CS0001A

Introduction to Computing
Lecture 3: Computer architecture

Dr Malcolm Clarke

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 Lecture Outline
• What is computer architecture
• What is machine language
• What are arithmetic/logic
instructions
• How programs are executed
• How to communicate with other
devices
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 Learning Outcomes
After this lecture you will be able to
• understand the concepts of
– Computer architecture
– Machine language
– Arithmetic/Logic Instructions
• have an idea how a program is actually
executed

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 Review: Bits and Bit Patterns
• Bit: Binary Digit (0 or 1)
• Bit Patterns are used to represent
information.
– Numbers
– Text characters
– Images
– Sound
– And others

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 Review: Boolean Operations
• Boolean Operation: An operation that
manipulates one or more true/false
values
• Specific operations
– AND
– OR
– XOR (exclusive or)
– NOT

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Review: The Boolean operations AND, OR,
and XOR (exclusive or)

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Review: Gates and a pictorial representation
• Gate: A device that
computes a Boolean
operation
– Often
implemented as
(small) electronic
circuits
– Provide the
building blocks
from which
computers are
constructed
– VLSI (Very Large
Scale Integration)

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 Review: Hexadecimal notation and
the hexadecimal coding system
• Hexadecimal
notation:
– A shorthand
notation for long
bit patterns
– Divides a pattern
into groups of four
bits each
– Represents each
group by a single
symbol
• Example: 10100011
becomes A3
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Review: Memory cells arranged
by address

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 Computer Architecture
• Central Processing Unit (CPU) or
processor
– Control unit
– Arithmetic/Logic unit (ALU)
– Registers
• General purpose
• Special purpose
• Bus
• Motherboard
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 CPU and main memory
connected via a bus

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 Stored Program Concept and
terminologies
• All computers are based on Machine instruction: An instruction
the ideas of John von (or command) encoded as a bit
Neumann and Alan Turing pattern recognizable by the CPU.
in 1945 The types include
• A program can be encoded ‐ Data Transfer: copy data from one
as bit patterns and stored location to another
in main memory. ‐ Arithmetic/Logic: use existing bit
• From there, the CPU can patterns to compute a new bit
then extract the patterns
instructions and execute ‐ Control: direct the execution of
them. the program
• In turn, the program to be Machine language: The set of all
executed can be altered instructions recognized by a
easily. machine
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Example: Add two values stored in memory

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 Machine Instruction
• Op-code: Specifies which operation to execute
• Operand: Gives more detailed information about
the operation
– Interpretation of operand varies
– depending on op-code

• What does 35A7 mean?

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A Simple Machine Language (non-unique)
Op-code Operand Description
1 RXY LOAD reg. R from cell XY.
2 RXY LOAD reg. R with XY.
3 RXY STORE reg. R at XY.
4 0RS MOVE R to S.
5 RST ADD S and T into R. (2’s comp.)
6 RST ADD S and T into R. (floating pt.)
7 RST OR S and T into R.
8 RST AND S and T into R.
9 RST XOR S and T into R.
A R0X ROTATE reg. R X times.
B RXY JUMP to XY if R = reg. 0.
C 000 HALT.

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Decoding the instruction 35A7

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 An encoded version of the
instructions for addition

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 Program Execution
• Controlled by two special-purpose
registers
– Program counter: address of next
instruction
– Instruction register: current instruction
• Machine Cycle
– Fetch
– Decode
– Execute

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 The machine cycle

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 The “addition” program stored in main
memory ready for execution

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Performing the fetch step of the
machine cycle: I

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Performing the fetch step of
the machine cycle: II

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 Communication with other devices:
controllers attached to a machine’s bus

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 Communicating with other devices:
types and data communication rates
• Parallel Communication: Several communication
paths transfer bits simultaneously.
• Serial Communication: Bits are transferred one
after the other over a single communication path.
• Measurement units
– Bps: Bits per second
– Kbps: Kilo-bps (1,000 bps)
– Mbps: Mega-bps (1,000,000 bps)
– Gbps: Giga-bps (1,000,000,000 bps)
• Bandwidth: Maximum available rate

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 Other Architectures
• Technologies to increase throughput:
– Pipelining: Overlap steps of the machine
cycle
– Parallel Processing: Use multiple
processors simultaneously (I: instruction,
D: data)
• SISD: No parallel processing
• MIMD: Different programs, different data
• SIMD: Same program, different data

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 Next Lecture

• Next lecture: Operating systems

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