Chapter 3

RELATIONAL ALGEBRA AND CALCULUS

 Introduction
• A data model must include a set of operations to manipulate the
database, in addition to the data model's concepts for defining
database structure and constraints.
• The basic set of operations for the relational model is the relational
algebra.
– These operations enable a user to specify basic retrieval requests.
• The result of a retrieval is a new relation, which may have been
formed from one or more relations
• A sequence of relational algebra operations forms a relational
algebra expression,
– whose result will also be a relation that represents the result of a database
query (or retrieval request)
• The relational algebra is very important for several reasons because.
– it provides a formal foundation for relational model operations.
– some of its concepts are incorporated into the SQL standard query language for
RDBMSs.
• The operations of the relational algebra can be divided in to two
groups. These are
1. Set operations from mathematical set theory; these are applicable
because each relation is defined to be a set of tuples in the formal
relational model.
– Set operations include UNION, INTERSECTION, SET DIFFERENCE, and
CARTESIAN PRODUCT
2. The other group consists of operations developed specifically for
relational databases-these include SELECT,PROJECT, and JOIN.
• SELECT and PROJECT operations are unary operations that operate
on single relations.
• Some common database requests cannot be performed with the
original relational algebra operations, so additional operations were
created to express these requests.
– These include aggregate functions, which are operations that can summarize
data from the tables, as well as additional types of JOIN and UNION operations.
 UNARY RELATIONAL OPERATIONS:SELECT AND PROJECT

The select operation:

• The SELECT operation is used to select a subset of the
tuples from a relation that satisfy a selection condition
• It keeps only those tuples that satisfy a qualifying
condition
• The SELECT operation can also be visualized as a horizontal
partition of the relation into two sets of tuples-those tuples
that satisfy the condition and are selected, and those
tuples that do not satisfy the condition and are discarded.
example1: to select the EMPLOYEE tuples whose
department is 4, or those whose salary is greater than
$30,000, we specify with SELECT as
σDNO=4 (EMPLOYEE) OR σ SALARY>30000(EMPLOYEE )

Example 2: to select the tuples for all employees who either

work in department 4 and make over $25,000 per year,
or work in department 5 and make over $30,000, we can
specify the following SELECT operation:

σ(DNO=4 AND SALARY>25000) OR (DNO=5 AND SALARY>

30000)(EMPLOYEE)
• In general, the SELECT operation is denoted by
σ<selection condition>(R),
• where the symbol σ (sigma) is used to denote the SELECT operator,
and the selection condition is a Boolean expression specified on the
attributes of relation R.
• The relation resulting from the SELECT operation has the same
attributes as R
• The Boolean expression specified in <selection condition> is made up
of a number of clauses of the form :
<attribute name> <comparison op> <constant value>,
• where <attribute name> is the name of an attribute of R,
<comparison op> is normally one of the operators {=, <=, >=)}, and
<constant value> is a constant value from the attribute domain.
• Clauses can be arbitrarily connected by the Boolean operators AND,
OR, and NOT to form a general selection condition
For example
• To select the tuples for all employees who either work in department
4 and make over $25,000 per year, or work in department 5 and
make over $30,000, we can specify the following SELECT operation:
σ (DNO=4 AND SALARY>25000) OR (DNO=5 AND SALARY>30000)(EMPLOYEE)
• In general, the result of a SELECT operation can be determined as
follows.
• The <selection condition> is applied
independently to each tuple t in R.
• This is done by substituting each occurrence of
an attribute Ai in the selection condition with its
value in the tuple t[Ai].
• If the condition evaluates to TRUE, then tuple t
is selected.
• All the selected tuples appear in the result of the
SELECT operation.
• The Boolean conditions AND, OR, and NOT have their normal
interpretation, as follows:
– (condl AND cond2) is TRUE if both (cond l ) and (cond2) are TRUE; otherwise, it
is FALSE.
– (cond l OR cond2) is TRUE if either (cond l ) or (cond2) or both are TRUE;
otherwise, it is FALSE.
– (NOT cond) is TRUE if cond is FALSE; otherwise, it is FALSE.
• The SELECT operator is unary; that is, it is applied to a single relation
• The degree of the relation resulting from a SELECT operation-its
number of attributes-is the same as the degree of R.
• The number of tuples in the resulting relation is always less than or
equal to the number of tuples in R
• Notice that the SELECT operation is commutative; that is,
σ <cond1>(σ <cond2>(R)) = σ<cond2>(σ <cond1>(R))
 The project operation
• the SELECT operation selects some of the rows from the table while
discarding other rows.
• The PROJECT operation, on the other hand, selects certain columns
from the table and discards the other columns
• If we are interested in only certain attributes of a relation, we use the
PROJECT operation to project the relation over these attributes only
• The result of the PROJECT operation can hence be visualized as a
vertical partition of the relation into two relations: one has the
needed columns (attributes) and contains the result of the operation,
and the other contains the discarded columns.
• For example, to list each employee's first and last name and salary,
we can use the PROJECT operation as follows:
!LNAME, FNAME, SALARY( EMPLOYEE)
• The general form of the PROJECT operation is
!<attribute list> (R)
• where !" (pi) is the symbol used to represent the PROJECT
operation, and <attribute list> is the desired list of attributes from the
attributes of relation R
• The result of the PROJECT operation has only the attributes specified
in <attribute list> in the same order as they appear in the list.
– Hence, its degree is equal to the number of attributes in <attribute list>.
• The number of tuples in a relation resulting from a PROJECT
operation is always less than or equal to the number of tuples in R.
• In projection !<Iist1 > (!<list2>)) = ! <list1>(R) as long as <Iist 2>
contains the attributes in <list1 >; otherwise, the left-hand side is an
incorrect expression
– commutatively does not hold on PROJECT
 Sequences of Operations and the RENAME Operation

• we may want to apply several relational algebra operations one after

the other.
• Either we can write the operations as a single relational algebra
expression by nesting the operations, or we can apply one operation
at a time and create intermediate result relations.
• In the case of intermediate result , we must give names to the
relations that hold the intermediate results.
• For example: to retrieve the first name, last name, and salary of all
employees who work in department number 5, we must apply a
SELECT and a PROJECT operation.
• We can write a single relational algebra expression as follows:
! FNAME, LNAME, SALARY(σDNO=5 (EMPLOYEE))
• Alternatively, we can explicitly show the sequence of operations,
giving a name to each intermediate relation
DEP5_EMPSß σDNO=5 (EMPLOYEE)
RESULTß! FNAME, LNAME,SALARY (DEP5_EMPS)
Note:
• It is often simpler to break down a complex sequence of operations
by specifying intermediate result relations than to write a single
relational algebra expression
 RELATIONAL ALGEBRA OPERATIONS FROM SET THEORY

The UNION, INTERSECTION, and MINUS Operations

• These are standard mathematical operations on sets
• When these operations are adapted to relational databases, the two
relations on which any of these three operations are applied must
have the same type of tuples;
• This condition has been called union compatibility.
• Two relations R(A1, Az, ... , An) and S(B 1, Bz, ... , Bn) are said to be
union compatible if they have the same degree n and if dom(Ai) =
dom(Bi) for 1 <i<=n
• This means that the two relations have the same number of
attributes, and each corresponding pair of attributes has the same
domain.
UNION
• The result of this operation, denoted by R U S, is a relation
that includes all tuples that are either in R or in S or in
both R and S. Duplicate tuples are eliminated.
For example:
• to retrieve the social security numbers of all employees
who either work in department 5 or directly supervise an
employee who works in department 5, we can use the
UNION operation as follows:
DEP5_EMPSßσDNO=5 (EMPLOYEE)
RESULT1ß!SSN (DEP5_EMPS)
RESULT2 (SSN)ß !SUPERSSN (DEP5_EMPS)
RESULTß RESULT1 U RESULT2
• The relation RESULT1 has the social security
numbers of all employees who work in
department 5,
• whereas RESULT2 has the social security numbers
of all employees who directly supervise an
employee who works in department 5.
• The UNION operation produces the tuples that
are in either RESULT1 or RESULT2 or both.
• Note that the SSN value 333445555 appears only
once in the result.
Intersection:
• The result of this operation, denoted by R n S, is a relation that
includes all tuples that are in both Rand S.
Set difference (or MINUS)
• The result of this operation, denoted by R - S, is a relation that
includes all tuples that are in R but not in S.
• Figure 6,4 illustrates the three operations.
• The relations STUDENT and INSTRUCTOR in Figure 6,4a are union
compatible, and their tuples represent the names of students and
instructors, respectively.
• The result of the UNION operation in Figure 6,4b shows the names of
all students and instructors.
• Note that duplicate tuples appear only once in the result. The result
of the INTERSECTION operation (Figure 6,4c) includes only those who
are both students and instructors.
 The Cartesian Product
• The CARTESIAN PRODUCT operation-also known as CROSS PRODUCT
or CROSS JOIN-which is denoted by x
• This operation is used to combine tuples from two relations in a
combinatorial fashion.
• In general, the result of R(A j , Az, ... , An) X S(Bj , Bz, ... , Bm) is a
relation Q with degree n + m attributes Q(Aj , Az' ... , An' Bj , Bz, ... ,
Bm), in that order
• The resulting relation Q has one tuple for each combination of tuples-
one from R and one from S.
• Hence, if R has nR tuples (denoted as IRI = nR ), and S has ns tuples,
then Rx S will have nR * ns tuples.
 – For example, suppose that we want to retrieve a list of names of each female employee's
dependents

FEMALE_EMPSßσSEX=' F' (EMPLOYEE)

EMPNAMESß!FNAME, LNAME, SSN (FEMALE_EMPS)

EMP_DEPENDENTSßEMPNAMES X DEPENDENT

σ
ACTUAL_DEPENDENTSß SSN=ESSN (EMP_DEPENDENTS)

RESULTß!FNAME, LNAME, DEPENDENLNAME (ACTUAL_DEPENDENTS )

• In EMP_DEPENDENTS, every tuple from EMPNAMES is combined
with every tuple from DEPENDENT, giving a result that is not very
meaningful
• We want to combine a female employee tuple only with her
particular dependents-namely, the DEPENDENT tuples whose ESSN
values match the SSN value of the EMPLOYEE tuple
• The ACTUAL_DEPENDENTS relation accomplishes this.
 BINARY RELATIONAL OPERATIONS
The JOIN Operation
• The JOIN operation, denoted by Ɣ , is used to combine related tuples
from two relations into single tuples
• it allows us to process relationships among relations.
• Example: suppose that we want to retrieve the name of the manager
of each department
• To get the manager's name, we need to combine each department
tuple with the employee tuple whose SSN value matches the
MGRSSN value in the department tuple
• We do this by using the JOIN operation, and then projecting the
result over the necessary attributes, as follows
DEPT_MGRß DEPARTMENT Ɣ MGRSSN=SSN EMPLOYEE
RESULTß!DNAME, LNAME, FNAME (DEPT_MGR)
• Note: that MGRSSN is a foreign key and that the
referential integrity constraint plays a role in having
matching tuples in the referenced relation Employee .
• The result of the JOIN is a relation Q with n + m attributes Q(AI, Az, ...
, An' BI, B2, ... , Bm ) in that order; Q has one tuple for each
combination of tuples-one from R and one from S-whenever the
combination satisfies the join condition
• In JOIN, only combinations of tuples satisfying the join condition
appear in the result, whereas in the CARTESIAN PRODUCT all
combinations of tuples are included in the result
• This is the main difference between CARTESIAN PRODUCT and JOIN.
• Each tuple combination for which the join condition evaluates to
TRUE is included in the resulting relation Q as a single combined tuple