as for defining relative clauses, we do not repeat the
6 This football ground, is being be sold.
subject or object when we combine two sentences.
a where Darnholm United have played since 1901,
I bought my mobile two years ago. It is already out of date.
b that Darnholm United have played since 1901,
My mobile, which I bought two years ago, is already out
7 Everyone had a fantastic time at Nick’s party,
of date.
a his parents paid for.
NOT My mobile, which I bought it two years ago …
b which his parents paid for.
We can’t use that in non-defining relative clauses. 8 Two hundred years ago, this area was full of
NOT My mobile, that I bought two years ago, is already out- factories.
of-date. a where this area was in the middle of the Industrial
A non-defining relative clause does not have to come Revolution,
between two other clauses. It can be followed simply by a b when this country was in the middle of the Industrial
full stop if it comes at the end of a sentence. Revolution,
More details about the book are available from the publisher, 2 Combine both sentences to make a non-defining
whose website includes lots of interesting links. relative clause. Use a suitable relative pronoun or
Defining relative clauses are more common in spoken relative adverb.
language, whilst non-defining relative clauses are more 1 David is a person you can trust completely. I’ve known
common in written language. When we speak, we usually him since we were at primary school.
pause before and after a non-defining relative clause.
My best friend, (pause) who moved to Canada last year, (pause) 2 That’s Akari. She is in my class at school.
is coming over to visit me next month.
3 Mario got some new trainers. They were given to him for
his birthday.

4 I’m meeting Charlotte Newton. Her brother Henry is the

top scorer in the football team.

5 We went to Maynardale and had a picnic. There’s a

famous waterfall at Maynardale.

6 My mum recently bought herself an e-book reader. An

e-book reader is more convenient than paper books.

Grammar reference and practice 9 101

 Grammar reference and practice 10

10.1 Participle clauses 1 Choose the correct sentence. Sometimes both

Instead of using a full relative clause (defining or non- options are correct.
defining) to connect ideas, we can use a clause introduced 1 a My brother, appearing on stage for the first time with
by a participle. The participle can be an -ing form or an -ed his band, looked nervous.
form. These participles are known as present participles b My brother, appeared on stage for the first time with
(-ing form) and past participles (-ed form). his band, looked nervous.
2 a The cat, which looking very hungry, came to us.
A present participle replaces an active verb in the present.
b The cat, looking very hungry, came to us.
I need to get a message to someone who is getting on
3 a The people who attended the event arrived from far
the plane.
and wide.
I need to get a message to someone getting on the plane.
b The people attending the event arrived from far
We can also use the present participle to replace an active and wide.
verb in the past. 4 a The event taking place on stage at the moment is
Oliver, who was worrying about his exam results, didn’t notice really comical.
that his bus had just left. b The event that is taking place on stage at the moment
Oliver, worrying about his exam results, didn’t notice that his is really comical.
bus had just left. 5 a David, not looking very interested, asked me if it was
time to leave yet.
The participle can only replace a relative pronoun when it
b David, not looked very interested, asked me if it was
refers to the subject of the relative clause, not the object.
time to leave yet.
Oliver, who I was worrying about, …
6 a The clouds which were forming looked threatening.
NOT Oliver, I worrying about, …
b The clouds formed looked threatening.
The participle can replace that, which and who, but not
when, where or whose. 2 Replace the underlined words with the correct active
or passive participle form.
The police stopped a small car that / which was carrying
ten people. 1 The film, which was described by the director
The police stopped a small car carrying ten people. as a product of trial and error, was a huge
success.
A past participle replaces a passive verb, which can be in the 2 The person who was chosen to play the main role in the
present or past. film was a little-known actor.
Bags of rubbish which are left on the pavement are causing 3 The catering service which provided the food was a
problems. local one.
Bags of rubbish left on the pavement are causing problems. 4 People that teach very young children have a difficult
The book, which was bought online, was torn when I and important job.
received it. 5 The words that were spoken by the actor were not the
The book, bought online, was torn when I received it. ones in the script.
If the relative clause includes a negative verb, we simply put 6 Music festivals, which are now held all over the world,
not in front of the participle, whether an active or a passive offer the chance to see world-famous performers
participle. on stage.
Oliver, who wasn’t thinking about anything in particular, … 3 Rewrite the sentences using the correct participle
Oliver, not thinking about anything in particular, … form.
The book, which wasn’t bought in a shop, … 1 The man who is training my sister used to be a world-
The book, not bought in a shop, … famous swimmer.

2 Some children who were standing nearby started

laughing.

3 The event, which was attended by nearly 2,000 people,

will be held again next year.

4 The drama company which is based in Shoreditch is

called the Black Box Company.

5 The tree that was cut down by the council recently was
over 200 years old.

102 Grammar reference and practice

10.2 Determiners Each means every single. It is used before a singular noun.
We use the following determiners to talk about quantity: She wore four earrings in each ear.
(a) little, (a) few, some, any, much, many, a lot of, most, all, Every has a similar meaning to each, and is also used before
no, each. a singular noun.
We use some and any before uncountable nouns or plural My brother’s been to four festivals this year. He said that
countable nouns to mean a number of or an amount of. every festival was great.
We use some in affirmative sentences or in questions when Except for a lot of and all, the determiners listed above
making an offer. can’t be used immediately before an article, pronoun or
We’ve got some apples but we need some juice. determiner such as: a, an, the; my, your, his; this, these,
Would you like some coffee? those; you, it, them, etc.
We use any in negative sentences and in questions.
Instead, we add of. We use it to talk about a particular item
Did the supermarket have any chicken? No, and we haven’t
or items.
got any meat in the fridge either.
Some of those people look younger than 16. (some people in a
We use much and many in negatives and questions to talk particular group)
about large quantities. Some people look younger than 16. (people in general)
We use much with uncountable nouns.
No can’t be followed by of. Instead, we use none (= not one)
‘Have you got much rice?’ ‘No, and I haven’t got much
+ of.
milk, either.’
None of my friends wanted to go and see the band.
We use many with plural countable nouns.
NOT No of my friends …
‘Are there many glasses in the cupboard?’ ‘Yes, but there
Every can’t be followed by of.
aren’t many plates.’
NOT Every of my brothers and sisters was born in May
We generally use a lot of to talk about large quantities in
or June.
affirmatives, for both uncountable and plural countable
nouns. It is also possible to use a lot of in negatives and in 1 Choose the correct words.
questions. 1 It’s very sad; few / a few people are interested in our
Ollie eats a lot of fruit and vegetables. particular charity.
Most means the majority of. It can be used before 2 We’ve got few / a few pounds between us, so we can
uncountable and plural countable nouns. buy a sandwich and a drink each.
Most meat is eaten on Sundays. 3 The course was good but unfortunately there was
Most children prefer to start and finish school early. a little / little opportunity to practise our new skills.
4 I think there’s little / a little milk left in the fridge if you’d
We use a little and a few to talk about very small quantities. like a cup of tea.
We use a little with uncountable nouns. 5 For this trip, all / each student will receive a study pack.
We only need a little pasta as we already have half a packet. 6 The director said that many / much actors get nervous
We use a few with plural countable nouns. before they go on stage.
This meal would be healthier if you added a few vegetables.
2 Complete the sentences with the determiners below.
When little and few are used without a, this often gives a There are two words that you do not need.
negative impression.
The concert didn’t go ahead because few people bought all a lot of any every many much no
tickets. (few = not enough) some
A few people asked me where they could buy tickets for the
1 We haven’t got ice cream so Angela has
concert. (a few = several)
gone out to the shop.
The meeting went on so long that there was little time for
2 I’d like you to meet friends from my
questions at the end. (little = not enough)
school.
There was a little time at the end of the meeting for questions.
3 I phoned Cathy but there was news about
(a little = some)
her sister’s condition.
We use all and no before uncountable and plural countable 4 time I try to call her, her phone is
verbs. We can use all before the, either with or without of. switched off.
All dancers have to look after their feet very carefully. 5 Sorry, I didn’t have time so I couldn’t get
All (of) the dancers were very good. everything on the list.
6 Nadia said that people didn’t recognize
No is followed by the noun, not by the.
her when she wore a hat.
No tea or coffee was available.

Grammar reference and practice 10 103