ALGEBRA

Laws of Exponent:
1. an = a x a x a….(n factors)
2. aman = am+n
am
3.  am  n
an
4. (am)n = amn
5. (ab)n = anbn
n
a am
6.    n
b a
m
7. a n  n am
1 1
8. am  m
also a  m 
a am
9. a 0  1, a  0
10. am  an , then m  n, provided a  0

Laws of Radicals:
1
1. n
a a n

2. n
an  a

3. n
am   an
m

4. n
ab  n a  n b
a na
5. n  , b0
b nb

Quadratic Equation:

ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a, b, c are all constants

The roots are:

 b  b 2  4ac
x
2a
 b  b 2  4ac  b  b 2  4ac
x1  and x2 
2a 2a
where: (b2 – 4ac) is called the discriminant

Nature of the roots:

1. If b2 – 4ac > 0, then the roots are real and unequal
2. If b2 – 4ac = 0, then the roots are real and equal (Perfect Trinomial Square)
3. If b2 – 4ac < 0, then the roots are imaginary and unequal (complex conjugates)

Sum of the roots: Product of the roots:

b c
x1  x 2   x1  x 2 
a a

Test of Factoring:
ax2 + bx + c is factorable if,
a.) b2 – 4ac = 0
b.) b2 – 4ac = perfect square

Remainder Theorem:
Remainder Theorem states that if a polynomial f(x) is divided by x – r; where r is
any constant until the remainder R that is free of x is obtained, this remainder is
equal to f(r).

Factor Theorem:
If x – r is a factor of f(x), then r is a root of f(x) = 0.

Binomial Theorem:
Binomial Expansion
(a + b)0 =1
(a + b)1 =a+b
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3
(a + b)4 = a4 + 4a3b + 6a2b2 + 4ab3 + b4

Pascal’s Triangle

1
1
1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
Binomial Theorem Formula:

a  b n  an  n an 1b  nn  1a nn  1n  2an  3b 3

n2 2
b
  
2! 3!
nn  1n  2 n  r  2an  r  1b r 1
     n ab n 1  b n
r  1!
where: n + 1 = total no. of terms
r = term no.

rth term of (a + b)n:

nn  1n  2n  r  2 a n r 1 b r 1

r th 
r  1!
Alternate formula:
rth term = nCr – 1an – r + 1br – 1

Notes: 1. (a + b)n has middle term if n is even.

2. If rth term is the middle term, r = n/2 + 1 or r – 1 = n/2

Middle term of (a + b)n:

Middle  term  nCn / 2 an / 2 b n / 2

Sum of Exponents:
S = n(n + 1)

Sum of Coefficients:
Substitute 1 to every variable in each term.

Note: For n is negative or a fraction, e.g., (a + b)-2, (a + b)1/3,… then,

1.) Don’t use alternate formula.
2.) It has infinite no. of terms.

Ratio:
The ratio a/b is usually written as a : b, a is called the antecedent and b is called the
consequent.

Proportion:
Proportion is a statement of equality between two ratios.
 a : b = c : d or a/b = c/d

where: b and c are called the means.

a and d are called the extremes.
d is called the fourth proportional to a, b, and c.

Note: If the means of the proportion are equal, such as a/x = x/d, then x is called
the mean proportional between a and d, while d is called the third
proportional to a and x.

Variation:
Direct Variation Attention:
y is directly proportional to x: y  x or y = kx, where k = constant of
proportionality

a. Inverse Variation
y is inversely proportional to x: y  1/x or y = k/x

b. Joint Variation
1. y is directly proportional to x and inversely proportional to z:
y  x/z or y = kx/z

2. y varies jointly as x and z: y  xz or y = kxz

Arithmetic Proression (A.P.)

- a sequence of numbers a1, a2, a3,….., an-1, an

Such that a2 – a1 = a3 – a2 = ….. = an – an-1 = d = common difference.

For example: 1, 2, 3, 4
d = 2 –1 = 3 – 2 = 4 – 3 = 1

Formulas:
1. l or an = a1 + (n – 1)d

2. S n 
n
a1  an   n 2a1  n  1d
2 2
3. Arithmetic Mean (A.M.) of two numbers a and b
ab
A.M . 
2
4. Arithmetic Mean (A.M.) of numbers a1, a2, a3, ….., an
a1  a 2  a 3    a n
A.M . 
n

where: l or an = last term or nth term

a1 = first term
Sn = sum of nth term
d = common difference
n = no. of terms

Geometric Progression (G.P.)

A sequence of numbers a1, a2, a3, ….. , an-1, an

Such that a2/a1 = a3/a2 = ….. = an/an-1 = r = common ratio

4 8 16
r   2
2 4 8

For example: 2, 4, 8, 16

Formulas:
1. l or an = a1rn-1

2. S n 

a1 1  r n a  anr 
 1
1r 1r
3. Geometric Mean (G.M.) of two numbers a and b

G .M.  ab
4. Geometric Mean of a1, a2, a3, ….., an

G .M.  n a1a 2a 3 a n

5. Infinite Geometric Progression (I.G.P.)

a1
S 
1r

Harmonic Progression (H.P.)

Sequence of numbers whose reciprocals are in A.P.
- sequence of numbers a1, a2, a3, ….., an-1, an
 1 1 1 1 1
Such that , , , , , are in A. P.
a1 a 2 a 3 an  1 an

For example: 16, 8, 16/3, 4, 16/5 H.P.

1
/16, 1/8, 3/16, 1/4, 5/16 A.P., d = 0.0625

Formulas:
n
H.M 
1 1 1 1 1
   
a1 a 2 a 3 a n 1 a n

1
H.M 
A.M
 PLANE AND SOLID GEOMETRY

Areas of Triangles
Given base and altitude:

1
A bh h h
2

b b

Given two sides and included angle:

1 h h
A ab sin  
2

Given two angles and included side:

C
1 (b 2 sin A sin C)
A
2 sin B
1 (a 2 sin C sin B ) b a
A
2 sin A
1 (c 2 sin A sin B )
A A B
2 sin C c
Given the three sides:
Hero’s Formula:

A  s(s  a)(s  b)(s  c)

b a
where :
abc
s
2 c
Circle Circumscribing aTriangle (Circumcircle)

abc
AT 
4R
ab
d c a
hc

where: R = radius of circle II. R hc

AT = area of triangle b
d = diameter of circle
hc = altitude of the third side
R = radius of the circle

Circle Inscribed in a Triangle (Incircle)

A t  Rs
where:
a b
abc
s
2
R

Circle Escribed in a Triangle (Excircle)

A  R s  a 
I. R
c a

b
Quadrilaterals
a
Square:

A = a2
P = 4a a a a

b
Rectangle:

A = bh
P = 2(b + h)
h h

Paralleleogram:
Given base and altitude:

A = bh h

b
Given two sides and included angle:

A = ab sin  a
P = 2a + 2b

b
Given diagonals and their included angle:
d2
1
A d1d 2 sin 
2 d1 
Rhombus:
Given base and altitude
a

A = ah a h a

a
Given side and included angle

A = a2sin
P = 4a a

a
Given diagonals

1
A d1d 2
2 d1 d2

b1
1
A  ( b1  b 2 )
2 h

b2

General Quadrilateral: (Unequal sides)

Given diagonals

1
A d1d 2 sin 
2 d1 
d2
Given four sides and sum of opposite angles

A a  (s  a)(s  b)(s  c)(s  d)  abcd cos 2 

C
where: b
B
AC BD
 or  
2 2
abcd a c
s
2
A
d D

Ptolemy’s Theorem
b

d1d2 = ac + bd a c
d1 d2

Cyclic Quadrilateral: (Bramaguptha’s Formula) C

b
A q  (s  a)(s  b)(s  c)(s  d) B
(ab  cd )(ac  bd )(ad  bc )
R a c c
4A
where : R
abcd
s
2 A d
D
Circle inscribed in a quadrilateral
b
A q  Rs  abcd
where :
abcd
s
2 a c
R

d
Area of Regular Polygon b
1 2  180 
A nb cot  
4  n 
P  nb

where: n = number of sides

Regular Polygon Inscribed in a Circle

1  360 
A nR 2 sin 
2  n 
 180 
P  2nR sin 
 n 
R

Regular Polygon Circumscribing a Circle

 180 
A  nR 2 tan 
 n 
 180 
P  2nR tan 
 n  III. R
Central Angle and Inscribed Angle: ()

 = 2

Intersecting Chords C
B
1
  (arc AC  arc BD ) c b
2
ab  cd 
d
a
D
A
Intersecting Tangents

C
B
1
  (arc ABC  arc ADC ) 
2 D

Intersecting Tangent and Chord

1
 arc AB A 
2
Ellipse
1.
A = ab
(a 2  b 2 ) a
P  2
2

Parabolic Segment

2
A ab
3
h
c b 2  4h  c 
P  ln b
2 8h  b 

where :
b
c  b 2  16h 2
 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Distance Between Points P1(x1,y1) and P2(x2,y2):

d x 2  x1 2  y 2  y 1 2
Distance from a Point to a Line

LINE: Ax +By + C=0

POINT: P1(x1,y1)
Ax1  By 1  C
d
 A2  B2

Where the ambiguous sign  follows the sign of B (or A when B=0).

Notes: 1. d is (+), if the point is above the line.

2. d is (–), if the point is below the line.

Distance Between Two Parallel Lines

L1: Ax +By +C1=0

L2: Ax +By +C2=0

C 2  C1
d
A2  B2

Midpoint of Line Segment P1P2:

y  P 2 ( x2 , y2 )
 P m( xm , ym )
P ( x , y )
1 1 1
x

x1  x 2 y1  y 2
xm  ym 
2 2
Division of Line Segments P 1 P2:

y
r2 P 2 ( x2 , y2 )

r1  P(x,y)
P ( x , y )
1 1 1
x

r1x 2  r2 x1 r1y 2  r2 y 1
x y
r1  r2 r1  r2

r1 P1 P
where: 
r2 PP2

Alternate Formula:

x = x1 + k ( x2 – x1 )
y = y1 + k ( y2 – y1 )

P1 P
where: k
PP2

Inclination and Slope of a Line:

In General:

y
P2 ( x2, y2 )

y2 – y1
P1 ( x1, y1)  
x2 – x1
x

y 2  y1
m  tan  
x 2  x1
1. A line sloping upward to the right


x

positive slope

2. A line sloping downward to the right


x

negative slope

3. If the given line is parallel to the x- axis so that y2 = y1 ; m = 0

y
Given line
y=k

4. If the given line is parallel to the y- axis so that x2 = x1 : m is meaningless

y
Given line

x=k
x
Angle Between Two Lines
m 1  tan 1 ; m 2  tan  2 y
   2  1 
tan  2  tan 1
tan   tan 2  1   2
1  tan  2 tan 1 1
m  m1
tan   2 x
1  m 1m 2

Notes: 1. If L1 is parallel to L2 ; then m1 = m2

2. If L1 is perpendicular to L2 ; then m1 m2 = -1

Straight Line Equation Form:

1. General Form : Ax + By + C = 0
2. Standard Form:
a. Point slope form: y – y1 = m( x-x1)
b. Slope intercept form: y = mx + b
c. Intercept form:
x y
 1
a b

d. Two point form:

y  y1 y 2  y1

x  x1 x 2  x1

e. Area Form:
x y 1
x1 y1 1
x2 y2 1

P Line
f. Normal Form:
N
x cos + y sin =  r


g. Polar Form:
r cos (  - ) = 

Conics

hyperbola

circle

ellipse

parabola
hyperbola

General Equation of a Conic Section :

Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

where: A, B, and C are not all zero.

Note: If B = 0 , this will represent a conic section whose axis or axes are not
parallel to the x and y axes.

Circle (eccentricity e  0)
A circle is the locus of a point moving in a plane in such a way that its distance
from a fixed point remains constant
y

C ( h , k)
0 x
r
I. General Equation:
Ax2 + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

where: A = C, A and C are with same sign

II. Standard Equations:

1. Center at (h , k)
(x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2
2. Center at ( 0,0)
2
X + y2 = r 2

III. Radius of the circle:

D 2  E 2  4FA
r
4A 2

IV. Abscissa and Ordinate of the center : (h , k)

h = - D / 2A , k = -E / 2A

PARABOLA ( e = 1)
Parabola is the locus of a point which moves so that the distance from a fixed
point called focus and a fixed line called directrix are equal.

focus axis of parabola

2a
V F
a a
2a
vertex

directrix

where: Focal distance = FV = a

Length of latus rectum (LR) = 4a
I. General Equations:
a. Axis Vertical
A x2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
b. Axis Horizontal
Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

II. Standard Equations:

a. vertex at V ( h, k)
1. (x – h)2 = 4a ( y – k) , opens upward
2. (x – h)2 = -4a(y – k) , opens downward
3. (y – k)2 = 4a (x – h), opens to the right
4. (y – k)2 =- 4a (x – h), opens to the left
b. vertex at origin : V ( 0, 0)
1. x2 = 4ay , opens upward
2. x2 = -4ay , opens downward
3. y2 = 4ax , opens to the right
4. y2 = -4ax , opens to the left

ELLIPSE (e<1)
Ellipse is the locus of a pt. which moves so that the sum of the distances from two
fixed points called foci is constant.

directrix directrix
Latus Rectum Latus Rectum
B1 D
P
L2 L1
a b a

V2 c C(h,k) c
vertex F2 F1 V1 vertex
b
R2 R1
B2
a a

d = a/e d = a/e
 F1V1 + F2V1 = F1V1 + F1V2
But: F1V1 = F2V2
Therefore: F1V1 + F2V1 = F1V1 + F1V2 = V1V2 = 2a

Note : the constant sum = 2a

F1 P
e 1
PD

I. General equation:
Ax2 + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

where: A  C and ( A and C have the same sign)

II. Standard Equation:

A. Center at (h, k)

1.
x  h 2  y  k 2  1 , MA : Horizontal
a2 b2

2.
x  h 2  y  k 2  1 , MA : Vertical
b2 a2

B. Center at ( 0, 0)

x2 y2
1.   1 , MA : Horizontal
a2 b2
x2 y2
2.   1 , MA : Vertical
b2 a2

Relations of constants: a2 = b2 + c2
1. Semi - Major Axis = CV1 = CV2 = a
2. Semi- Minor Axis = CB1 =CB2 = b
3. C = CF1 = CF2
4. MA = Major Axis = V1V2 = 2a
5. ma = minor axis = B1B2 = 2b
6. LR = 2b2 / a
7. Eccentricity e = c / a
8. d = distance of the directrix from the center = a / e

Hyperbola ( e  1)
Hyperbola is the locus, of a point which moves so that the difference of its
distances from two fixed points is constant.

asymptote directrix directrix asymptote

d = a/e d = a/e
D
B1 P
L2 c b c L1
C ( h, k)
F2 V2
c c V1 F1
R2 b R1
a B2 a

c c

F2V2 = F1V1
F2V1 – F1V1 = V1V2 = 2a

Where constant length = 2a

F1 P
e 1
PD

I General Equation:
Ax2 + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

where: A and C have opposite signs

II. Standard Form :

A. Center at ( h, k)

1.
x  h 2  y  k 2  1 , TA : Horizontal
a2 b2

2.
x  h 2  y  k 2  1 , TA : Vertical
b2 a2

B. Center at (0,0)

x2 y2
1.   1 , TA : Horizontal
a2 b2
x2 y2
2. 2
  1 , TA : Vertical
b a2

Notes:
1. Relations of constants : a2 + b2 = c2 , a  b or a = b or a  b
2. SEMI – TA = CV1 = CV2 = a
3. SEMI – CA = CB1 = CB2 = b
4. TA = V1V2 = 2a
5. CA = B1B2 = 2b
6. F1F2 = 2c
7. L. R. = 2b2 / a
8. e = c /a  1
9. d = a / e
10. Equations of asymptote:

a. y  k  
b
x  h  , for horizontal TA
a
b. y  k   x  h  , for vertical TA
a
b
Legend:
TA --- Transverse axis
CA --- Conjugate axis
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Differentiation Formulas

1.
d
c   0, where c is any cons tan t
dx
2.
d
x   1
dx
3.
d n
dx
 
u  n  un  1
du
dx
4.
d
uv   u  v du
dv
dx dx dx
du dv
v u
d u
5.    dx 2 dx
dx  v  v

6.
d
dx
 u   2 1u du
dx
d  a  a  n  du
7.  
dx  u n  u n  1 dx

8.
d u
dx
 
e  eu
du
dx
9.
d u
dx
 
a  a u ln a 
du
dx

10.
d v
 
u  uv 
 v du dv 
 ln u 
dx  u dx dx 

11.
d
ln u   1 du
dx u dx
12.
d
log b u   1 log b e du
dx u dx
13.
d
sin u   cos u du
dx dx
14.
d
tan u    sin u du
dx dx
15.
d
tan u   sec u
2 du
dx dx
16.
d
cot u   csc2 u du
dx dx
17.
d
sec u   sec u tan u du
dx dx
18.
d
csc u    csc u cot u du
dx dx
19.
d
arc sin u   1 du
dx 1  u 2 dx

20.
d
arc cos u   1 2 du
dx 1  u dx

21.
d
arc tan u  1 2 du
dx 1  u dx

22.
d
arc cot u  1 2 du
dx 1  u dx

23.
d
arc sec u   1 du
dx u u 2  1 dx

24.
d
arc csc u   21 du
dx u u  1 dx

25.
d
sinh u   cosh u du
dx dx
26.
d
cosh u   sinh u du
dx dx
27.
d
tanh u   sech 2 u du
dx dx
28.
d
coth u    csc h 2 u du
dx dx
29.
d
sech u    sech u tanh u du
dx dx
30.
d
csc h u    csc h u coth u du
dx dx
31.
d
arc sinh u  1 du
dx 1  u 2 dx

32.
d
arc cosh u  21 du ; u  1
dx u  1 dx

33.
d
dx
arc tanh u  1 2 du ;
1  u dx
u 2

1
34.
d
dx
arc coth u  1 2 du ;
1  u dx
u 2
1
35.
d
arc sech u  1 2 du ; 0  u 2

1
dx u 1  u dx

36.
d
arc csc h u  1 2 du ; u  0
dx u 1  u dx
 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Integration Formulas
1.  a du  a  du  au  C , where a = constant
u n 1
u du   C , where n ≠ -1
n
2.
n1
du
3. 
u
 ln u du  C

4.  ln u du  u ln u  u  C

e du  eu  C
u
5.
au
a du  C
u
6.
ln a
7.  u dv  uv   v du (Integration by Parts)
8.  sin u du   cos u  C
9.  cos u du  sin u  C
10.  tan u du  ln sec u  C   ln cos u  C
11.  cot u du  ln sin u  C   ln csc u  C
12.  sec u du  ln sec u  tan u  C
13.  csc u du  ln csc u  cot u  C   ln csc u  cot u  C
 sec u du  tan u  C
2
14.

 csc u du   cot u  C
2
15.
16.  sec u tan u du  sec u  C
17.  csc u cot u du   csc u  C
du u
18.   arc sin
a
C
a u
2 2

du 1 u
19.  u2  a2 
a
arc tan  C
a
du 1 u
20.  
a
arc sec  C
a
u u a 2 2

21.  sinh u du  cosh u  C

22.  cosh u du  sinh u  C
 sech u du  tanh u  C
2
23.

 csc h u du   coth u  C
2
24.
25.  sech u tanh u du   sech u  C
26.  csc h u coth u du   csc h u  C
du 1 u a
27.  u2  a2  ln    C , if u2 > a2
2 a  u  a 
du 1 u  a
28.  a2  u2  ln    C , if u2 < a2
2 a  u  a 

 ln  u  u 2  a 2   C
du
29.   
u a
2 2

 ln  u  u 2  a 2   C
du
30.   
a u
2 2

u 2 a2 u
31.  a2  u2 
2
a  u2 
2
arc sin  C
a
a2 
ln  u  u 2  a 2   C
u 2
32.  u2  a2 
2
u  a2 
2  

Walli’s Formula

2  m  1m  32 or 1n  1n  32 or 1 

0 sin2  cos n  d  
m  nm  n  2m  n  42 or 1
 
 

where: m and m are non-negative integers (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ……)

α = π/2, if both m and n are even, or one is zero and the other is even
α = 1, if otherwise

Note: If m and n equals 1 or 0, apply the following:

Rule: If the factor (m – 1) or (n – 1) in the numerator is 0 or –1, replace

the product in which this occurs by unity.
Plane Areas in Rectangular Coordinates System

(b, d)
y = f(x)
R

x
0 (a, c) y = g(x)
y

I. Using a vertical rectangular element (vertical stripping)

y y = f(x) y = g(x)
dA  y u  y L  dx (b, d)

A
b
a
y u  y L dx dA yu - yL
yu

A   f ( x)  g( x) dx
b dx yL
a (a, c) x
0

where: U – upper
L – lower

II. Using a horizontal rectangular element (horizontal stripping)

y y = f(x) or
x = f(y) y = g(x) or
(b, d) x = g(y)
dA  x R  x L  dy xL

x R  x L dy
d dA dy
A
c
(a, c)
A
d
c
g(y )  f (y ) dy 0
x
xR - xL

xR

Using Polar Coordinates

1 2 2
2  1
A r d
r
d
Volume of Solid of Revolution
y
y

x
x
0

Torus

Methods of Finding the Volumes of Solid of Revolution

I. Disk Method

Rules: 1. The axis of rotation is a part of the boundary of the plane area.
2. The element chosen must be parallel to the axis of rotation.

dh

r
Axis of dV
h=a dh h=b Rotation r

dV   r 2 dh
b
V    r 2 dh
a

II. Ring or Washer Method

Rules: 1. The axis of rotation is not a part of the boundary of the plane area.
2. The element chosen must be parallel to the axis of rotation.

dh

r2 r2
r1 r1
r1
h=a h=b r2
 
dV   r22   r12 dh 

dV   r22  r12 dh
b
 
V   r22  r12 dh
a

III. Cylindrical Shell Method

Rules: 1. The axis of rotation may or may not be a part of the boundary of
the rotated area.
2. The element chosen must be parallel to the axis of rotation.

dr

r = a dr r = b
r
dV  2rh dr
b
V  2  r h dr
a

Pappus Theorem

First Proposition
The surface area of revolution is equal to the length of the generating arc times the
circumference of the circle described by the centroid of the arc, provided the axis
of revolution does not cross the generating arc.

B
A
A s  CL c
As  2  c L 0
x

where: L – length of the arc

Second Proposition
The volume of the solid revolution is equal to the generating area times the
circumference of the circle described by the centroid of the area, provided the axis
of revolution does not cross the generating arc.
 y
V  AC  A 2  c 
V  2 c A c
x
Centroid of a Plane Area

A x   xc dA
A y   y c dA

where: xc and yc are coordinates of the centroid of rectangular element

x and y are coordinates of the centroid of area A

y
(x, y)
xc  x
1 (xc, yc)
y
yc  y yc
2 x
0 xc

y
x
1
xc  x
2
yc  y (x, y)
yc
x
0
xc

y
xL
yc  y xc
x  xL dy
xc  R  xL (xc, yc)
2 yc = y
x  xL
xc  R x
2
xR
 x
xc
xc  x
yu  yL
yc   yL yu - yL
yu
2
yc
y  yL
yc  u yL
x
2

Centroid of a Solid of Revolution

V x   xc dV
V y   y c dV
SHELL
dV DISK
WASHER

Area of Common Polar Curves

r  2asin , A  a 2 r 2  a 2 cos , A  2a 2

r  2acos , A  a 2
r 2  a 2 cos 2, A  a 2 r 2  a 2 sin 2, A  a 2

a 2 3a 2
r  asin 3, A  r  a1  sin  , A 
12 2

1 2 1 2
r  acos 2, A  a r  asin 2, A  a
2 2
 ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

Complex Numbers:

z = x + jy = r(cos  + jsin ) = r cjs  = r  = r e j

where: j2 = -1 or j= 1

Power of Complex Numbers:

zn = (x + jy)n = rn (cos n  + j sin n ) = rn cjs n = rn n = rn e jn

Roots of Complex Numbers:

Since for any whole number k,
sin ( + 360ok) = sin 
cos ( + 360ok) = cos 

Therefore in general form,

1 1 1 1    2k 
        j 
   360 k     360 k 
n
z z n   r  n  cis    r   
n
  r  e 
n n 
 n   n 

where: k = 0 , when taking the first root

k = 1, when taking the second root
k = 2, when taking the third root
k = n - 1, when taking the nth root

Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions of Complex Numbers:

1. cosh (j) = cos 

2. sinh (j) = jsin 
3. cos ju = cosh u
4. sin ju = jsinhu
5. sin (x  jy) = sin x cos jy  cos x sin jy
= sin x coshy  jcos x sinhy
6. cos (x  jy) = cos x cos jy  sin x sin jy
= cos x coshy  jsin x sinh y

Laplace Transform:

The Laplace transform of a function f(t), denoted by £ [f(t)], is defined as a

function of a variable s by the integral.
 Fs   £f t   0 f t e  st dt


where t > 0 and s is any number, real or complex.

Formulas:
1. £ a   5. £ cos at  
a s
s s  a2
2

 
2. £ t n 
n!
sn  1
, n  1,2,  6. £ sinh at   2
a
s  a2

 
3. £ e  at 
sa
1
7. £ cosh at   2
s
s  a2
p  1
4. £ sin at  
a
s2  a2
 
8. £ t p  p  1
s
where p  1 and non  int egrals

Important Theorems on Laplace Transforms.

Theorem 1. Linearity Theorem
£ [a f(t) + b g(t)] = a £[f (t)] + b £[ g(t)]

Theorem 2. First ShiftingTheorem

£ [e at f(t)] = £[ f(t)] ss - a

Theorem 3. Second Shifting Theorem

£ [ f(t – a) u(t – a)] = e –as £[f(t)]

Theorem 4. Transforms of Derivative

£[f  (t)] = s £[ f(t)] – f(0)
£[f (t)] = s2 £[f(t)] – [s f(0) + f(0)]
£[ f(t)] = s3 £[f(t)] – [s2 f(0) + sf(0) + f(0)]
£[ f(n)(t)] = sn £ [f(t)] – [sn-1 f(0) + sn-2 f(0) + ….+ s fn-2(0) + fn-1(0)]

Theorem 5. Transform of Integral

If f(t) is of exponential order and at least piecewise continuous, then

 t

£ c f t dt 
1
s
£f t   c f t dt
1 0
s
Theorem 6.
If £[ f(t)] = (s), then £ [t f(t)] = -(s)

Theorem 7.

f t   f t  
exists, and if £f t   s , then £    0 s ds

If lim
t 0 t  t 

Inverse Laplace Transform:

If £f t   Fs , thenf t   £ 1 Fs  provided that £f t exists

Gamma Function:
 n  1 t
The gamma function denoted by (n) is defined by 0 t e dt which is
convergent for n > 0. A recursion or recurrence formula for the gamma function is
(n + 1) = n(n) = n!

Notes:
1. If n < 0 but n  -1, -2, -3,…..
n  1
Use n  
n

2. 1 2   

3. For n = 0, -1, -2, -3,…………

(n) = 

Sequence and Series:

Sequence of Numbers – defined as a succession of numbers formed according to

some fixed rule.
nth term
For example:
1. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12,………., 2n,
2. 1, 4 , 9, 16, 25,…………, n2,….

Series – defined as the indicated sum of a sequence of numbers.

For example, for the sequence a1, a2, a3,………., an

The corresponding series is a1 + a2 + a3 +……….+ an
Type of Series:

1. Finite Series – the number of terms is limited.

2. Infinite Series – the number of terms is unlimited

Power Series:
A power series in x – a has the form

 c n x  a   c 0  c1 x  a   c 2 x  a     c n x  a   
n 2 n

n0

When a = 0, and the series become a power in x, which is


 C n x n  C0  C1x  C 2 x 2    C n x n  
n0

For example:
1
 1  x  x2  x3  
1 x

General Method: for expanding a function in a power series in x and in (x – a) is

given below. Note the requirement that the function and its derivatives of all
orders must exist at x = 0 or at x = a.
1
This , ln x, and cot x cannot be expanded in power of x.
x

Maclaurin’s Series – power series expansion of f(x) about x = 0.

– power series in x.

f '' 0 2 f ''' 0 3 f n 0 n

f x  f 0  f '0x  x  x   x
2! 3! n!

OR
 f n 0 n
f x    x
n  0 n!

Taylor’s Series – power series in x – a.

– power series expansion of f(x) about x = a. This series, which includes
Maclaurin’s series as a special case (a = 0).
 f '' a
x  a2  f ''' a x  a3    f a x  an  
n
f x  f a  f 'ax  a 
2! 3! n!
OR
 f n a 
f x    x  a n
n  0 n!

Fourier Series – is a series used to represent a periodic wave in either exponential

of trigonometric form. The trigonometric form is in terms in sine and cosine
functions. The series has the form,
A0
F(t) = + A1 cost + A2 cos2t + A3 cos3t +….. + An cos nt + B1sint
2
+ B2 sin2t + B3 sin3t +…+ Bnsin nt

For a particular period wave, the coefficient of the series are determined by means
of the following equations.

 Ft dt
1 2
Ao 
 0

 Ft cosnt dt
1 2
An 
 0

 Ft sinnt dt
1 2
Bn 
 0
 PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS

Arithmetic Mean (A. M.)

a 1  a 2  a 3   a n
A. M . 
n

Median is the middle value when all data are arranged in increasing or decreasing
order.

Mode is the value that occurs most frequently.

Range

Range  Maximum Value  Minimum Value

Variance
The variance of a set of numbers is defined by

 x i  x  2
2 
n
where: x – arithmetic mean

Standard Deviation

n
 x i  x  2
i1
S tan dard Deviation 
n
OR
n
 x i  x  2
i1
S tan dard Deviation 
n1

Note: When n < 30, (n – 1) is more exact.

Fundamental Principle
If an event can happen in any one of n 1 ways, and if this has occurred, another
event can happen in one of n 2 ways, then the number of ways in which both events
can happen in the specified order is n 1n2.
In general, for k events,

n T  n 1  n 2  n 3  n k

Permutation (P)
The grouping of things in a definite order. To permute a set of things means to
arrange them in a definite order.

1. Permutation of n different elements taken r at a time

n!
n Pr 
n  r !
Note: nPr = P(n, r) = Pr n

Illustration:
For letters a, b, c, the number of permutation taken two (2) at a time is

3!
3 P2  6
3  2!
Another way,
ab, ba, ac, ca, bc, cb = 6
OR by Fundamental Principle,
3 2  6

2. Permutation of n different elements taken all (r = n) at a time

n Pn  n!

Illustration:
For a, b, c, the number of permutation taken all at a time is

3 P3  3!  6
Another way,
abc, acb, bac, bca, cba, cab = 6
OR by Fundamental Principle
3 21  6
3. Permutation of n elements some of which are alike

n! n!
 
n Pn  s
n  n  s ! s!
where: s – the number of times the element is repeated in the set

Illustration:
For letters a, a, c, the number of permutation taken all at a time is
n! 3!
P  3
s! 2!
Another way,
aac, aca, caa = 3

4. Permutation of n elements not all different taken all at a time

n!
P
n1 ! n 2 ! n 3 !nk !
where: n1, n2, n3, nk – number of elements which are alike
n – total number of elements in a given set

5. Theorem on Partitioning. The number of ways of partitioning a set of n

objects into r cells with n1 elements in the first cell, n 2 elements in the second
cell and so forth is,
n n!

n1 , n 2,  , n r n1 ! n 2 !nr !

where: n = n1 + n2 + ……….. + n r

6. Cyclic Permutations. The number of permutations of n different objects

arranged in a circle is,
Pc  n  1!

Illustration: For the letters a, b, c arranged in a circle.

a c b
1
c b b a a c
 a b c
1
b c c a a b

Pc  1  1  2
By Formula,
Pc  3  1!  2!  2  1  2

Combination (C). A selection of things considered without regard to order or the

grouping of things where arrangement is immaterial.

1. Combination of n objects taken r at a time

n Pr n!
n Cr  
r! r! n  r !

Note: nCr = C (n, r) = Cr n

2. Combination of n objects taken all (n = r) at a time

n Cn 1

3. Combinations that can be made taking successively 1 at a time, 2 at a

time, 3 at a time and so on up to n at a time

C  nC1  nC2  nC3    nCn  2n  1

Probability (p)

number of favorable outcomes

Pr obability 
number of possible outcomes
Probability of Success + Probability of Failure = 1

1. Probability in Single Event. If an event can happen in h ways and can fail in
f ways are equally likely, then in a single tr5ial, the probability will happen
that it will happen is given by,

h
p
hf
 and the probability that it will fail is given by,

f
p
hf

2. Mutually Exclusive Events. Two or more events are mutually exclusive if not
more than one of them can happen in a given trial. The probability that some
one or other of a set of mutually exclusive events will happen in a single trial
is the sum of their separate probabilities of happening.

p  p1  p 2    p n

3. Independent Events. Two or more events are said to be independent if the

happening of one does not affect the happening of the others. The probability
that two or more independent events will happen is the product of their
separate probabilities.

p  p1  p 2    p n

4. Dependent Events. Two or more events are said to be dependent if the

happening of one affects the probability that the other will happen. If p1 is the
probability that an event will happen, and after it has happened the second will
occur with probability p2, then the probability that the first event and then the
second event will happen is the product of p1 and p2.

5. Probability for Repeated Trials (Binomial Density Distribution)

p  nCr P1r 1  p1  n  r

where: n – number of trials

r – number of desired successful outcome
p1 – probability of a successful outcome in a trial