MIE

PETROLEUM PROCESSING & REFINING (CHEE2201)

Mrs. Ilhaam alMaskery

Lecturer

ENGG_MIE_PPTNotes_25Sep2022_V02 CHEE2201: Petroleum Processing & Refining

 Lecturer Profile

• Ilhaam Nasser al-Maskery

• BEng in Chemical Engineering, UK (2008)
• MSc in Chemical Engineering and Management, UK
(2009)
• Lecturer at HCT Engineering Dept
• Student Advisor AD Chemical Eng specialization
• Deputy Department QA coordinator
• Office – ME16 ME Building (Ext 6205)
• E-mail: [email protected]
• Website: www.ilhaamalmaskery.com
Qouted
from …?
What are your Expectations
from this Subject ?
Course Outcomes & Objectives
 Course Structure
Assessment Criteria
Online Learning & Engagement
 Attendance, Online Protocol and Office Hours
1.1 Introduction to Petroleum Industry
 What is YOUR favourite hobby ?

• Log on to www.menti.com
• Insert Voting Code
• Results displayed in presenter’s screen
 The Petroleum Industry

Upstream Downstream
Exploration, development, production Refining, retailing,
of crude oil or natural gas consumers
 The Petroleum Industry

Gathering
Meter /
Export Transfer
Oil Processing
Store
Well
Heads Customer

Down There
Somewhere
 Why do we need
to refine petroleum?
Distribution of HC Reserves (2009)
 Significance to Oman

The Sultanate of Oman’s first and main source of income

Estimated production* = 971,000 barrel/day

Estimated Avg. Oil price* = 60 $/bl
Estimated profit = 60 Million $/day
*(2019)
Estimated 20 Million R.O / DAY !!!
 Significance to Oman

Total output of petroleum products from Mina alFahal and

Sohar refinery was

112 Million barrel/year!!

 Pop Question

What is the approximate percentage (%) of

Jet Fuel that is produced from 1 barrel of crude oil ?

Send your answers to the instructor’s Private Chatbox

1.2 Origin of Oil and Gas
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_PDOD_FEnN
k
 Organic Theory of Petroleum

Petroleum
A substance (liquid or gas) consisting of organic molecules of Carbon and
Hydrogen atoms – hence the name “Hydrocarbon”. Complex mixtures of
these molecules form naturally occurring oil (a.k.a crude oil). [7][8]

Organic Theory
The origin of petroleum is explained by the organic theory which holds
that the hydrogen and carbon which make-up petroleum is a result of
animal and vegetation decomposition. This theory states that the
majority of existing hydrocarbon is a result of the decomposition of
microscopic marine plants and animals.
 The Story of Hydrocarbon

Decomposition of organic material must occur rapidly in oxygen

deprived environment

1) preserve from oxidation

2) protect from scavengers

Organic matter is burried at depths of greater than 5,000 ft by

overlying sediment.
1.2 The Story of Hydrocarbon

Compaction by weight changes

the deposits to rock (shale) by
compressing the clay and
organic particles and
expelling the contained water.
Bacterial and chemical
actions, aided by elevated
temperatures and pressures
from deep burials over
millions of years are required
to complete the the
complicated process of
transforming the organic Fig 1.2, Burial of organic matter in sediments [1]
material to hydrocarbons. [7][8]
What is Generated ?

 Oil

 Gas

 Solution Gas (Oil containing dissolved gas)

 Gas Condensate (Gas containing dissolved oil)

Hydrocarbon Migration

Source Rock
is a term used to describe the beds of sedimentary rock in which
the petroleum is formed. Mostly dark grey or black shales.

Petroleum has to move away from source rock to

become economically producible!
The generation of liquid (crude oil) or gas (natural gas) from a solid
(organic matter) causes large increase in volume. This stresses
the source rock and fractures the shale. Hydrocarbons escape
through the fractures. [7][8]
Hydrocarbon Migration

Primary Migration
Movement of HC from source rock to more porous reservoir rocks
(sandstone or limestone)

High capillary pressures and fluid expansion by heat causes the fluid to be
expelled from the tiny pore spaces of the source rock

Secondary migration
Movement of HC through reservoir rock and into a trap [7][8]

Fluid movement dictated by capillary forces, pressure and temperature effects

Hydrocarbon Migration

Fig 1.3, Primary and Secondary hydrocarbon migration [2]

Traps / Seals

Fig 1.42, Structural reservoir traps [4]

Reservoir Rock Types

Lime Stone
Sedimentary rock comprised largely of calcium carbonate
(CaCO3)

Fig 1.43, Limestone [5] Fig 1.44, Limestone under the microscope
Reservoir Rock Types

Sand Stone
Sedimentary rock comprised mainly of sand sized minerals
or rock grains (clastic)

Fig 1.45, Sandstone [6] Fig 1.46, Sandstone under the microscope [7]
 Hydrocarbon Story

?
© D.L. Baars et al, 1989, Petroleum: a primer for Kansas,
Sedimentary Rock

Fig 2.36 (above), Sedimentary rock cycle

Fig 2.37 (right), Sedimentary rock formations

Reservoir Geometry

Oil is generated and

stored in
sedimentary rocks !

Fig 2.41, Reservoir geometry

Structural Geology
Structural Traps
Traps formed as a result of deformation of a reservoir rock in the
past creating a barrier to oil flow. The three main types of
structural traps are Fault, Anti-cline, Salt Dome.

Stratiagraphic Traps
Traps which have been created due to changes of the rock
character.

Combination Traps
Has both structural and stratiaghraphic elements [1][2]
Structural Geology
Salt Dome

These salt domes can push layers of rock up, forcing any reservoir rocks above into
anticlines that can trap hydrocarbons

Fault

When tectonic stresses act, they are sometimes greater than a rock can resist without
breaking, and faults form

Fig 2.42, Structural traps, Salt Dome and Fault [6]

Structural Geology
Anti-Cline

When compressive forces act on a section of the crust that is ductile, or bendable,
folds form. The arch-like folds are called anticlines and gently folded anticlines
can provide some of the largest and most effective traps in the world.

Fig 2.43, Anticline Structural trap [6]

 2.4 Structural Geology

Stratiagraphic Traps

Traps which are created by the unique deposition of sedimentary

layers

Fig 2.44, Stratiagraphic traps [6]

 Requirements to form HC Reservoir
Allow for "pressure
Hosts the The movement of HC
cooking" of organic
transformation of from source rock to
material and migration
organic matter to reservoir rock
of petroleum to ultimate
hydrocarbon Migration destination
Source Time
Rock
Requirements
Trap for HC
The hydrocarbons are Reservoir
buoyant and have to be
trapped within a Reservoir
structural (e.g. Anticline, Seal Reservoir rock (porous
fault block) or Impermeable rock sandstone or
stratigraphic trap covering HC trap limestone)

Fig 1.41, Requirements to form a Hydrocarbon Reservoir [3]

 Revision Games

Reservoir Geology Game:

• https://www.purposegames.com/game/typ
es-of-natural-oil-and-gas-traps
1.3 Oil and Gas Exploration Techniques
 The Fahud Story

Millions of $ spent annually on exploration

seismic to reduce uncertainty!

1956 IPC (Iraq Petroleum Company) drilled

Fahud-1 - traces of oil

1964 Shell discovers Fahud oilfield only 200m

from Fahud-1 - Largest oilfield in Oman
producing to date

1967 Oil Production started in North Oman

1980 Oil Production started in South Oman

Fahud-1 schematic cross-section illustrating the unlucky near-miss.
Exploration

How are the hydrocarbon Accumulations

Found ?

The job of exploration is to narrow the

possibilities down to a specific area and
test the potential accumulation by
drilling
43
Geophysics

Geophysical

Gravity + Magnetic Seismic

The process of exploring for oil and gas reservoirs uses a number
of techniques and tools to find locations where hydrocarbons have
generated, migrated, and accumulated. Geophysics is one of them
and seismic is the most important of the geophysical methods

44
 Geophysical Methods - Gravity
 The gravity method is often used to survey large areas that have been
selected for exploration.

 A gravimeter measures the pull of gravity at a location by using an

extremely sensitive gravity meter (spring balance).

 Less dense rocks have a lower gravitational pull than denser rocks.

 This method can Sense large structures whose density is less than the
surrounding rock, like salt domes. Or sometimes high density structures
near the surface, like the tops of anticlines. [1][2]

45
3.2 Geophysical Methods

Fig 3.21, Spring Balance Fig 3.22, Formation type determined by gravity method
46
Fig 3.23, Principle of gravity method for exploration
Geophysical Methods
Sample Gravity Map of ****** City

Fig 3.24, Gravity Map of a city

Geophysical Methods - Magnetic

 Magnetic method uses a magnetometer to measure changes

in the earth’s magnetic field. It is very sensitive to rocks
containing a very magnetic mineral called magnetite. Reservoir
rocks contain very low traces of magnetite.

 If the basement rock is deeper in a basin, the magnetometer

will distinguish lower than normal magnetism. Or in the case
of a fault, a sharp change in magnetic values will occur since
basement rocks will be higher on one side than the other.

 Similar concept to gravity method and often combined for

more accurate interpretation and subsurface modeling. [1][2]

49
Gravity &
Magnetic method
performed in an
exact area to
obtain a more
accurate
understanding of
the subsurface
geology.
Geophysical Methods - Seismic

 Seismic is a petroleum exploration method which utilizes sound

energy to detect potential reservoir traps and presence of oil
and gas.
 Sound energy is generated into the earth by a source ( vibrator
truck, explosives or air guns)
 The sound energy ( or acoustic pulses) reflects off sedimentary
rock layers at points where the rock layer properties changes.
 These pulses are recorded by detectors ( geophones) at the
surface.
 The seismic data is used to create an image of the subsurface
rock layer and predict type of rock or fluid present. [1][2]

 The most valuable and popular tool for exploration!

51
How Seismic Works

52
Fig 3.41, Seismic reflection profile
2D – 3D Seismic Profiles

53
Seismic Acquisition Crew

54
The Land seismic sources….
Video

vibroseis dynamite

55
Land airgun Weight drop
 References
1.Hyne. J (2001), Non-Technical guide to Petroleum Geology, Exploration, Drilling and Production, 2nd
Ed, [Penwell Corporation]

2. Lithoprobe (2012) Gravity and Magnetic Studies,

http://www.lithoprobe.ca/media/slideset/slides/tools9.asp Retrieved 3rd May 2010

3. Geophysical Institute of Israel (2002), Gravity & Magnetic,

http://www.gii.co.il/gravity magnetic.html Retrieved 20th June 2010

56
1.4 Rock Properties
 Does your Gross Rock volume = HC
Volume ?
SHAL
E

ROCK Water
SAND
PORE Oil
Porosity

Porosity
Ratio of volume of pore space (void space) to bulk volume of
rock

Porosity indicated how much fluid a rock can hold

Almost all oil and as produced today comes from the

accumulation in the pores of reservoir rocks[1]

Symbol φ
Units Fraction or %
Source Logs, cores
Fig 5.1, Diagram of Rock Matrix comprising
of sand grains and pore spaces
Porosity

Porosity = φ = Vp / Vb
or
φ = (Vb – Vma) / Vb

Vp = Volume of pore
Vb = Volume of bulk
Vma = Volume of matrix

Good porosity ~ 30%

Low porosity < 10%

Fig 5.12, Variation in porosities in various rock types [4]

Porosity Type
Primary Porosity
Porosity characteristics which
exists in a rock formation
since it was originally
developed

Secondary Porosity
Porosity characteristics as they
have been changed either by
action of formation water or
tectonic forces on the matrix
[1]

Fig 5.13, Poorly sorted sand. Grains are light gray,

whilst pores are dark grey [2]
Porosity Classification
Effective Porosity
Pores are interconnected and allow flow of fluid out of formation through
a flow path

Φe = Interconnected pore space / Bulk volume

Ineffective Porosity
Pores are not interconnected making it difficult or impossible to extract
fluid

(a (b)
)
Fig 5.14, Illustration of ineffective (a) and effective (b)
porosity in a reservoir.
Permeability

Permeability
is the measure of the area with which a fluid
flows through the connecting pore spaces
of the formation

Symbol k
Source Well tests, core
analysis
Units Darcy, or mD
Range 0.001md –
10,000 md

Fig 5.2 (right), Illustration of porosity and

permeability within the reservoir volume [3]
© British Geological survey
Permeability

k P
Q  A
u L
No universal relationship exists between
porosity and permeability!
Permeability Values

k < 1 md Poor
1 < k < 10 md Fair
10 <k < 50 md Moderate
50 < k < 250 md Good
250< k Very good
Net Pay Thickness

Net Pay Thickness

Total thickness of all productive (hydrocarbon
bearing) layers in communication with the well

Symbol h
Units feet, meters
Source Logs
Net / Gross Evaluation

Shale

hi
h1 Sand

H
Shale
N /G  i1
 Net Re servoir
H GrossInterval
h2 Sand

Shale

Fig 5.3, Illustration of net reservoir layers and gross

formations
Saturation

Saturation
Fraction of pore volume occupied by a particular fluid.
The pores of the formation may be filled with either
water, oil or gas.

Symbo So, Sw, Sg

l
Units Fraction or %
Source Logs
Saturation

Connate water is
residual water
stuck on pore walls
of hydrocarbon
layer, therefore Sw
≠ 0%

Fig 5.4, Illustration of water-wet and oil-wet

reservoir rocks
Saturation

Sum of hydrocarbon and water Saturation must equal to 1 or 100%[1]

• Sw + So + Sg = 1

• Sw = Vw / Vp

• So = Vo / Vp

• Sg = 1 – Sw - So
Saturation versus Depth

• In a reservoir the hydrocarbon layer is above the water

layer
• There typically is a transition zone (1 m -10 m)
• Generally the lower the permeability of the reservoir rock
the longer the transition interval.
Gas
Transition
Zone
Transition
Zone
Oil
Depth

Transition
Zone

Water

0 Water Saturation 1
Fig 5.42, Illustration of saturation transition along reservoir
Total Hydrocarbon Volume

N
HCVOL  A H     Sh
G
GrossRockVolume(GRV )  A H
N
NetRockVolume(NRV )  GRV 
G
PoreVolume  NRV 
Re servoirHCIIP  NRV    (1 Sw)
References

1. Hunt. J M (1996), Petroleum Geochemistry and Geology [W.H.Freeman and Co]

2. Ingrain (2011), Ingrain digital rock physics lab, Porosity, http://www.ingrainrocks.com/porosity/

Retrieved 04th February 2010

3. British geological survey ( date unknown), The Scottish government,

http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2009/04/28114540/6 Retrieved 6th May 2010

4. Adini A (2011), Porous is permeable but permeable may not be porous , Environmental
Enlightenment No. 143, http://www.amiadini.com/NewsletterArchive/110128-NL143/envEnl-
143.html Retrieved 6th May 2010
 Class Tutorial
What do you understand from the following terms:

 GRV

 NRV

 N/G

 HPV

 HCIIP
 Class Tutorial

1)The bulk volume of a limestone core sample is 60 cm3 and

the pore volume is 20 cm3. Calculate the porosity of this
core.

2)A cylindrical core sample (Radius 1.25 cm, Length 5cm)

accumulates brine of density 1200kg/m3 (1.2 g/cm3).
Weight of dry core = 66.2g
Weight of saturated core = 71.5g

Calculate the porosity for this core.

 Class Tutorial

When water flows through a cylindrical core at 1cm3/s, the

resulting pressure difference is 10 atm. The water in this
experiment has a viscosity of 1cp. Calculate the
permeability of the core.
Refer to diagram for core dimensions

Q=1 r=2.54
cm3/s cm

L= 30
cm * 1 Pascal-second = 1000 centipoises
References

1. D.L. Baars et al (1993), Petroleum: a primer for Kansas, p.2

,http://www.kgs.ku.edu/Publications/Oil/primer02.html, Retrived on 1st April 2011

2. Tissot and Welete (1984), Definitions of primary and secondary migration

3. Al-Maskery. I (2009), Introduction to Petroleum Engineering: Origin of Oil and Gas (MIOG2140 – course
handout), [Higher College of Technology: Muscat]

4. Dutch (1997) Structural Traps, http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/EarthSC102Notes/102ROCKS.HTM, Retrieved on

1st April 2011

5. Mineral Information Institute (2011), Mineral Photos – limestone, http://www.mii.org/Minerals/photolime.html,

Retrieved on 20th May 2011

6. Answers in Creation (undated), Sedimentary rocks,

http://www.answersincreation.org/curriculum/geology/geology_chapter_6.htm, Retrieved on 3rd April 2011

7. Hyne. J (2001), Non-Technical guide to Petroleum Geology, Exploration, Drilling and Production, 2nd Ed,
[Penwell Corporation]

8. Webster. David (1997), Understanding Geology [ Oliver and Boyd]

 References
1. Hyne. J (2001), Non-Technical guide to Petroleum Geology, Exploration, Drilling and Production, 2nd Ed,
[Penwell Corporation]

2. Webster. David (1997), Understanding Geology [ Oliver and Boyd]

3. Borden’s Blog (2011), Rock Cycle, http://mrborden.wordpress.com/2011/02/28/rock-cycle Retrieved

on 16th May 2011

4. Oracle Thinkquest (2011), Igenous Rocks, http://library.thinkquest.org/05aug/00461/igneous.htm ,

Retrieved on 17th May 2011

5. Steve Mattox (1990), Minerals, Magmas and volcanic rocks,

http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/vwdocs/vwlessons/rocks.html , Retrieved on 1st April 2011

6. Dutch (1997) Structural Traps, http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/EarthSC102Notes/102ROCKS.HTM,

Retrieved on 1st April 2011
1.5 Reservoir Fluids
Reservoir Fluids
At the end of this section, you will be able to:

 Understand what is petroleum?

 Understand the importance of fluid phase behavior
 Define the terms bubble point, dew point
 List the five types of reservoir fluids, explain their
differences, and explain how to distinguish them using
initial production data
 Understand, define and API gravity of the fluids.
 Understand and define oil and gas PVT

82
What is Petroleum ?
What is Petroleum?
 Petroleum is …
 a mixture of naturally occurring hydrocarbons
which may exist in solid, liquid, or gaseous
states, depending upon the conditions or
pressure and temperature to which it is
subjected.
 Virtually all petroleum is produced from the
earth in either liquid or gaseous form
 They are referred to as crude oil or natural gas
83
What is Petroleum ?
What is Petroleum?
 Petroleum consists chemically of
approximately 11 to 13 wt% hydrogen
and 84 to 87 wt % carbon
 About 1% traces of oxygen, sulfur,
nitrogen and helium may be found as
impurities in crude petroleum

84
Petroleum Chemistry
Chemistry

Hydrocarbon

• Oil and gas are made of a mixture of

different hydrocarbons.

• As the name suggests these are large

molecules made up of hydrogen atoms
attached to a backbone of carbon.
Crude Oil
Total HC Mixture Composition (mol%)
Dry Wet Retrograde Volatile Black
Component
Gas Gas Gas Cond. Oil Oil
C1 96.30 88.7 72.7 66.7 52.6
C2 3.00 6.0 10.0 9.0 5.0
C3 0.40 3.0 6.0 6.0 3.5
i-C4 0.07 0.5 1.0 0.8 0.7
n-C4 0.10 0.8 1.5 2.5 1.1
i-C5 0.02 0.3 0.8 0.8 0.4
n-C5 0.02 0.3 1.0 1.2 0.4
C6 0.02 0.2 2.0 2.0 0.9
C7+ 0.00 0.2 5.0 11.0 27.9

plus inorganics: N2, CO2, H2O, H2S

86
Total HC Mixture Composition (mol%)
Dry Gas Wet Gas Retrograde Gas Condensate

C1
C5
C2
C6
C3
C7+
C4

Volatile Oil Black Oil

87
88
89
 TypicalTypical
CrudeCrude Oil Fractions
Oil Fractions
Boiling or Chemical
Crude fraction melting point, composition Uses
degree C

Hydrocarbon gases <-10 C1-C4 Natural gas, bottled fuel gas

Petroleum ether C5-C6 Solvent, paint thinner, cleaner

<70

Gasoline 70-200 C7-C8 Motor fuel, solvent

Kerosene 200-300 C10-C16 Diesel, jet fuel, illuminating oil

Light gas oil 300-450 C16-C30 Lubricating oil, mineral oil, transformer oil

Heavy gas oil 450-600 C30-C50 Lubricating oil, bunker fuel, road oil

Residue >600 C80+ Tars, asphalts, bitumens, waxes, roofing

compounds, resins, wood preservatives, coke

Petrochemicals,
One Barrel = 42 gallons other products - 6.2 gallons90
 At the
At the Refinery ... Refinery
Distillation
Plant
Car fuel
Oil refinery
Jet fuel

Road tar
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Crude_Oil_Distillation.png

 Before it can be used crude oil must be refined.

 Hydrocarbons can be separated using distillation, which
 produces different fractions (or types) of oil and gas
 Hydrocarbon Uses
Hydrocarbons Uses
•84% of crude oil is refined into fuel, principally for cars
and planes

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Lilit.jpg
Food additives
CDs and DVDs

Plastic Fertilizers and

Pesticides

• The remaining 16% of crude oil is used for a range of purposes

shown above as well as synthetic fibres, dyes and detergents
NaturalNatural
Gas Terminology
Gas Terminology
Methane
LNG
Ethane
Propane
LPG
Butane
Pentane NGL
Natural Gas and heavier: “Pentane Plus”
Well Stream “Natural Gasoline”
“Condensate”
“Naptha”

Non Hydrocarbons
Water, Carbon dioxide, Nitrogen
Hydrogen Sulphide, Argon, Mercury

LPG : Liquefied Petroleum Gas

NGL : Natural Gas Liquids
LNG : Liquefied Natural Gas 93
What is P-V-T ? What is

PRESSURE VOLUME TEMPERATURE RELATIONS

Studying changes in Hydrocarbon behaviour with

changes in either or in a combination of pressures,
volumes and temperatures

94
Why P-V-T ?Why PVT?
Most of petroleum engineering calculations require PVT
data. Amount of the data required depends on the process.

• To estimate hydrocarbons in place and

reserves
• To understand reservoir processes and to
predict reservoir behavior
• To identify processing requirements
• To identify markets
95
Fluid Properties
Fluid Properties
• Compressibility
• Fluid Densities
• Fluid Viscosities
• Solution Gas/Oil Ratio (Rs)
• Fluid Formation Volume Factors (FVF)
• Bubble point pressure
• Dew Point Pressure
• Gas and Oil Compositions and properties
• Depending on ...
– Pressure, Temperature, Composition

96
Solution gas
dissolved in
liquid at high
pressure

97
Reduction in
pressure
causes liquid
expansion…

98
Below the
Bubble-Point
pressure all
gas escapes
and liquid
shrinks

99
 Solution
Solution Gas/Oil
Oil/Gas Ratio (Rs)
Ratio

• It an important property of oils is the amount of “gas

in solution” (Rs) available at every pressure level:
– Definition - volume of gas which comes out of the oil as it
moves from reservoir temperature and pressure to
standard temperature and pressure
– Units - cubic feet of total surface gas at standard
conditions per barrel of stock-tank oil at standard
conditions, scf/STB

100
 Oil Oil Formation
Formation Volume
Volume Factor
Factor
•Three things happen to oil reservoirs as it is
produced to the surface:
1. Loses mass - gas comes out of solution on trip to
surface
2. Contracts - temperature decrease from reservoir
temperature to 60F
3. Expands - pressure decreases from reservoir
pressure to atmospheric pressure

101
Formation Volume
Formation FactorFactor
Volume
• There is a change in volume between downhole
conditions and the surface.
• The volume of the fluid at reference conditions is
described by the Formation Volume Factor:
FVF =
Volume at downhole Conditions
Volume at reference Conditions
– Bo = formation volume factor for oil.
– Bw = formation volume factor for water.
– Bg = formation volume factor for gas.
102
 Oil and Gas PVT
Oil & Gas PVT
Bo
• Highest at the bubble point.
•Below the bubble point, some
1.3

1.2
rm3/sm3

1.1
gas has come out of solution so
1
the remaining liquid has shrunk
0 100 200
P3b00
pressure - bar

Bg

0.06

•Bg increases rapidly below

rm3/sm3

0.04

0.02
the bubble point pressure.
0
0 100 200 300 •Gas is highly compressible
pressure - bar Pb 103
 Oil and Gas PVT
Oil & Gas PVT
•Oil viscosity it at a minimum at oil viscosity
the bubble point.
3
•Below the bubble point 2.8

pressure, gas (the small, light

cp
2.6
2.4
molecules) has come out of
2.2
solution, leaving the larger, longer 0 100 200
Pb 300

molecules behind. pressure - bar

•The solution gas oil ratio is largest Rs

at or above the bubble point 100
pressure (all of the gas in in 80
sm3/sm3
solution). 60
40

•As the pressure falls, some of the 20

0
gas comes out of solution, so there 0 100 200 300
pressure - bar Pb 104
is less gas left in solution.
 Reservoir and Surface
Reservoir & Surface Volume Volumes

Surface

Oil reservoir

GOR behaviour
Reservoir Boi

105
 Reservoir
Reservoir and Surface
& Surface VolumeVolumes

1 m3

Rp m3

Rs m3
Bg m3

Bo m3
1 m3

Bw m3 1 m3
RESERVOIR SURFACE 106
Reservoir & and
Reservoir Surface Volume
Surface - BoBo
Volumes-
scf

Separator
scf

Stock
tank

STB

Bo = res bbl oil

STB
res bbl
Oil p > pb

Oil Formation Factor (Bo) - volume of reservoir oil at reservoir conditions required
to produce one standard volume of stock tank oil
107
Reservoir & Surface
Reservoir Volume
and Surface - Rs Rs
Volumes-
scf

Rsb

Separator
scf

Stock
tank

STB

res bbl
Oil p > pb

Solution Gas Oil Ratio (Rs) - volume of gas which comes out of the oil as it
moves from reservoir temperature and pressure to standard temperature and
pressure 108
 Reservoir & and
Reservoir Surface Volume
Surface - BgBg
Volumes-
scf
Bg
scf Rsb

Separator
scf

Stock
tank

STB

Gas res bbl

res bbl
Oil p > pb

Gas Formation Factor (Bg) - volume of reservoir gas at reservoir conditions

109
required to produce one standard volume of stock tank oil
 Reservoir Conditions Surface Conditions
Bubble Point
2-5 Km deep Pressure Ambient Pressure &
High Pressure & Temp Temp

Gas
Reservoir

Oil
Oil

Water

Dew Point
Pressure
Gas Condensate

Gas
Reservoir

Water
 StockInitially
Stock Tank Tank Initially Place
in Place

Net Rock Volume (NRV)= Sand

= GRV x NTG Shaley sand
Shale
Pore Volume = Net Reservoir
= NRV   

Hydrocarbon Volume =
= NRV   (1-Scw)

Hydrocarbon Initially In Place =


NRV   (1-Sw)
= Boi 111
Types of Oil Types of Oil
• Oil – Oil contains dissolved gas that comes out
of solution when the oil is brought to the
surface.
– Saturated oil- Oil at or below the bubble point.
Volume decreases as the pressure drops.
– Udersaturated oil – can dissolve more gas. Volume
of the oil increases as the pressure drops until the
bubble point (the oil becomes saturated)

112
 Specific Gravity
Specificof Oil of Oil
Gravity
Specific gravity of a crude oil is defined as the ratio of the density of
the oil and the density of water at specified pressure and temperature
conditions:



o o

w
Both densities measured at the same
temperature and pressure, usually 60F and
atmospheric pressure
113
 API GravityAPI
of Oil
Gravity of Oil
Besides specific gravity, it is customary in the petroleum industry to
use another gravity scale known as API (American Petroleum Institute),
which has been defined as:

∘ 141.5
API   131.5
o

• This definition gives hydrometers a linear scale for

measurement. Based on API of crude oils, a gross
classification of crude oils as light (high API), medium,
heavy and extra heavy (low API) is used
114
Crude OilCrude
Classification
Oil Classification
• Crude Oil is classified according gravity, measured in
°API.
– Light: °API > 31.1
– Medium: 31.1 > °API > 22.3
– Heavy: 22.3 > °API > 10.0

115
Specific Specific
Gravity Gravity
of Gas Of Gas

• Gas specific gravities are calculated as the ratio of

gas density to the density of air, both measured at
the same temperature and pressure, usually 60F
and atmospheric pressure

g
 
g
 a ir
116
Gas Gravity Gas Gravity
• Gas gravity g 
Density of gas at atmospheric conditions
Density of air at atmospheric conditions

• Always related to air = 1.0

M
g 
29

– M = average molecular weight of gas mixture

– 29 = average molecular weight of air

• Only gas rich in CO2 or H2S will have gas

gravity > 1.0 117
Fluid Properties
Fluid Properties
The Five Reservoir Fluids
• Black-Oil
• Volatile Oil
• Gas Condensate
• Wet Gas
• Dry Gas

118
 Identification
Identification of ReservoirFluids
of Reservoir Fluids
Identification of fluid type can be confirmed by
laboratory analysis, which will describe the phase
behavior of the fluid in terms.
– initial producing gas-oil ratio (GORi)
– gravity of the stock-tank liquid (°API)

119
 Reservoir
Reservoir Fluids Fluids
– Black Oil

Black-Oil:
• also called ‘low shrinkage’ oil
• initial producing GOR is 20-450 m3/m3 or less, but
increasing during production, when below Pb
• Stock-tank oil is usually below 45 °API
• Oil Formation Volume Factor (Boi) will be less than
2 res bbl/STB
• C7+ higher than 20 mol %
120
PhasePhase Diagram
Diagram - Black
– Black Oil Oil
400
Undersaturated Oil
Pressure [bar]

300 Pressure
at OGOC
Saturated Oil

200 Critical
LIQUID Point

100 Abandonment
Separator % liquid
50
75 25
0 10
-100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Temperature in degree C
121
ReservoirThe Five Reservoir
Fluids – VolatileFluids
Oil

Volatile Oil:
• also called ‘high shrinkage’ oils or near critical oil
• initial producing GOR will be +/- 450 and increasing
during production.
• Stock-tank oil is above 40 °API
• Oil Formation Volume Factor (Boi) will be greater
than 2 res bbl/STB
• C7+ between 12.5 and 20 mol %
122
 Phase
Phase Diagram
Diagram - Volatile
– Volatile OilOil
400 Initial
Conditions
Pressure [bar]

300 Bubble Point

LIQUID
200

100 % liquid
Abandonment
75 50 25
Separator 10 GAS
0
-100 0 100 200 300 400 500
Temperature in degree C
123
ReservoirThe Five Reservoir
Fluids Fluids
– Gas Condensate
Gas Condensate
• reservoir temperature is higher than the critical
temperature
• Initially all gas in the reservoir. As pressure drops, the
retrograde gas exhibits a dew point and liquid
condenses (typically not movable).
• initial producing GOR will be between 500-18000
m3/m3.
• Stock-tank oil is between 50 and 70 °API.
• C7+ less than 12.5 mol %
124
Phase Diagram – Retrograde Gas Condensate

300 Initial
Conditions
Pressure [bar]

200 LIQUID

Critical
100 Point Maximum
Liquid
Saturation
% liquid Abandonment
Separator 2
10 1
GAS
0
-100 0 100 200 300
Temperature in degree C
125
 The Five–Reservoir
Phase Diagram Wet & Fluids
Dry Gas
• Wet Gas:
– All gas in the reservoir. Produces liquids at surface
conditions
– producing GOR will be more than 18000 m3/m3 and will
remain constant during the life of the reservoir
– Stock-tank oil is between 60 and 70 °API remaining
constant.
• Dry Gas:
– Primarily methane with some intermediates.
– No liquids formed
126
PhasePhase Diagram
Diagram - Wet
– Wet Gas Gas
150 Initial
Conditions
Pressure [bar]

100 Critical
Point

LIQUID
50 Separator
10
2 Abandonment
1
% liquid
GAS
0
-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150
Temperature in degree C
127
PhasePhase
Diagram – Dry- Gas
Diagram Dry Gas
150 Initial
Conditions

100

LIQUID
50 % liquid
Separator
10
Abandonment
1
0.5
GAS
0
-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150
Temperature in degree C
128
 Classification
Classification of Reservoir
of Reservoir Fluids
Fluids
GOR Range, Liquid API
Fluid Type
m 3 /m 3 Gravity
Black Oils 20-450 30-40

Volatile Oils + / - 450 40-50

Gas-condensates 500-18000 50-70

Wet Gases >18000 60-70

Dry Gases No Liquid

129
 Modular
Tutorial Formation Dynamics Tester
1. For a volatile oil reservoir, identify the area in the phase diagram
which best describes the fluid phase inside the separator.

2. Compare the phases of fluid inside the separator between a wet

gas and dry gas reservoir.

3. Determine the reservoir fluid type with a GOR of 20,000.

130
 Modular
Tutorial Formation Dynamics Tester

4. The specific gravity of a sample of crude oil is 0.893. Calculate the API gravity.
Determine the classification of the crude oil.

5. Calculate the total Hydrocarbon Volume inside a reservoir with an estimated

volume of 5 km3. The hydrocarbon saturation of this reservoir is 0.64 and the
effective porosity is 0.3. The total depth of the producing layers is 3000m and the
total depth of the reservoir is 4500m.

131
Tutorial

6. A soil sample has a weight of 0.7 kg and the volume was found to be
3.5 × 10-4 m³ After drying out the weight was reduced to 0.6 kg. The particle specific
gravity test gave 2.6.

• Determine the following:

a) Bulk Density
b) Volume to Soil matrix
c) Pore Volume
d) Saturation of Water
e) Porosity of the Soil

132
References
Hadhramy, Hamed (Visiting Lecturer), 2010, Introduction to
Petroleum Engineering, Course-Handouts, Higher College of
Technology Introduction to Petroleum Engineering.

133
1.6 Petroleum Production
This chapter is prepared by former visiting lecturer,
Dr Hamad al Hadhramy, PDO - for the course
Introduction to Petroleum Engineering
 Reservoir

Well

Gas

Typical height Oil

1-100s m

Water

Typical Width 0.1 to 10 km

Ghawar Field in Saudii 280 km * 30 km

135
 Measurement of Downhole Pressures
RFT (Repeat Formation Tester)

Gas
Purpose
•Measures Formation GOC
pressure with depth
•Formation fluids Oil
•Contacts (OGC, OWC)
•Can also identify pressure OWC
of non communicating
regions (Shales and faults) Water

Pressure

136
 Log Evaluation
42 Neutron (lpu) 18
0 GR (API) 150 2.0 Density (g/cc) 3.0 0.2 Resistivity (m) 20
2050

2100
GOC

OWC
2150

13 7
2200
 Measurement of Downhole Pressures

< 2.9 kPa/m: gas

Gas:~2 kPa/m 2.9 - 6.8 kPa/m condensate
6.8 - 9.7 kPa oil
9.7 - 11.8 kPa water
Depth

Gas Oil Contact Oil : ~8 kPa/m

Oil Water Contact

Water : ~10 kPa/m

Pressure
138
 Definitions
PRIMARY RECOVERY
Utilizing the natural energy existing in the reservoir to produce the fluids.
For example, energy from natural water drive, solution-gas drive, gas
cap drive or rock expansion are primary recovery methods.

SECONDARY RECOVERY
Implemented after primary production declined. Secondary recovery processes include
waterflooding and gas injection. In secondary recovery additional energy is added to
the reservoir system by injection of fluids (water or gas). Waterflooding is the
predominant secondary recovery method.

TERTIARY RECOVERY
Starts after secondary recovery (after waterflooding). Includes various
processes (miscible processes, chemical, thermal energy) to displace
additional oil after secondary recovery processes became uneconomical.

139
 Production Types

Tertiary
Recovery

0.6-0.8

Secondary

0.25-0.55
Primary
0.02-0.2

30
Time (years)

140
 Drive Mechanisms and Recovery Techniques

• The force that is responsible for “driving” the oil towards the well bore is
the pressure difference between the reservoir and the well bore.
• The mechanisms that support reservoir pressure when oil is being
produced, thus supporting the displacement of the oil, are:

1. The expansion of solution gas as it comes out of solution.

2. The expansion of the gas cap as the reservoir pressure falls.
3. The expansion of the water in the aquifer.

• The reduction of pore volume by rock compaction are in most oil reservoirs
virtually insignificant. Compaction as a drive mechanism is mostly
associated with gas reservoirs.

• The three main drive mechanisms can work independently or together (for
example, if there is a gas cap and un aquifer). We’ll look how each of these
drive mechanisms works. 141
 Recovery Processes
Primary / Natural
Fluid Expansion Gas Cap Drive

Solution Gas Drive

Natural Water Drive

142
Recovery Processes
Primary / Natural

Solution Gas Drive

143
 Solution Gas Drive Reservoir

Initial Conditions
Pi>Pb

144
Solution Gas Drive Reservoir

Pr<Pb

145
Recovery Processes
Primary / Natural
Gas Cap Drive

146
Gas Cap Drive Reservoir

GOC

OWC

147
 Recovery Processes
Primary / Natural

Natural Water Drive

148
Water Drive Reservoir

OWC

149
 Recovery Processes
Secondary / Supplementary
Pressure Support (Water / Gas Injection)

Gas Injection

Supplement natural drive energy

Water Injection

150
Secondary Recovery - Gas Injection

GOC

OWC

151
Secondary Recovery - Water Injection Reservoir

GOC

OWC OWC

152
Recovery Processes
Tertiary / Enhanced

e.g.
steam
polymer
surfactant
Etc,
153
 CLASSIFICATION OF EOR PROCESSES

• In tertiary recovery, the physics of the

displacement is changed.

EOR processes can be classified into the following categories:

– Mobility-control Processes
– Chemical Processes
– Miscible Processes
– Thermal Recovery

154
 MOBILITY-CONTROL PROCESSES

Mobility-control processes aim to:

– Increase the water viscosity.
Polymer is injected in the water to make it more viscous. If
water is almost as viscous as oil, oil is “pushed” towards the
producing wells more efficiently.

155
Water flooding Water flooding
 CHEMICAL FLOODING
– requires the injection of chemicals into a reservoir
that react with petroleum acids to form surfactants
that help release the oil from the rock by reducing
interfacial tension, changing the rock surface
wettability.
– The oil can then be more easily moved through the
reservoir to production wells.

156
 MISCIBLE PROCESSES

Aim to inject fluids that are directly miscible with oil or

generate miscibility in the reservoir.

For example, miscible (mix-able) gas like carbon

dioxide, nitrogen, is injected into the reservoir. When
these gases are injected, they dissolve back into the
oil, causing the oil volume to expand and to become
less viscous. The expanded and less viscous oil can
then be displaced toward the well bore.

157
 THERMAL RECOVERY

Rely on the injection of

thermal energy
– Thermal energy will
reduce the oil
viscosity
Examples:
• Steam injection,

158
http://www.prlog.org/11510383-cone-steam-injection-flow-meter-supports-enhanced-oil-recovery-eor.html
Reserves
 Field Life Cycle

1. Discovery
2. Appraisal
3. Development
4. Plateau
5. Decline
6. Abandonment

160
 Reserve Definition
•The term reserves is used for resource volumes associated with a
project that is technically and commercially mature.

•Resource volumes that do not meet these criteria are called scope
for recovery (SFR).

•Proved reserves are the portion of reserves that is reasonably

certain to be produced.

• Developed Reserves - are the portion of reserves that has been produced.
Developed reserves must be producible through currently existing completions,
with installed facilities, using existing operating methods.

• Undeveloped Reserves - Undeveloped reserves require capital investment

through future projects (new wells and/or production facilities) in order to be
produced.
161
 STOIIP Equation

Mapping Average Well Data

Determines the “Stock Tank Oil

STOIIP  GRVO X (N /G)O X  X SO Initially In Place”. The
O stock tank means at standard
conditions, typically 1 bar and
15oC.
PVT

• Only producible hydrocarbon are reserves

Recovery Factor= Ultimate Recovery/STOIIP • Production with current technology
• Reserves must be economic
RF=UR/STOIIP • Required investment
• Operating Cost

162