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AE notes 1

Mechanical Engineering (Visvesvaraya Technological University)

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AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING 18ME824

MODULE-1
ENGINE COMPONENTS, COOLING AND LUBRICATION SYSTEMS

1.1 INTRODUCTION

An automobile is a self propelled machine used on the ground for transportation of

passengers and goods from one place to another place. Automobile engineering or automotive
engineering is the branch of engineering that deals with all types of automobiles like car, bus, truck,
jeep, motor cycle etc., and the means of propelling them. Automobile or automotive refers to one
which itself can move. The study of aeroplane, helicopter, rocket etc., which fly in air comes
under Aeronautical engineering and marine engineering deals with ship, motor boat etc., which sail
in water. Today, of course, the automobile vehicle has become a basic necessity and business of
making and servicing automobiles has become one of the biggest business in the world.

I.C. Engines are used, in order to obtain motive power of the vehicle. In recent years, a huge
changes are made in the design of automobiles to provide safety, ease of operation, reliability,
comfortness, less fuel consumption etc.

The Automobile consists of following basic components or parts. These are,

1. The power plant: It is nothing but the source of power or engine which provides motive power to
perform various functions in the vehicle. The power plant generally consists of an internal
combustion engine (I.C. Engine) which may be either of spark ignition (S.I), or of compression
ignition type. Sometimes gas turbines are also used in certain cars.

2. The basic structure: This includes frame and wheel assembly, suspension system, axles, etc.

3. The power train (transmission system): The power train carries the power from the engine to road
wheels. It consists of clutch, (for non-automatic transmissions) gear box, propeller shaft,
differential.

4. The super structure or car body.

5. The accessories which include electrical system, radio, wind shield wiper, air conditioner.

6. The controls: It consists of steering system, Brakes, etc.

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Fig.: Layout of an automobile

1.2 S.I. AND C.I. ENGINES

Either S.1. or C.I. engines are used to obtain motive power to perform various functions in the
automobile. Modern automotive engines vary greatly in size and design, but the operating principles
are essentially the same as those of first models developed early.

In S.1. engine, a spark plug is an essential component which initiates combustion of fuel. The
spark plug produces an electric spark of high energy, initiates ignition of fuel. In

c.1. engine, the high temperature (greater than ignition temperature of the fuel) of compressed air
ignites the fuel and this is called self or auto ignition. The fuel pump and fuel injectors are the
essential components of C.1. engine.

1.3BASIC ENGINE TERMINOLOGY

Top dead centre (TDC)
When the piston is at its top most position i.e., the position closest to cylinder head, it is called top dead
centre.

Bottom dead centre When the piston is at its lowest position i.e., the position farthest from the
cylinder head, it is called bottom dead centre.

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Bore
The 'Bore' is referred to the diameter of engine cylinder. It is denoted by 'D'.
Stroke length or stroke
The distance travelled by the piston between TDC and BDC is called stroke of the piston
and is denoted by 'L'.

Clearance volume
When the piston is in TDC position the cylinder volume above it, is called clearance volume
and is denoted by 'Vc'.

Swept volume or piston displacement

The volume swept by piston while moving from TDC to BDC is called swept volume.
It is denoted by , Vs' .

Vs = L
Compression ratio
It is the ratio of volume above the piston at BDC to the volume above the piston at TDe. It
is the ratio of total volume of the cylinder (Vs + Vc), to the clearance volume. It is denoted by ‘r’
Vs +V

Vc
for Petrol engines, it ranges from 8 to 12 for diesel
engines, it ranges from 15 to 24.

Mean effective pressure

As piston performs power stroke, cylinder pressure decreases. Thus it is required to refer an
average effective pressure throughout the whole power stroke. It is expressed in bars.

Power
It is the work done in a given period of time. More power is required to do the same amount
of work In a lesser time.

Indicated Power (I.P.)

The power developed within the engine cylinders is called indicated power. It is
expressed in kilowatts (kW). It is given by area under engine indicator diagram.

Brake Power (B.P.)

This is the actual power available at the crank shaft. The indicated power minus various
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power losses in the engine like friction and pumping losses in the engine, gives Brake power. It is
measured by using a Dynamometer and is expressed in kilowatts (kW).

1.3 12 Engine torque

It is the force of rotation acting about the crank shaft axis at any given instant of time.
It is given by T = F.r., where T =
engine torque, Nm
F = force applied to the crank, N r
= effective crank radius, m

1.4 MAIN COMPONENTS OF AN I.C. ENGINE

Fig. The various components of the basic engine

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1. Cylinders
2. Piston
3. Connecting rod
4. Crank shaft
5. Valves and valve actuating mechanisms

1.5 CYLINDERS

The cylinder is the main body of an engine in which piston reciprocates to develop power. It has to
with stand very high pressure and temperature (around 2800°C). A cylinder block is one which
houses the engine cylinders. If cylinder block and crank case are made integral, then the
construction is called 'Mono block'. The cylinder material should be such that it should retain
strength at higher temperatures, should be good conductor of heat and should resist rapid wear and
tear due to reciprocating action of the piston. Generally cast iron is used. For heavy duty engines
alloy steels are used.

For cooling water circulation, passages are provided around the cylinders. Cylinder block
also carries lubrication oil to various components through drilled passages.

At the lower end of cylinder block, crank case is made integral with the block. At the top,
cylinder block is attached with the cylinder head. It houses inlet and exhaust valves. Besides,
other parts like timing gear, water pump, ignition distributor, fly wheel, fuel pump, etc., are also
attached to it.

The materials used for cylinder block are grey cast Iron and aluminium alloys. The cast
iron material has the following advantages.
1. It is relatively cheap and posses good foundry properties.
2. The co-efficient of thermal expansion for cast iron is low.
3. It has high machinability and does not wear too much.

The aluminium alloy cylinder blocks have the following advantages.

1. It has higher thermal conductivity than cast-iron. This results in efficient cooling of engine. so that
higher compression ratios may be used.
2. The density of aluminium is about one third that of cast iron. It is a light material.

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But considering lesser strength of aluminium, thicker sections have to be used to carry same
load, Further, in case of any loss of coolant, it cannot with stand high temperature and damage may
occur. It wears more than cast iron .

The grey cast iron for cylinder block has the composition; carbon - 3.5 %, silicon - 2.5
%, manganese - 0.65 %.

The Aluminium alloy cylinder blocks have the composition. Silicon - 11%,
Manganese 0.5%, Magnesium 0.4%

1.6 CYLINDER ARRANGEMENTS

Multi cylinder engines are preferred over single cylinder engines due to reasons like
(i) giving smooth torque output (ii) Lighter fly wheel (iii) engine compactness (iv) Easy
balancing. In multi cylinder engines, the arrangement of cylinders is very important. The
following cylinder arrangements are used to give better performance of the engine. They are ,

l. In line arrangement 2. Opposed

cylinders type

3. V - engine
4. Radial engine

1. In line arrangement
In this type, a number of cylinders are arranged in a line i.e., placed side by side vertically with a
common crank shaft. In this type reciprocating forces are nearly balanced.

Fig. Inline arrangement

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Fig. Cut away view of six cylinder in line engine

2. Opposed cylinders type

The two cylinders are arranged horizontally opposite to each other i.e., they are placed
1800 apart facing each other with a common crank shaft. In this type, the reciprocating parts are
perfectly balanced. As two cylinders are not in line, the force in connecting rod produces a
rocking couple.

Fig. Opposed type

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3. V - engine
In this type, two cylinders are placed with their axes at 60°_ The cylinders are arranged
on two arms of "letter V with a common crank case and crank shaft It is more compact and rigid
and hence runs more smoothly at high speeds.

Fig V-engine

4.Radial engine
In this type, a number of cylinders are arranged in radial fashion with a common crank
shaft which is placed at the centre as in figure 1.6. The number of cylinders generally used is 5, 7, 9
etc., to obtain uniform firing intervals. This type is compact in size and gives higher Brake power per
weight ratio. This is mainly used in air craft engines.

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Fig Radial engine

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1.7 LINERS (SLEEVES)

Engines makes use of removable liners which are pressed into cylinder holes. The
cylinder liners are in the form of barrels and used to reduce the cylinder wear and hence to
increase cylinder bore life. The cylinder wear is more when cylinder block is made up of
aluminium alloy. The liners can be inserted in the cylinder bore to reduce this wear. Whenever the
liners worn-out, they can be replaced easily. Whenever a cylinder block is rebored beyond
allowable limits, liners are used to restore its original size. These are cast centrifugally and
made up of special alloy iron containing silicon, manganese, nickel and chromium.

The liners may be further hardened by nitriding or chromium plating. In nitriding

process, liners are exposed to ammonia vapour at 5000C and then quenched. Chromium
plating improves their resistance to wear and corrosion. There are two types of liners (I) Dry liners
and (2) Wet liners.

1.Dry liners

Fig. Dry liners

The dry liners are quite thin and uses block metal to give it full length support. These liners are
made in the form of barrel. and a flange is provided at the top which keeps the liner in to position.
It is necessary to machine the liner surface accurately both from inside and outside, as the outer
surface of the liner makes contact with cylinder block. By shrinking the liner, it is put in to the
cylinder bore.

If the liner is too loose in the cylinder block, results in poor heat dissipation because of
absence of good contact between them. This will result in higher operating temperature.
Improper lubrication results in piston scuffing. Too tight a liner is even worse than the too loose
case. This produces distortion of cylinder block, liner cracking, hot spots and scuffing.

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2. Wet liners
Wet liner is pressed into bore of cylinder block and is supported at top and bottom only. These
liners makes direct contact with cooling water on the outside and hence does not require accurate
machining on the entire outer surface. A flange is provided at the top which fits into the groove in the
cylinder block. Three grooves are provided at the bottom, middle one is empty and top and bottom
grooves are inserted with rubber packing’s. For water leakage, drainage arrangements are provided
from the middle groove. The wet liners are sometimes coated with aluminium on the outside to make
the surface corrosion resistant.

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Fig Wet liners

1.8 COMPARISON OF DRY AND WET LINERS

Dry liners
1. They may be provided either in the original design or even after wards.
2. No leak proof joint is required.
3. Construction of cylinder block is not simple.
4. As dry liners does not make direct contact with cooling water, cylinder cooling is ineffective

5. Accurate machining of both block and outer liner surface is required, for perfect contact
between them.

Wet liners
1. These have to be included in the original cylinder design.
2. A leak proof joint between the cylinder casting & liner is required.
3. Construction of cylinder block is simple.
4. As cooling water is in direct contact with liner, better cylinder cooling is possible. 5. Accurate
machining on the outer liner surface is not necessary

1.9 PISTON
The piston is a reciprocating part of the engine and converts the combustion pressure in
the cylinder to a force on the crank shaft. Pistons are slightly smaller in diameter than the
cylinder bore. The space is provided between piston and cylinder wall and is called
"clearance". This 'clearance' is necessary to provide space for a film of lubricant. Pistons are
made of aluminium alloys, cast steel, cast iron or chrome nickel. Aluminium alloy pistons are
used in modern automobiles.

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Functions
I. It forms a seal within the cylinder to avoid entry of high pressure gases from combustion
chamber into crank case.
2.It transmits the force of explosion to the crank shaft.
3.It acts as a bearing for the gudgeon pin.

Fig. Typical I.C, engine piston

A typical l.C. engine piston is as shown in figure 1.8. The piston almost has the shape
of an Inverted bucket. The top portion of the piston is called head or crown. In some engines,
pistons may be specially designed to form desired shape of the combustion chamber. At the
piston top, few grooves are cut to accommodate the piston rings and the bands left between
the grooves are known as "Lands". They support the rings against gas pressure. The portion
below rings is called piston skirt. The skirt is provided with bosses on the inside to support the
piston pin.

The Aluminium alloy pistons have the following advantages over cast iron pistons.
I. Lighter in weight, allowing higher rpm. [It is 3 times lighter than C.I. piston which is desirable
from inertia point of view].

2.It has higher thermal conductivity allowing the use of higher compression ratio.

The aluminium alloy pistons have the disadvantages like.

I. It is not as strong as cast iron, hence thicker sections have to be used.
2. Aluminium alloy is soft, fine particles of lubricating oil become embedded in it. It causes a
sort of grinding.

3. It causes a sort of grinding or abrasion of the cylinder walls, thus decreases cylinder life.

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4. The main drawback of using aluminium alloy pistons with cast iron cylinders is their un equal
coefficient of expansion which causes engine slap.

1.10 CONTROL OF PISTON SLAP

The use of Aluminium alloy piston with cast iron cylinder has a drawback of engine slap.
If cold clearance is kept just sufficient, there is danger of seizure at higher operating
temperatures and if it is kept larger, the engine knocks or slaps when cold. Different methods are
used to overcome this difficult, they are,

a) Cutting horizontal sloe: 1 his method keeps the heat away from the lower part of the
piston. By cutting horizontal slot in the portion just below the oil control ring, skirt portion does
not become very hot and hence does not expand so much.

Fig. (a) Piston with horizontal slot Fig (b) Heat dam construction

b) Heat dam: By making heat dam i.e., by cutting a groove near the top of the piston, the heat
flow to lower part of piston can be reduced. Hence the skirt runs cooler and does not expand too
much.

c) Verticle or T slot: In this type, the top of T tends to retard the heat transfer from head to the
piston skirt. The verticle slot allows the skirt of the piston to close when heated i.e., it allows
piston skirt to expand without increase in diameter. However mechanical strength is decreased
on account of slot. Due to presence of this slot, the diameter reduces permanently which increases
engine slap. Hence fully split skirts are not used.

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d) Split skirt: In a split skirt piston, skirt is either partially or completely split. When the
piston warms and begins to expand, it cannot find in the cylinder since the skirt merely closes
the split.

e) Tapered pistons: Sometimes the pistons are turned taper, the crown side being smaller in
diameter than the skirt end. As crown portion is exposed to higher tempt than skirt, that side
expands more than skirt and piston diameter becomes uniform under operating conditions.

f) Special alloy pistons: Special alloy having coefficient of expansion nearly equal to that
for cast iron (or low value) have been used in the manufacture of pistons. One such alloy is
"LOEX" alloy It is an alloy having 12-15% silicon, 1.5-3% nickel and 1 % of each of
magnesium and copper Such pistons are costlier.

g) Wire wound pistons : A band of steel wire is wound between the piston pin and oil
controlring. thus resticting the expansion of skirt.

h) Bimetal pistons: The pistons are made from both steel and aluminium. Steel is used to
manufacture skirt portion and aluminium alloy cast inside to form piston head and piston pin
bosses. For steel, coefficient of thermal expansion is quite small, piston will not expand much
and hence smaller cold clearances can be maintained.

1.11 PISTON RINGS

Piston rings are located towards the top of the piston. The top two piston rings are called
compression rings and are designed to maintain cylinder pressure. The bottom ring is called
oil ring, (may be 1 or 2 in number) they scrape the excess oil from the cylinder walls and
return it through slots to the piston ring grooves.

A properly constructed and fitted ring will rub against the cylinder wall with good contact all
around the cylinder. The ring will ride in grooves that are cut into the piston head.

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The material generally used for piston rings is fine grained alloy cast iron containing silicon
and manganese. It has good heat and WCi.1rresisting qualities. Rings with molybdenum filled
face have also been introduced recently. Alloy steels are also used. The number of rings vary
depending on the engine design. It varies from two to four.
Generally the ring is cast and machined and put in position in the ring grooves. It
exerts uniform pressure against the cylinder walls. A gap is to be cut at the ends so that while
inserting the ring, it can be expanded, slipped over the piston head and released in to the ring
groove. The gap is almost closed when the piston is inside the cylinder.

Functions:

1.It form a seal so that high pressure gases from the combustion chamber will not escape into the
crank case.

2.It provide easy passage for heat flow from piston crown to the cylinder walls.
3.It maintains enough lubrication oil cylinder walls through out the stroke length. This
reduces ring and cylinder wear. The thickness of oil film is to be controlled and the oil should not
go up into the combustion chamber where it would burn and produces carbon deposits.

1.12 PISTON PIN

Piston pin is also known as wrist pin or gudgeon pin, used to connect Piston and
connecting rod. It transfers combustion chamber pressure and piston forces to the connecting rod.
It is in tubular shape to provide adequate strength with minimum weight. It passes through
the piston bosses and small end of the connecting rod. It is made of low carbon case hardened steel
(carbon - 15%, silicon - 0.3%, manganese - 0.5%).

Piston pins are installed and secured to provide a bearing action in the following three ways. 1.The pin
is fastened to the piston by set screws through the piston boss and has a bearing in the connecting
rod small end. This permits the connecting rod to swivel as required by the combined reciprocal
and rotary motion of piston and crank shaft.

2.The piston pin is fastened to the connecting rod by means of a bolt and uses the piston bosses for
bearings. Nowadays, bolt has been replaced by interference fit.

3.A floating pin is used which is free in both the connecting rod and piston. This arrangement is most
commonly used. Circlips are used to prevent end movements.

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Fig (a) Piston pin fastened to piston

Fig. (b) Piston pin locked to connecting rod

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Fig. (c) Floating Piston Pin
1.13 CO NECTING ROD
The connecting rods are used to connect pistons to the crank shaft. The upper end of
rod oscillates (swing back and forth) while the lower and or big end rotates (turns). It converts
reciprocating motion of the piston in to rotary motion of the crank shaft. The upper end of the
rod has a hole through it for the piston pin. The lower end must be split type. A combination
of axial and bending stresses act on the rod in operation. The axial stresses are due to gas
pressure in the cylinder and inertia force caused by reciprocating motion. Bending stresses are
caused due to centrifugal effects. Connecting rods are manufactured by casting and forging
processes. The rod has an I-beam cross section to provide maximum rigidity with minimum
weight. Generally rods are made by drop forging of steel or duralumin and also cast from
malleable cast iron.

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Fig.

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Fig. Connecting Rod

1.14 CRANK SHAFT
The crank shaft provides a constant turning force to the wheels. It receives the power from
connecting rods and subsequently transmits to the wheels. Crank shafts are made of alloy steel
or cast iron.

Fig. Crank Shaft

A simplified sketch of the crank shaft for a four cylinder engine is as-in figure 1.14(a). It
consists of
I. Main journals 2.Crank pins
3.Crank webs 4.Counter
weights

5.Oil holes.

The crank shaft is held in position by a number of main bearings and they form axis for
the rotation of crank shaft. Their number is always one more or one less than the number of
cylinders. The crank pins are the journals for the connecting rod big end bearings and are
supported by the crank webs. The distance between the axis of the main journal and the crank pin
centre lines is called 'crank through'. Oil holes are drilled from main journals to the crank pins
through 'crank webs for lubricating big end bearings.

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When the engine is running, due to rotation of both crank shaft and connecting rod big
end, each crank pin will be subjected to centrifugal forces. This will tend to bend the crank
shaft. To avoid this counter weights are used. The counter weights are formed as integral part
of the crank web or may be attached separately as in fig. 1.14(b) and 1.14( c).

On the front of the crank shaft, it is mounted with

i) Timing gear or sprocket which drives the crank shaft.
ii) Vibration damper iii) Pulley for driving the water pump, fan and the generator. On the rear
end, it is mounted with a fly wheel.

On the main bearing journals, thrust bearing is located so as to support the loads in the
direction of shaft axis. Such loads may arise due to clutch release forces etc.

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Fig. Integral Fig. Attached separately

1.15 (a) Valves
Each engine cylinder has two valves however some special racing engines use four
valves per cylinder. Air fuel mixture is admitted to the engine through inlet valve and burned
gases escape through the exhaust valve. The valves also must seal the combustion space
tightly.

Since air-fuel mixture admits into cylinder with lesser speed compared to velocity of
exhaust gases which Icaves under pressure, inlet valves are made larger than exhaust valves.
The inlet and exhaust valves are 45% and 38% of the cylinder bore respectively. The valve
face angle with the plane of valve head is usually kept 45° or 30°. The movement of the
valves is actuated by an eccentric projection called a cam moving on a rotating shaft - the cam
shaft.

The inlet and exhaust valves uses different materials as they are subjected to different
operating conditions. The inlet valves are exposed to a temperature of 5000 C and exhaust valves

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have to operate in more severe conditions. To prevent burning, the valve must give off heat to the
valve guide and to the valve seat.

Silicon - Chrome steel (Carbon - 0.4%, nickel- 0.5%, manganese - 0.5%, silicon -
3.5%, chromium - 8%) is the material used for inlet valves. For exhaust valves, molybdenum is
added to it. Recently austenitic steels are used for exhaust valves. To make it corrosion
resistant, the valve may be coated with aluminium.

The engine valves may be classified into

I. Poppet valve
2.Sleeve valve
3.Rotary valve
Poppet valve is universally used for automobile engines.

Poppet Valve
Its name is derived due to its motion of popping up and down. As the shape resembles a
mushroom, this valve is also called as 'mushroom' valve. It consists of a head and a stem. It is
simple in construction and self centering. Seal ing efficiency maintenance is much easier with
this poppet valve. 1.15 (b) Valve Cooling

It is necessary to cool the exhaust valve directly or indirectly as it reaches very high
temperature i.e. about 750°C or even more. Therefore cooling of exhaust valves becomes very
important and is done by providing cooling water jackets near the valve.

Fig (a) Poppet Valve Fig. (b) Sodium Cooled Valve

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In some heavy duty engines and air craft engines, sodium cooled valves are used. These
valves have a hollow head and stem which is partly filled (about 40% volume of the stem)
with sodium or a mixture of salts. Sodium is a high conductivity metal which melts at 105°
C.lt is in liquid state at operating temperatures. When the valve is in operation, the up and
down movement of sodium transfers the heat to the stem, valve guide, cylinder block and to
the cooling water circulating in water jackets. This arrangements cools the valve by about
100° C.The sodium goes up and absorbs heat from valve head and while coming down
transfer heat to stem etc.

1.16 VALVE ACTUATING MECHANISMS

The valves located in .he cylinder head are operated by an eccentric projection called cam
which is driven at half the crank shaft speed. Different valve operating mechanisms are used
and are classified in to

a) Side valve mechanism

b) Over head valve mechanism
c) Over head inlet and side exhaust valve mechanism.

a) Side Valve Mechanism: This mechanism is used for L-head engines. In this type, inlet
and exhaust valves are mounted in a single row and operated from the same crank shaft.
Nowadays, this mechanism is obsolete due to complicated shape of the combustion chamber
which leads to detonation.

b) Over Head Valve Mechanism: This mechanism is suitable for I and F head designs. The
cam operates the valve lifter which in turn actuates the push rod. This action rotates the rocker
arm about a shaft or a ball joint in some designs, to cause one end to push down on the valve
stem to open the valve.

Advantages
1.Higher volumetric efficiency.
2.Leaner air-fuel mixtures can be burnt.
3.Higher compressions can be used.

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Fig. Detailed view of side valve mechanism

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Fig. (a) Side valve mechanism. Fig. (b) Over head valve mechanism

Fig. (c) Overhead inlet and side exhaust Fig. (d) Cam shaft valve
mechanism

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Fig. (e) Valve lifter Fig (1) Valve operation

1.17 COMPONENTS OF THE VALVE ACTUATING MECHANISMS

The essential components of a valve actuating mechanism are
(a) Cam Shaft: It provides a means for opening the valves. It carries one cam for each valve to be
operated. It also provides a drive for the ignition distributor and the mechanical fuel pump. The
cam shaft is driven by the crank shaft by means of timing gears or chain drive at half the speed of
crank shaft. It is forged from alloy steel or cast from hardenable cast iron and is case hardened.

(b) Valve tappet (valve lifter or cam follower) : It follows the shape of the cam lobe on the cam
shaft and hence converts angular movement of the cam in to a reciprocating motion. This is placed
slightly eccentric with earn to make the cam wear uniform and is located between push rod and
cam.

(c) Push Rod: This is placed between valve tappet and rocker arm and transmits reciprocating
motion of valve tappet to the rocker arm. Push rods are made of steel and may be either solid or
hollow. Hollow push rod is lighter and results in reduced inertia forces. It provides a passage for
the oil to lubricate the valve actuating mechanism.

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(d) Rocker Arm: It may be solid or hollow and changes (reverse) the upward motion of the
push rod to down ward motion of the valve and vice versa. It is made of steel (forged or
stamped) or iron ( cast).

1.18 VALVE AND PORT TIMING DIAGRAMS

The valve timing diagram is one which represents position of crank when the valves (both inlet
and exhaust) opens and closes.

When a valve opens or closes, how fast it will rise, how long it will stay open and how
fast it will close depends on the shape of cam lobe and position of cam shaft in relation to the
crank shaft. The exact number of degrees that a valve will open or close before top or bottom
dead centre varies widely, depending on engine design. This diagram shows the crank position
when various operation (suction, compression etc.) in an engine begin and end.

Theoretically, we know that inlet valve should open when piston is at TOC before
suction and close when piston is at BOC after performing suction stroke. The exhaust valve
should open when piston is at BOC before exhaust stroke and should close at the end of
exhaust, when the piston is at TDC to complete a cycle. But the valves require a finite period
of time to open and close without abruptness. Therefore, a slight lead time is necessary for
proper operation of the engine.

The actual valve timing diagrams for a 4-stroke Spark-Ignition engine and diesel engines
are as shown in figures 1.17 (a) and (b) respectively.

1. Inlet Valve: The inlet valve should open few degrees prior to the arrival of the piston at
TOC during exhaust stroke of previous cycle. This ensures full open of the valve and entry of
fresh charge in to the cylinder as soon as the piston begins to descend. If the inlet valve closes
at BOC, the cylinder would receive less charge. To avoid this the inlet valve is kept open for
few degrees of rotation of the crank after suction stroke i.e., the inlet valve closing is delayed.

As engine speed increases, the inlet valve closing is delayed longer.

2. Exhaust Valve: It is necessary to open the exhaust valve before the piston reaches end of
expansion stroke. Even though this wastes some of the force of expansion, it removes greater
part of burned gases, reducing the amount of work to be done by the piston on it's-return
stroke.

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It is seen from the valve timing diagram that both the valves (inlet and exhaust)
overlap for 13 degrees of crank rotation. In petrol engine, more overlapping is not advisable,
because air and fuel mixture may pass out with the exha~st gases and is uneconomical. But in diesel
engine, only air is drawn during suction stroke and hence such problem will not arise.

This overlapping helps in scavenging, resulting in an increased output.

Fig. (a) Actual valve timing diagram for a 4S - S.1. Engine

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Fig. (b) Actual valve timing diagram for a 4S - Diesel engine

3. Ignition: There is always a time lag between the spark and ignition of the charge. The
charge takes some time to burn after giving the spark. Therefore, it is necessary to produce the
spark early to obtain proper combustion without losses. The angle through which the spark is
given earlier is 'Ignition advance' or 'angle of advance'. In diesel engines, the opening of fuel
valve before TDC is necessary for better evaporation and mixing of the fuel. There is always
lag between ignition and supply of fuel results in early supply of fuel.

Fig. (a) Port timing diagram for 2Spetrol engine fig. (b) Port timing diagram for 2S diesel engine

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IG Ignition
EPO - Exhaust port opens EPC -
Exhaust port closes
IPO (TPO) -Inlet or transfer port opens IPC
(TPC) -Inlet or transfer port closes FVO -
Fuel valve opens FVC Fuel valve closes.
The port timing diagrams for two stroke petrol and diesel engines are as shown in figures l8(a) and
(b).

The main difference between these two is, the charging and scavenging period in the
diesel engine is (90°) greater than that off or petrol engine (70°). This is because there is no
danger of loss of fuel during scavenging of diesel engine.

1.19 COMBUSTION CHAMBER DESIGNS FOR S.I. AND C.I. ENGINES

(a) In S.I. Engines
The combustion chamber design includes shape of combustion chamber, spark plug
location and deposition of inlet and exhaust valves and it affects on the engine performance and
it's knocking properties.

The three basic requirements of a SI Engine combustion chamber are high power
output with minimum octane requirement. High thermal efficiency and smooth engine operation.

These requirements can be achieved by the following design principles.

I. Largest possible valve should be provided with ample clearance to obtain high volumetric
efficiency.

2.The heat flow should be minimum in the zone around sparking plug to obtain high thermal
efficiency.

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3.To prevent detonation the length of flame travel from the spark plug to 'the farthest point in
the combustion space should be as short as possible. This involves spark plug location, valve
position, shape of the combustion chamber.

4.The combustion chamber should be shaped such that the largest mass of the charge burns in a
short time after ignition.

5.Short combustion time is achieved by creating the highest flame front velocity through the
creation of high turbulence.

6.The compression ratio can be increased as far as possible for a given type of fuel to obtain
maximum thermal efficiency.

The figure 1.19 a, b, c & d shows different types of combustion chambers and are
designed to obtain high combustion rate at the start, a high surface to volume ratio near the
end of burning and centrally located spark plug.

The T -head design was introduced in ford T model in 1908. It had the disadvantages
(i) Having two cam shaft; (ii) Being very prone to detonation, the distance across the
combustion chamber was long.

L-head types

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I-head T-head
Fig. Design of combustion chambers in S1 engines
Side valve engine was introduced in petrol engines, in 1910 - 30. In this type valves are
placed side by side. It is easy to lubricate the valve mechanism. It had the defects like lack of
turbulence, extremely prone to detonation, slow combustion process etc.

(b) In C.I. Engines

There are many types of combustion chambers used in C.I. Engines. Anyone of these
combustion chambers may produce good results in one field of application, but poor results or less
desirable results in another application

Fig. Design of combustion chambers in CI engines

The open combustion chamber is a non-turbulent type. This is ordinarily used on low speed
engines. Less costly fuels with longer ignition delay may be used with this design.

The turbulent chamber, pre combustion chamber and energy cell are variations of
turbulent type of chamber. All these types tend to exhibit the same general characteristics.

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This type depends on turbulence to produce the required mixing of fuel and air. This does not
require as much excess air as non turbulent type. These are suitable for variable speed
operation and also produce smoother operating engines.

1.20 METHODS FOR SWIRL GENERATION

In C.I. engine fuel is injected near the end of compression and mixing of fuel and air
take place inside the combustion chamber. Thus combustion chamber has to perform duty of a
carburetor, within a period of some20 to 35 degrees of crank angle. The combustion chamber
design should be such that it has to provide proper mixing of fuel and air in a short time. To
achieve this, an organized air movement, called air swirl is provided to produce high relative
velocity between the fuel droplets and air. Different methods are used to generate air swirl in a
CI engine combustion chamber. They are

1.By directing air flow during its entry to the cylinder known as induction swirl. This method is
used in open combustion chambers.

2. During compression, air is forced through a tangential passage in to a separate swirl

Chamber known as compression swirl. This method is employed in swirl chambers.

3. By use of the initial pressure rise due to partial combustion to create swirl turbulence,
known as combustion induced swirl. This method is used in pre combustion chambers and
air cell chambers.

Open combustion chamber is one in which the combustion space is essentially a single
cavity with little restriction and hence there are no pressure differences between different parts
of the chamber during the combustion process. There are many designs of open combustion
chambers used in conjunction with induction swirl. In a 4S 'engine induction swirl can be
obtained by i) Careful formation of the air intake passages
ii) By making or shrouding a portion of the circumference of the inlet valve.
In a 2S engine, the induction swirl is created by suitable inlet port forms. The induction swirl
generally weak in intensity.

A swirl chamber or divided combustion chamber is one in which the combustion space
is divided into two or more compartments, between which there are restrictions or throats

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small enough so that considerable pressure differences occur between them during the
combustion process. In compression swirl a very strong swirl which increases with speed is
generated. Due to strong swirl, a single orifice injector with low injection pressure isrequired.
Also there is greater utilization air, results in higher mean effective pressure.

The turbulent combustion chambers using combustion induced swirl are not much
favoured now a days. In this type, the two important designs are pre combustion chamber and air
cell combustion chamber. The pre combustion chamber uses single hole pintle type of nozzle
and the initial shock of combustion is limited to pre combustion chamber only. It has multi fuel
capability without any modification in the injection system. The air cell chamber design are
smooth running and easy starting.

1.21 ENGINE RATING

All engines are rated in Power - the measure of rate at which they can do work. There are
two ways of measuring engine power - (1) The power developed by expansion of gases in the
cylinder can be determined by using indicator cards (indicated power) ; (2) By means of
measuring instruments like a prony brake or a dynamometer, the actual power which an
engine delivers can be determined (brake power).

The general methods used to define rated power of an automobile engine are
1.Maximum load carried by the engine continuously. This load is indicated on the basis of mean
effective pressure kpa. for petrol engines M.E.P varies from 640 kpa.

2. Maximum power developed by the engine. In this case the engines are rated in terms of their
maximum capacity. i.e, maximum B.P. that can be developed.

3. Using conventional formula (RAC Ring). For taxation purposes, the Royal Automobile club
made certain assumption for finding out B.P. for a 4S automobile engines. This B.P. is much
less than obtained in case (2) represents the RAC rating of engine.

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The assumptions are

Piston Speed - 1000 ft/min

mep - 90 psi
Mechanical efficiency – 75%
2
Bp – (d n)/2.5 Where d = diameter of the cylinder, inches

n = number of cylinders.
Engine Components
I. Cylinders
2.Oil Pan
3. Inlet and exhaust manifold
4.Cylinder liners
5. Piston
6. Piston ring
7. Piston pin
8. Connecting rod
9. Crank shaft
Materials & their composition
a) Grey cast iron (carbon present in the form of flakes of graphite which makes it more Wear
and corrosions resistant) carbon - 3.5%, silicon -2.5%, manganese - 0.65%. Carbon serves to
provide graphite which improves lubrication, silicon provides wear resistance while
manganese increases the strength and toughness.

b) Aluminium alloys-silicon - II %, manganese - 0.5%, magnesium - 0.4%. Silicon reduces

expansion and increases strength and wear resistance, manganese and magnesium improves
strength of aluminium structure. Pressed steel sheet Cast Iron Special alloy iron containing
silicon, manganese, nickel and chromium Cast-iron, aluminium alloy containing silicon.

Special alloy (La - ex alloy).

Fine- grained alloy cast iron containing silicon and manganese, chromium plated types. Low
carbon case hardened steel; carbon-I 5%, silicon - 0.3%, manganese - 0.5% and remainder
iron

a) Drop forging of steel or duralumin

b) Cast from malleable or spherical graphite cast iron. Cast steel, S.G. Iron (in case of
casting) SAE steels, 1045 and 3140, chrome-vanadium and chrome molybdenum
steels (forging)

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1.23 NUMBERING OF ENGINE CYLINDERS

In multi cylinder engines, the power strokes in various cylinders are not continuous one
after the other, to obtain better engine performance. For example in a 4-cylinder engine the
order is not kept as 1-2-3-4, but is kept as 1-3-4-2 or 1-4-3-2. For a 6-cylinder in line engine,
the firing order is 1-5-3-6-2-4 and in a V-8 engine it is 1-5-4-2-6-3-7-8. In case of in line
engines, cylinders numbering is done from front to the rear, the number one being at the front as
in fig. 1.21 (a). In V engines adopted by Ford motor company, one group of cylinders are
numbered 1 to 4 with number 1 at the front as in fig. 1.21 (b). Similarly other row is
numbered from 5 to 8, with 5 at the front end. In another type used by general motors’ the
cylinders numbering depends on the connecting rods arrangement, starting with number one at the
front of the crank shaft [fig. 1.21 (c)].

Fig numbering of engine cylinders

1.24 ENGINE POSITION

The engine may be conveniently placed on the chassis in different positions as given below (a) Front
Position

In most of the lighter vehicles (both private and commercial), the engine is placed at the
front and conventionally rear wheel drives are used. In some of the vehicles drive is also given to
front wheels only. The engine position remains 'the same in heavy commercial vehicles, but the cab
is brought forward over the engine to increase the pay load. The engine position at the front with
rear wheel drive system needs greater length of propeller shafts, as it has to run from front (

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engine side) to the rear (road wheels) of the vehicle. Also, in this system, the number of universal
joints required are more.

(b) Rear Position

In this system, the engine is mounted close to the back axle, thereby reducing the
length of drive from engine to the axle. In this position, length of propeller shaft required is
reduced and is suitable for small cars. This position provides more space to the passengers,
results in economy of drive parts and also better engine service is possible. The fixing of gear
shift lever, oil gauge and fuel gauges, accelerator linkage is very complicated due to missing
of natural draft of air during forward motion of vehicle to the radiator.

The major portion of total weight of the vehicle lies on the rear wheels and hence
helping in traction up the hill. With rear position of the engine, the luggage has to be
accommodated at front, near the driver seat, which is a problem as wheel arches are already
occupied a large place there.

(c) Under Floor Position

This position of the engine is in the centre, under the chassis and is used in public
service vehicles and heavy lorries. This position of the engine, eliminates the heat and noise in
the cab. In this position the advantages of gravitational flow of the fuel and lubricants are also
taken. It also reduces length of the drive shaft from engine to rear axle. The engine repairs and
hence maintenances are easy.

ENGINE COOLING SYSTEM

In the process of converting thermal energy in to mechanical work, as a result of
combustion, high temperatures are produced. This heat is transferred to the cylinder walls,
piston and valves. Unless these parts are adequately cooled, the engine will be damaged. A
part of total fuel energy is converted in to mechanical work and rest is rejected in the form of
I. Heat from engine surface by combined action of conduction, convection and radiation.

2.Heat lost to exhaust.

3.Heat rejected in to the coolant.

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In general, engine converts 30 percent of total fuel energy in to useful work, 30

percent is lost in exhaust heat and cooling system has to remove 30 percent heat energy to
maintain engine temperature. Some energy lost occurs in friction, compression etc. The cooling
system maintains . temperature of engine components within certain limits and increases engine
performance.

Cooling beyond optimum limits is not desirable as it decreases the overall efficiency due to
following reasons.

l. More lost of heat to cylinder walls causes decrease, in thermal efficiency.

2. Combustion efficiency decreases due to less evaporation of fuel at lower temperature.
3. At lower temperature, viscosity of lubricant increases and results in more frictional losses. This
reduces overall efficiency.

Fig. (a): Coolant flows through an engine Fig (b) : Coolant flow path in a system using a down - flow radiator.

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Fig. (c): Typical radiator. Water enters the top hose connection - I, then passes into top tank 2.
From there it flows down through core tubes 3. When it reaches bottom tank 4, it has cooled. 5
- Lower hose connections. 6 - Drain petcock.

1.25 NEED FOR ENGINE COOLING

The engine cooling is necessary due to following reasons.
I.As engine temperature increases, the strength of materials used for various engine
components decreases. As an example, in water cooled engines the temperature of cylinder
head should not exceed 270°C, and for air cooled engines, uses light alloys, the temperature
should not exceed 200°C.

2. The lubricating oil used in the engine also decides the maximum temperature that can be
used. For different lubricating oils, this temperature range varies from 1600 to 200°C. If the
engine temperature exceeds this limit, it may deteriorates the lubricating oil or evaporate and
burn to cause piston and cylinder damage. Over heating results in piston seizing also.

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2. High cylinder head temperature result in loss of volumetric efficiency and reduces power
output.

3. High engine temperature may cause pre ignition and detonation.

1.26 METHODS OF COOLING

I. Air cooling
2. Water cooling

1.271 Air Cooling: Here, the air stream flows continuously over the heated metal surface and the
rate of heat dissipation depends on surface area of metal, air mass flow rate, thermal
conductivity of metal. temperature difference between metal surface and air.

To increase the effectiveness, the metal surface area which is in contact with air
should be increased. This is done by providing fins over cylinder barrels. The fins may be cast
integral with the cylinder or may be attached separately.

Advantages:
I. Absence of radiator cooling jackets and coolant reduces weight of the system.

2. Air cooled engines are useful in extreme climates, where water may freeze.

3. These engines warms up earlier than water cooled engines.

4. Easy maintenance as there is no leakage problem.

Disadvantages:
I. These are more noisy, because of absence of cooling water which acts as sound insulator.
2. Heat transfer co-efficient for air is less. Hence less efficient cooling and results in decrease of
highest useful compression ratio.

3. Distortion of cylinder may occur due to uneven cooling all around the cylinder.

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Fig. Cylinder with Fins

1.272 Water Cooling: In these systems, the water jackets surrounds engine cylinders ana
cooling water flows through these jackets. Heat is conducted through the cylinder walls to the
water in the jackets which removes the excess heat as it circulates through the radiator.

Water cooling systems are classified into two types. a.

Thermosyphon system.

b. Pump circulation system .

a) Thermosyphon system: In this system the engine is connected to radiator through

flexible hoses. The difference in densities of hot and cold regions of cooling water causes
water circulation between engine and radiator. The water in circulation absorbs heat from
engine cylinder and hence cool it. The heat from the water is then dissipated into atmosphere
through the radiator by conduction and convection. This cools the water which is required for
further circulation. Sometimes fans are used behind the radiator to increase the air mass flow
rate and- hence to increase cooling efficiency.

b) Pump circulation system: This system is similar to thermosyphon system explained

above.

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The only difference is cooling water circulation is affected by means of a pump and a thermostat
valve controls the temperature of water.

Fig. (a): Thermosyphon Cooling System

Fig. .Pump Circulation System

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Advantages of this system over Thermosyphon system are:

I. No need to place the radiator header tank above the engine level, as water circulation is
effected by pump.

2. Radiator may be placed on the side or on the rear, if necessary.

3. Cooling water circulation is proportional to both load and speed.
4. Because of efficient cooling, water jacket size can be reduced. This results in over all decrease
in engine size.

1.28 THERMOSTAT VALVES

It is to be noted that the cooling beyond optimum limits is not desirable as it decreases
the over all efficiency of the engine. A thermostat is used to regulate the rate of cooling. It
keeps the cooling water temperature at a predetermined value.

Two types of thermostats are used in automobiles.

I. Bellows or aueroid type
2. Wax or hydrostatic type
1.281 Bellows type thermostat:

Fig.Bellows type thermostats

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This thermostat consists of metallic bellows filled with some volatile liquids like alcohol,
acetone, ether etc., whose boiling temperature ranges between 70-85°C. One end of bellows
contains a valve and to the other end a frame is attached' which fits in to the cooling passage. The
thermostat is fitted in the water hose pipe at the engine outlet. After the engine has started,
cooling system should not operate during warming up duration~ that engine warms up early. During
this warming up period, the liquid inside the bellows has not yet changed its state and hence does
not exert any pressure on the valve. Therefore the valve remains in closed position.

If the temperature of the cooling water exceeds a pre-determined as 80°C the liquid inside the
bellows. Vaporizes and exerts a pressure on the valve. The valve opens and allows water circulation
through the radiator, As water temperature rises, valve opens gradually, thus controls the flow of water
through the radiator according to engine cooling requirement.

1.282 Wax thermostat:

It is also known as Dole thermostat. This thermostat is more reliable to operate within the
specified temperature range and is not sensitive to pressure variations. The heat carried by the coolant
is transmitted to the copper loaded wax having high thermal expansion coefficient. The expansion of
copper loaded wax makes the rubber plug to contract against the plunger and hence exerts a force
on it in upward direction. This makes the plunger to move upward and opens a valve in the
thermostat (Not shown). This allows the coolant to flow through the radiator.

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Fig. Wax thermostat

1.29 ENGINE LUBRICATION
Lubrication is the most important phase of vehicle maintenance. Without lubrication,
engine cannot run smoothly even a few minutes. Inadequate lubrication results in engine
troubles like scored cylinders, burned out bearings, misfiring cylinders, dirty spark plugs,
stuck piston rings, engine deposits and sludge and more fuel consumption.

Dry or solid friction is a result of direct contact between two metallic surfaces or due
to inter locking of irregularities on metal surfaces, produces lot of heat and causes wear of the
metal surface.

Hydrodynamic lubrication means, introduction of lubricating oil between two surfaces.

There is no physical contact between them and only resistance to motion is resistance offered
by the oil itself.

In boundary lubrication, the introduction of lubricant between surfaces will not cause
complete separation between them. The surfaces touch at their high spots. Boundary
lubrication exist in piston rings and valve train.

1.30 OBJECTS OF LUBRICATION

The main objects of lubrication are
I. It reduces power loss by minimizing friction between moving parts.
II.Decreases wear and tear of the moving components.

The lubrication also serves other purposes like,

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1. Cooling effect: The lubricant absorbs heat from hot moving parts and dissipates it to the
surrounding air through the crank case.

2. Cushioning effect: The lubricant serves as a good cushion against shocks present in the
engine. For example, instant combustion causes sudden pressure rise and the resultant shock goes
to the bearings through piston, piston pin and connecting rod. Then the lubricant present in the
main bearings absorbs this shock.

3. To act as cleaning agent: As lubricating oil circulates, it absorbs so many impurities and oil may
be further purified by filtration. Ex.: oil dissolves carbon particles during its circulation.
4. Sealing action: It maintains an effective seal on the piston rings and avoids entry of high
pressure gases into the crank case.

1.31 ENGINE LUBRICATION SYSTEMS

In an automobile engine, various systems adopted for lubrication are classified in to
1. Petrol-oil system (Mist lubrication).
2. Wet sump system.
a) Splash lubrication b)Pressure feed lubrication 3.Dry
sump system
1. Petro-oil System: In this method some amount of lubricating oil is directly mixed with the
petrol. i.e., about 25 to 30ml. of oil mixes with one litre of petrol. If oil is less, it causes damage
to the engine. If addition of oil is more, there may be excessive carbon deposits in the cylinder head
and produces poor emissions. This method is used in scooter and motor cycles [two-stroke
engines].

2. Wet Sump System: In this system, the crank case contains an oil pan or sump that serves as the
oil supply or reservoir tank. It also serves as the oil cooler. Oil from the cylinders and bearings
flows by gravity back into the wet sump from where it is pumped and recirculated to the engine
lubricating system. The wet sump system is again classified into a) Splash lubrication system.

b) Pressure feed system.

c) Semi pressure feed system.
a) Splash Lubrication System: It is the cheapest method of lubrication and was used in early
motor cycles. The lower end of the connecting rod consists of a scoop like structure as in the
figure. The oil is stored in the oil trough (being delivered from the crank case oil sump).

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When the engine runs, the connecting rod oscillates and the scoop takes the oil from oil
trough and splashes on to the cylinder walls each time when it passes through BDC position.
This lubricates engine walls, gudgeon pin, main crank shaft bearings, big end bearings etc.
The oil dripping from the cylinder walls, collects in the tank where it is cooled by air flow.

Fig. Splash lubrication system

b) Pressure Feed System: This system is most commonly used in modern car engines. In
this system, the oil forces oil under pressure to the main bearings, connecting rod and cam
shaft bearings and also to the timing gears. Drilled assuages in the crank shaft carry oil from
the main bearings to the connecting rod bearings. The cylinder walls! piston pin, piston and
piston rings are lubricated by oil spray from the connecting rod and crank shaft. For the cam
shaft and timing gears, there is a separate oil line from the main oil gallery. The basic
components of the wet lubricating system are pump, strainer, pressure regulator, filter etc.

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Fig. Full pressure feed lubrication system

3. Dry Sump Lubricating System: In this system, two pumps are used. The ump 'A' is called
scavenging pump and is located in the crank case portion as in figure. The oil from this pump is
carne to an external tank i.e., reservoir. The pressure urn '8' urn s the oil through filter to the cylinder
and bearings. Oil dripping from cylinder and bearings in to the sump is again removed by
scavenging pump (sump pump), which supplies oil to the reservoir. As the capacity of sump
pump is greater than oil pump, oil will not be accumulated in the engine base. The oil pump
draws oil from the supply tank and delivers it under pressure to the engine bearings and oil pressure
of 400-500 kpa is maintained in main and big end bearings. A pressure of about 50-100 kpa is
maintained in timing gears and cam shaft bearings etc. This system is suitable for lubricating sport
cars, jeeps etc.

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Fig. Dry sump lubrication system

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Module-4
FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEMS FOR SI AND CI ENGINES

2.1 INTRODUCTION

In an engine, the combustion of fuel with oxygen in the combustion chamber provides the
energy necessary to drive the piston. In a SI engine, the liquid fuel and the air are generally
mixed prior to their arrival in the combustion chamber i.e., outside the engine cylinder. The
process of preparing this mixture is called carburetion. The basic fuel supply system in a
petrol engine consists of a fuel tank, furl lines, fuel pump, fuel filters, air cleaner, carburetor
and inlet manifold. The system responsible for preparing the correct mixture of air and fuel,
and directing this mixture to each of the cylinders is known as "Induction System". The Intake
manifold is the ducting or piping through which the fuel and air mixture travels from the
carburetor to the cylinder. The throttle in the carburetor regulates the quantity of mixture
entering the cylinder. The carburetor is a device which atomizes the fuel and mixes it with air.

Fig Diagram of induction system

2.2 CONVENTIONAL FUELS:

Traditional energy sources or fossil fuels (petroleum, oil, coal, propane, and natural gas). In some
cases nuclear materials such as uranium are also included. Some conventional sources typically used
are fossil fuels, nuclear power, hydropower, and geothermal energy.

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Fossil Fuels

Clean coal technologies imply much greater processing to reduce final emissions.The resources
deplete with use, so the prices will increase when demand chases supply.

Hydropower

The larger hydropower dams are in place. Some want them removed, claiming that the
electricity can be offset by improved efficiency and conservation. Smaller dams are being
removed, yet they may be installed in other locations.

Nuclear

Nuclear energy has a social problem, and only now are new plants being considered. Without
reprocessing "spent fuel", the time to peak ore extraction is about 80 years.

Geothermal

Geothermal energy is possible in non geyser areas where air conditioning and heating can make
use of the ground heat flux.

2.3 ALTERNATIVE FUELS:

Alternative fuels, known as non-conventional or advanced fuels, are any materials or

substances that can be used as fuels, other than conventional fuels. Conventional fuels include:
fossil fuels (petroleum (oil), coal, and natural gas), as well as nuclear materials such as
uranium and thorium, as well as artificial radioisotope fuels that are made in nuclear reactors.
Some well known alternative fuels include biodiesel, bio alcohol (methanol, ethanol,
butanol) chemically stored electricity (batteries and fuel cells), hydrogen, nonfossil methane,
non fossil natural gas, vegetable oil, propane, and other biomass sources

Bio-fuel: Bio-fuels are also considered a renewable source. Although renewable energy is used
mostly to generate electricity, it is often assumed that some form of renewable energy or a
percentage is used to create alternative fuels.

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Biomass: Biomass in the energy production industry is living and recently dead biological
material which can be used as fuel or for industrial production.
Algae-based fuels: Algae-based bio-fuels have been promoted in the media as a potential
panacea to crude oil-based transportation problems. Algae could yield more than 2000 gallons of
fuel per acre per year of production. Algae based fuels are being successfully tested by the
U.S. Navy Algae-based plastics show potential to reduce waste and the cost per pound of algae
plastic is expected to be cheaper than traditional plastic prices

Biodiesel: Biodiesel is made from animal fats or vegetable oils, renewable resources that come
from plants such as, jatropha, soybean, sunflowers, corn, olive, peanut, palm, coconut, safflower,
canola, sesame, cottonseed, etc. Once these fats or oils are filtered from their hydrocarbons
and then combined with alcohol like methanol, biodiesel is brought to life from this chemical
reaction. These raw materials can either be mixed with pure diesel to make various
proportions, or used alone. Despite one’s mixture preference, biodiesel will release smaller
number of pollutants (carbon monoxide particulates and hydrocarbons) than conventional diesel,
because biodiesel burns both cleanly and more efficiently. Even with regular diesel’s reduced
quantity of sulfur from the ULSD (ultra-low sulfur diesel) invention, biodiesel exceeds those
levels because it is sulfur-free

Alcohol fuels: Methanol and ethanol fuel are primary sources of energy; they are convenient
fuels for storing and transporting energy. These alcohols can be used in internal combustion
engines as alternative fuels. Butanol has another advantage: it is the only alcohol-based motor fuel
that can be transported readily by existing petroleum-product pipeline networks, instead of only by
tanker trucks and railroad cars

Ammonia: Ammonia (NH3) can be used as fuel. Benefits of ammonia include no need for oil, zero
emissions, low cost, and distributed production reducing transport and related pollution

Carbon neutral fuel: Carbon neutral fuel is synthetic fuel—such as methane, gasoline, diesel fuel or jet fuel
produced from renewable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from
power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater.

Hydrogen: Hydrogen is an emission less fuel. The byproduct of hydrogen burning is water,
although some mono-nitrogen oxides NOx are produced when hydrogen is burned with air

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Liquid nitrogen is another type of emission less fuel.

Compressed air : The air engine is an emission-free piston engine using compressed air as
fuel. Unlike hydrogen, compressed air is about one-tenth as expensive as fossil oil, making it
an economically attractive alternative fuel.
CNG fuel: CNG vehicles can use both renewable CNG and non-renewable CNG.
Conventional CNG is produced from the many underground natural gas reserves are in
widespread production worldwide today. New technologies such as horizontal drilling and
hydraulic fracturing to economically access unconventional gas resources, appear to have
increased the supply of natural gas in a fundamental way.

Renewable natural gas or biogas is a methane based gas with similar properties to natural gas
that can be used as transportation fuel. Present sources of biogas are mainly landfills, sewage,
and animal/agri waste. Based on the process type, biogas can be divided into the following:
Biogas produced by anaerobic digestion, Landfill gas collected from landfills, treated to
remove trace contaminants, and Synthetic Natural Gas (SNG)

HCNG

HCNG (or H2CNG) is a mixture of compressed natural gas and 4-9 percent hydrogen by energy.

2.4 NORMAL COMBUSTION & ABNORMAL COMBUSTION

NORMAL COMBUSTION:

Under ideal conditions the common internal combustion engine burns the fuel/air mixture in
the cylinder in an orderly and controlled fashion. The combustion is started by the spark plug
some 10 to 40 crankshaft degrees prior to top dead center (TDC), depending on many factors
including engine speed and load. This ignition advance allows time for the combustion
process to develop peak pressure at the ideal time for maximum recovery of work from the
expanding gases.

The spark across the spark plug's electrodes forms a small kernel of flame approximately the
size of the spark plug gap. As it grows in size, its heat output increases, which allows it to
grow at an accelerating rate, expanding rapidly through the combustion chamber. This growth
is due to the travel of the flame front through the combustible fuel air mix itself, and due to
turbulence which rapidly stretches the burning zone into a complex of fingers of burning gas

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that have a much greater surface area than a simple spherical ball of flame would have. In normal
combustion, this flame front moves throughout the fuel/air mixture at a rate characteristic for the
particular mixture. Pressure rises smoothly to a peak, as nearly all the available fuel is consumed,
then pressure falls as the piston descends. Maximum cylinder pressure is achieved a few
crankshaft degrees after the piston passes TDC, so that the force applied on the piston (from the
increasing pressure applied to the top surface of the piston) can give its hardest push precisely when
the piston's speed and mechanical advantage on the crank shaft gives the best recovery of force from
the expanding gases, thus maximizing torque transferred to the crank shaft.

ABNORMAL COMBUSTION:

When unburned fuel/air mixture beyond the boundary of the flame front is subjected to a
combination of heat and pressure for a certain duration (beyond the delay period of the fuel used),
detonation may occur. Detonation is characterized by an instantaneous, explosive ignition of at least
one pocket of fuel/air mixture outside of the flame front. A local shockwave is created around each
pocket and the cylinder pressure may rise sharply beyond its design limits.

If detonation is allowed to persist under extreme conditions or over many engine cycles, engine
parts can be damaged or destroyed. The simplest deleterious effects are typically particle wear
caused by moderate knocking, which may further ensue through the engine's oil system and cause
wear on other parts before being trapped by the oil filter. Severe knocking can lead to catastrophic
failure in the form of physical holes punched through the piston or cylinder head (i.e., rupture of
the combustion chamber), either of which depressurizes the affected cylinder and introduces large
metal fragments, fuel, and combustion products into the oil system. Hypereutectic pistons are known
to break easily from such shock waves

Fig.Normal combustion

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Fig.Combustion with Detonation

Detonation can be prevented by any or all of the following techniques:

The use of a fuel with high octane rating, which increases the
combustion temperature of the fuel and reduces the proclivity to detonate;

Enriching the air–fuel ratio which alters the chemical reactions during
combustion, reduces the combustion temperature and increases the margin above
detonation;

Reducing peak cylinder pressure;

Decreasing the manifold pressure by reducing the throttle opening,
boost pressure or Reducing the load on the engine.

2.5 CETANE AND OCTANE NUMBERS

Cetane numbers: In diesel engines cetane number is a measure of ignition lag. Cetane is
straight chain paraffin assigned with a rating of 100 cetane numbers (CN) and it has good
ignition quality. It is mixed with al ha-methylnaphthalene a hydrocarbon with poor ignition
quality i.e., with zero cetane number. A CFR engine running under prescribed conditions test
the fuel with this mixture. Thus the cetane number of the fuel is defined as the percent by
volume of cetane in a mixture of cetane a I ha-methyl that produces same ignition lag as the
fuel being tested, in the same engine and under the same operating conditions.

For a diesel fuel, cetane rating is a measure of its ability to auto ignite readily when it
is injected in to the compressed air in the engine. The ignition delay is influenced by several
engine design parameters such as compression ratio, injection rate, injection time inlet air
temperature etc. The hydrocarbon composition of the fuel and its volatility characteristics also
affects the ignition delay. The cetane rating of diesel fuels ranges from 40 to 60. The octane
fuels (gasoline) have cetane numbers ranging from 10 to 20 showing their poor suitability as a
diesel fuel. High cetane number results in pre-ignition in diesel engine. Octane numbers:

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The composition of fuel affects detonation. In SI engines, for a particular fuel, the rating is done
by comparing its performance with that of a standard reference fuel which is a combination of
ISO octane and n-heptane. ISO octane offers great resistance to detonations and is assigned a
rating of 100 octane number. On the other hand, n-heptane is a straight chain paraffin and is as sign
e with a rating of '0' octane number. The percentage of ISO-octane by volume in a mixture of
ISO octane and n-heptane, which exactly matches the knocking intensity of a given fuel, in a
standard engine under prescribed operating conditions is termed as "octane number" of the el. f
octane number of a fuel is 80, it means that it has a same knocking tendency of a mixture with
80% ISO octane and 20% n-heptane by volume. The engine used to conduct test is CFR 0-
operative fuel research) variable compression ratio engine. The fuel is to be tested in the CFR
engine until the condition of detonation is reached in the engine. Then a mixture of ISO-octane
and n-heptane is prepared to produce detonation under the same conditions as the fuel under test.
The percentage by volume of ISO-octane in the mixture is nothing but the octane number of the
fuel.

2.6 MIXTURE REQUIREMENTS FOR SI ENGINE

In stationary engines the desired air fuel ratio means that gives the maximum economy.
Actual air fuel mixture requirements in an operating engine vary under variable speed and load
conditions. The A/F ratios must change based on maximum over is required. Also required A/F
ratio must be provided for transient conditions like, starting a warm-u and acceleration. In all these
conditions, exhaust emission should be minimum.

In steady state operation (It means continuous operation at a given speed and over out with
normal engine temperature) of automotive engines, there are three main areas which require'
different air-fuel ratios. In each of these, the engine requirements differ. As a result the carburetor
has to modify A/F. rati9 to satisfy these demands. These ranges are

1. Idling (mixture must be enriched)

2. Cruising (mixture must be leaned)
3. High Power (mixture must be enriched)

2.7 Carburetor:

A carburetor is a device that blends air and fuel for an internal combustion engine. The
carburetor works on Bernoulli's principle: the faster air moves, the lower its static pressure,

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and the higher its dynamic pressure. The throttle (accelerator) linkage does not directly
control the flow of liquid fuel. Instead, it actuates carburetor mechanisms which meter the
flow of air being pulled into the engine. The speed of this flow, and therefore its pressure,
determines the amount of fuel drawn into the airstream.

When carburetors are used in aircraft with piston engines, special designs and features are
needed to prevent fuel starvation during inverted flight. Later engines used an early form of
fuel injection known as a pressure carburetor

.Under all engine operating conditions, the carburetor must:

Measure the airflow of the engine
Deliver the correct amount of fuel to keep the fuel/air mixture in the
proper range
(adjusting for factors such as temperature)

Mix the two finely and evenly

Fig. Simple Carburetor

A carburetor basically consists of an open pipe through which the air passes into the inlet
manifold of the engine. The pipe is in the form of a Venturi it narrows in section and then
widens again, causing the airflow to increase in speed in the narrowest part. Below the
Venturi is a butterfly valve called the throttle valve a rotating disc that can be turned end-on to

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the airflow, so as to hardly restrict the flow at all, or can be rotated so that it (almost)
completely blocks the flow of air. This valve controls the flow of air through the carburetor
throat and thus the quantity of air/fuel mixture the system will deliver, thereby regulating
engine power and speed. The throttle is connected, usually through a cable or a mechanical
linkage of rods and joints or rarely by pneumatic link, to the accelerator pedal on a car or the
equivalent control on other vehicles or equipment.

Fuel is introduced into the air stream through small holes at the narrowest part of the Venturi and
at other places where pressure will be lowered when not running on full throttle. Fuel flow is
adjusted by means of precisely calibrated orifices, referred to as jets, in the fuel path.

2.8 CARBURETOR TYPES

Carburetors used in SI engines are classified in to up draft, down draft and horizontal (side) draft
types, according to the direction in which the air and fuel mixture is supplied by them. In down
draft type, gravity assists the flow of mixture and hence engine pulls better at lower speeds
under load. Carburetors are also classified as constant choke carburetor and constant draft or
vacuum carburetor. In constant choke type the air and fuel flow areas are always maintained
constant and depression (pressure difference) which causes fuel flow is being varied according
to engine condition. Ex.: Simple, Solex, Zenith and Carter carburetors. In constant vacuum type,
the air and fuel flow areas are being varied as per demand on the engine while depression or
vacuum is always maintained constant. It is also called as variable choke carburetor. Ex.: S.U. type
carburetor.

2.81 Solex Carburetor

The Solex carburetor is a down draft type and have been manufactured in India by Mis.
Carburetor Limited, Madras. It is famous for ease of starting, good performance and reliability. It
is available in various models and used in Fiat and Standard Cars and Willis Jeep. The unique
feature of this carburetor is the Bi-Starter for cold starting.

The various circuits are explained as follows:

1. Normal Running: The carburetor has a conventional float in a float chamber. For normal
running, throttle is held partly open and fuel is supplied by the main jet and air by the choke tube
or venturi. The air directly enters through the venturi and fuel passes into the well of air

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bleed emulsion system. It is a tube having lateral holes and nozzles are drilled horizontally in
the middle as shown in figure. This system provides metered emulsion of fuel and air through
the nozzles for the normal working of the engine.

2. Cold Starting and Warming: This carburetor has provision of Bi-starter or progressive
starter. The starter valve is a flat disc having holes of different sizes. These holes connect
starter petrol jet and starter air jet to the passage which opens just below the throttle valve.
The starter lever position can be adjusted on the dash board and this connect air and petrol jet
to the passage through holes of different sizes. Rich mixture is used for starting and after the
engine has started, richness required decreases. This means bigger holes are the connecting
holes for starting and throttle valve is in the closed position. The whole engine suction is acted
at starting passage. This suction effect draws fuel from float chamber and the fuel passes
through starter petrol jet and mixes with air entering through the air jet. This mixture is rich
enough for starting.

The starter lever is to be brought to intermediate position after starting the engine. This
connects the smaller holes into the circuit and this reduces the amount of petro I. In this
condition the main jet also delivers fuel as the throttle valve is partly opened. The starter
system delivers less mixture but it is sufficient to keep the engine in running condition, till it
reaches normal running temperature.

Fig. Solex Carburetor

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3. Idling or Slow Speed Operation: An idle port controlled by idle adjusting screw is
provided in the engine side of throttle valve. The emulsion system well is connected to Pilot Jet
through a hole. At idling as throttle is almost closed, the engine suction is applied at the Pilot
Petrol Jet, which supplies petrol drawn from main jet circuit. The air is drawn in from the pilot
air jet. The petrol and air mix in the idle passage and mixture comes out of the idle port.

To avoid flat spot and to ensure smooth transfer from idle and low speed circuit to the main jet
circuit, slow running openings are provided on the venturi side of the throttle valve. As throttle
is widely opened, the suction at idle port is decreased. But now suction is applied at the slow
speed openings, which more than offsets the loss of suction at the idle port and thus flat spot is
avoided.

4. Acceleration: This consists of a diaphragm type acceleration pump. It delivers spurts of extra
fuel needed for the acceleration through pump injector. Pump lever is connected to the
accelerator pedal so that when the pedal is pressed, lever moves towards left, thus pressing the
membrane to the left. This forces petrol into main jet circuit through pump jet and injector.
When the pedal is left free, the lever moves the diaphragm back towards right creating
vacuum to the left. This opens the pump inlet valve and thus admits petrol from float chamber into
the pump.

2.82 Zenith Carburetor

This type is most commonly used in petrol engines. The figure shows simple view of a zenith
carburetor which contain float control, compensating jet and accelerating device.

1. Float Control: The arrangement for the fuel level control is as shown in figure. The two balls
'A' & 'B' are resting on a conventional float. As engine speed increases, fuel consumption will
be more and fuel level in the float chamber decreases. As a result, the float and balls' A' & 'B'
comes down and force 2F acts on the collar in upward direction. This force lifts the spindle up
and provides more opening for the fuel flow into float chamber. This increases fuel level and
thus the level is maintained constant. If fuel level increases, the float and balls' A' & 'B' moves
up causing force 2F to act in the down ward direction. The spindle partly closes the opening and
reduces the fuel flow. Thus the fuel level is maintained constant in the float chamber.

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2. Starting Jet: During starting, the compensatory well is completely filled with fuel. The
throttle valve is slightly open and whole of engine suction acts near the throttle valve at point
'C'. This suction causes flow of fuel from compensating well through starting jet line. Due to
high suction, enough quantity of fuel is supplied and thus a rich mixture is supplied to the
engine. For higher speeds the throttle valve is opened wide and suction at point 'C' is
destroyed, thus stops flow of fuel from the starting jet line.

3.Compensating Jet: The compensating jet or double jet delivers lean mixture and this
compensates for the rich mixture supplied by the main jet under increased speed of the engine
and overall NF ratio is maintained constant. The area of main jet and compensating jet is
equivalent to a single main jet which is designed to give required NF ratio for a particular
speed. As fuel flow from float chamber to the compensating well through the restricted orifice
is less than that of through the compensating jet, the fuel level in it decreases with increasing
engine speed. The atmospheric air is passed into the compensating well as it is open to
atmosphere and less fuel is supplied with increase in speed. The main jet provides richer
mixture and compensating jet provides leaner mixture with increase in engine speed and thus
AIF ratio is maintained constant.

4. Acceleration: In zenith carburetor, no separate device is used for acceleration. Sudden

acceleration of the engine is not possible when throttle is fully open at higher speeds, because
the compensating well is normally dry. It is full of fuel only during idling or slow running and
supplies fuel required for sudden acceleration. So as soon as the throttle is open, the sudden
depression due to inflow of the air near the venturi draws in whole fuel from compensating
well through compensating jet and provides rich mixture for acceleration, thus only
momentarily acceleration is possible.

5. Choking: A manually operated choke valve is used for starting the engine from cold
weather conditions.

2.83 S.U. Carburetor

S.U. Carburetor is a constant vacuum or depression type with automatically variable choke or
venturi. The mixture compensation is achieved by maintaining constant vacuum over the jet

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and varying the effective size of the jet. A S.U. Carburetor of horizontal type is as shown in figure.
No separate idling or acceleration device is used here.

A spring loaded piston controls the air passage (Venturi) which is in the form of
rectangular opening of constant width and adjustable height. A slot is made in the piston which
connects upper side of suction disc and throttle passage. The lower side is exposed to atmospheric
pressure. Thus the position of piston at any instant depends upon the balance of it's own weight
(down) against the vacuum force (up). As piston weight is constant, vacuum also remain constant.
A Tapering needle is fixed to the piston. The piston movement varies the air passage and hence
size of the petrol jet. The lower end of the needle is inside the main jet and the needle moves up
and down as the piston moves up arid down. This changes annular area for the fuel flow. When
the needle moves up area increases and vice versa.

A damper plunger is used to regulate the rate of lift of the piston, but allows the same to fall
freely when throttle valve is closed. For acceleration, if the throttle valve is opened suddenly, the
piston lifting speed is retarded by the damper plunger and provides additional depression over the
fuel jet. This causes flow of more fuel and hence no separate acceleration pump is required.

Jet adjusting nut is used to adjust mixture strength. Tightening the nut will raise the jet and
this reduces the annular area for fuel flow. Similarly-loosening the nut lowers the jet and thus
increases fuel supply.

The unique feature of S.U. Carburetor is that it has only one jet. A constant high air
velocity across the jet is maintained even under idling condition and the necessity for a
separate idling jet is obviated. -

For cold starting a rich mixture is required. This is done by lowering the jet tube away from the
needle by means of the jet lever, there by enlarging the jet orifice. The lever is operated from the
dash board in the car.

2.84 Carter Carburetor

This carburetor is an American make and used in jeep. It is a down draft type and has three venturi
(triple venturi diffusing type of choke). The small venturi is kept above the float chamber level,
other two below the petrol level, one below other. The carburetor consists of following circuits.

1. Float Chamber Circuit.

2. Starting Circuit.

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3. Idle and Low Speed Circuit.

4. Part and Full Throttle Circuit
5. Acceleration Circuit.

1. Float Chamber Circuit: It consists of a conventional float and a float chamber. Fuel
enters the float chamber from main supply. A needle valve maintains fuel level in the float
chamber. When the fuel level falls, the needle valve opens the inlet to admit more fuel. Air
enters the carburettor from the top. The choke valve in the passage remains open during
normal running.

2. Starting Circuit: For starting a choke valve is provided in the air circuit. It is mounted
eccentrically. When the engine is fully choked (choke valve is closed), whole of engine
suction is applied at the main nozzle, which then delivers fuel. As the air flow is quite small,
the mixture supplied is very rich. Once the engine starts, the spring controlled choke valve
opens to provide correct amount of air during warming up period. '

3. Idle and Low Speed Circuits: In this carburetor separate idling passage is provided with
low speed port and idle port. For Idling rich mixture is required in small quantity and throttle
valve is almost closed. The full engine suction is now applied at the idle port through which
the air and fuel are drawn thus provides rich mixture. In low speed operation the throttle valve
is opened further. The main nozzle also starts supplying the fuel. In this stage fuel is delivered
both by main venturi and low speed port through idle passage.

4. Part and Full Throttle Circuit: In part throttling, fuel is delivered by the main nozzle
only. During full throttling, maximum air is passing through the venturi. To compensate this a
higher rate of fuel flow is desired. This is obtained by mechanical metering method which
uses a metering rod having a number of steps of diameter sizes at its bottom. It is connected
with the accelerator pedal through Linkage. The area of opening between the metering rod jet
and metering rod governs the amount of fuel drawn into the engine. When the accelerator
pedal is pressed, the throttle is held wide open and simultaneously the metering rod is lifted
up. In this condition, the smallest diameter of the rod is inside the fuel hole (jet), providing
larger flow area, thus delivering more fuel.

5. Acceleration Circuit: The accelerating pump will not provide continuous fuel supply for
acceleration but only provides extra spurt of fuel to avoid flat spot [popping of engine]. When
accelerator pedal is pressed, pump actuates giving an extra spurt of fuel for acceleration.

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When the pedal is released the pump piston moves up there by sucking fuel from float
chamber for next operation.

Fig. Carter Carburetor

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2.9 Fuel injection

Fuel injection is a system for admitting fuel into an internal combustion engine. It has
become the primary fuel delivery system used in automotive engines, having
replaced carburetors during the 1980s and 1990s. A variety of injection systems have existed
since the earliest usage of the internal combustion engine.The primary difference between
carburetors and fuel injection is that fuel injection atomizes the fuel by forcibly pumping it
through a small nozzle under high pressure, while a carburetor relies on suction created by intake
air accelerated through a Venturi-tube to draw the fuel into the airstream.

Modern fuel injection systems are designed specifically for the type of fuel being used. Some
systems are designed for multiple grades of fuel (using sensors to adapt the tuning for the fuel
currently used). Most fuel injection systems are for gasoline or diesel applications.

Different methods of fuel injection in a 4 stroke and 2 stroke engine are as shown in fig. 2.5
(a), (b) & (c). In the manifold injection and port injection arrangements, the injector is moved
farther from the combustion chamber. This provides a longer period for mixing and warming
the charge.

Fig. (a) Direct injection system Fig (b) Port injection system

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Fig. (c) Throttle body injection

The manifold injection system may be of two types. Single point and multipoint injection. In the
first type one or two injectors are mounted inside the throttle body assembly. Fuel is sprayed at one
point or location at the center inlet of the engine intake manifold. Hence this method is also called
throttle body injection. The later type has one injector for each engine cylinder and fuel is sprayed in
more than one location. Port injection employs individual injectors delivering locally to each port.

In SI engine continuous injection, or timed injection system is used. The later type
consists of a fuel supply pump to supply fuel at low pressure (2 bar). A fuel metering or
injection pump and nozzle are present. The nozzle injects the fuel in the manifold or cylinder head
port. In some design, the fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber.

Timed fuel injection system injects fuel usually during the first half of the suction stroke.
Injection begins after closure of the exhaust valve. This eliminates fuel loss during scavenging.
0
Injection ends usually not later than 120 after TDC, for maximum power output.

Advantages:
1. Improves fuel distribution in multi cylinder engine.
2. Increases volumetric efficiency.
3. Reduces loss of fuel during scavenging.
4. Eliminates detonation.

2.91 Components of the Injection System

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The fuel injection system consists of a number of components to perform the tasks like metering,
atomization and distribution of fuel in the air mass. Depending on speed and load of the engine,
the injection system must also maintain the required air fuel ratio.
Pumping elements includes necessary piping, filter etc., and are used to move the fuel
from fuel tank to the cylinders. Metering elements checks (measures) the correct quantity of
fuel and delivers it at the rate demanded by speed and load conditions of the engine. The
metering units are controlled by a linkage to the accelerator pedal and the amount of fuel
supplied by the pump is controlled by a centrifugal governor (in one system). Controls are
provided to adjust the mixture strength (A/F ratio) as demanded by speed and load on the
engine. Different controls are used to increase the richness of the mixture for starting cold
operation and high speeds. Distributing elements divide the metered fuel equally among the
cylinders.

2.92 Single-point or throttle body injection (TBI)

The earliest and simplest type of fuel injection, single-point simply replaces the carburetor
with one or two fuel-injector nozzles in the throttle body, which is the throat of the engine’s
air intake manifold. For some automakers, single-point injection was a stepping stone to the
more complex multi-point system. Though not as precise as the systems that have followed,
TBI meters fuel better than a carburetor and is less expensive and easier to service.

Fig. Single point injection

2.93 Port or multi-point fuel injection (MPFI)

Multi-point fuel injection devotes a separate injector nozzle to each cylinder, right outside its
intake port, which is why the system is sometimes called port injection. Shooting the fuel
vapor this close to the intake port almost ensures that it will be drawn completely into the

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cylinder. The main advantage is that MPFI meters fuel more precisely than do TBI designs, better
achieving the desired air/fuel ratio and improving all related aspects. Also, it virtually eliminates
the possibility that fuel will condense or collect in the intake manifold. With TBI and carburetors,
the intake manifold must be designed to conduct the engine’s heat, a measure to vaporize liquid
fuel. This is unnecessary on engines equipped with MPFI, so the intake manifold can be formed
from lighter-weight material, even plastic. Incremental fuel economy improvements result. Also,
where conventional metal intake manifolds must be located atop the engine to conduct heat, those
used in MPFI can be placed more creatively, granting engineers design flexibility.

Fig . Multipoint injection

2.94 Types of Fuel Injection Systems:

Throttle body injectors or Single Point Injectors (TBI)

Single-point injection was a first step before the more complex multi-point systems came about. Not
as precise as the systems that have evolved, TBI metered fuel better than a carburetor and was less
expensive and easier to service.

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Port or multi-point fuel injection (MPFI)

Multi-point fuel injection has a separate injector nozzle for each cylinder, just outside its intake
port, which is why the system is sometimes called port injection. Delivering the fuel vapor this
close to the intake port ensures that it will be drawn completely into the cylinder.
The primary advantage is that MPFI meters fuel more precisely than TBI, achieving the
desired air/fuel ratio. MPFI lessens the possibility that fuel will condense in the intake
manifold.

Sequential fuel injection (SFI)

Sometimes called sequential port fuel injection (SPFI) or timed injection, SFI is a type of
multi-port injection. Though basic MPFI uses multiple injectors that spray their fuel at the
same time or in groups. Sequential fuel injection triggers each injector nozzle independently
and is timed like spark plugs. SFI sprays the fuel immediately before or as the intake valve
opens.

2.10 FUEL FEED SYSTEM OF CARBURETTOR ENGINES

Fig. Automobile fuel supply system

The functions of the fuel feed system are to store fuel for the automobile engines, to supply it
to the carburetor in the required amounts and in proper condition. It also provides an
indication to the driver of the amount of fuel in the tank. In a S.I. Engine, the fuel supply
system consists of a fuel tank, fuel lines, fuel pump, fuel filter, air cleaner, carburetor and inlet
manifold.

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2.11 Fuel injection pumps:

An Injection Pump is the device that pumps fuel into the cylinders of a diesel engine.
Traditionally, the injection pump is driven indirectly from the crankshaft by gears, chains or a toothed
belt (often the timing belt) that also drives the camshaft. It rotates at half crankshaft speed in a
conventional four-stroke engine. Its timing is such that the fuel is injected only very slightly before
top dead centre of that cylinder's compression stroke. It is also common for the pump belt on
gasoline engines to be driven directly from the camshaft. In some systems injection pressures can
be as high as 200 MPa (30,000 PSI).

Types of Fuel Injectors:

Top-Feed – Fuel enters from the in the top and exits the bottom.
Side-Feed – Fuel enters on the side on the injector fitting inside the fuel rail.
Throttle Body Injectors – (TBI) Located directly in the throttle body.

2.111 Fuel Pumps

Many types of fuel pumps are used in the modern car fuel feed systems, all of which operate on the
same principle. A fuel pump transfers petrol from the tank to carburetor [fuel injection system]
through a fine grain filter. It must deliver petrol in sufficient volume at desired pressure to keep
the carburetor (float chamber) full of petrol, irrespective of engine speed.

There are two types of pumps which are most commonly used
a) Mechanical type fuel transfer pump [A.C. Mechanical pump].
b) Electrical fuel pump [So U. Electrical pump]

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Fig. Mechanical Fuel pump

(a) Mechanical Fuel Pump: A mechanically operated diaphragm type fuel pump is shown in
figure. It is mounted on the engine and is operated by an eccentric mounted on the cam shaft
of the engine. The pump consists of a spring loaded flexible diaphragm actuated by a rocker
arm which in turn operated by an eccentric. Inlet and outlet (spring loaded) valves are
provided to ensure fuel flow in the proper direction. As rocker arm is moved by the eccentric,
the diaphragm is pulled down, causes a partial vacuum in the chamber. This causes the inlet
valve to open and admits fuel into the pump chamber through strainer. Further rotation of the
eccentric will release the rocker arm and diaphragm moves upward, causes inlet valve to close
while the outlet valve opens and hence the pump delivers fuel to the carburetor (float
chamber).

When the float chamber is full of petrol, pumping of more fuel is not needed till some of it is
consumed. If the engine runs continuously at light loads, the earn shaft will be running all the
time and there is excessive pressure in the pump. This may damage the pump itself. To avoid
this the rocker arm and pull rod connection is made flexible and when the float chamber is
full, the diaphragm is not operated though the cam shaft is running.

(b) Electrical Fuel Pump: This pump contains a flexible diaphragm which is operated by
electrical means [Electro magnet]. The middle of the diaphragm is fixed to an armature. A rod
extends from middle of diaphragm and passes through a center hole in the electro magnet
(solenoid). The other end of the rod carries electrical contact points. Return springs are used

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to keep the diaphragm in position. Closing the ignition switch, energies the electromagnetic
winding. Thus magnetic flux is generated which pulls the armature compressing the return
spring and there by moves the diaphragm up. This causes suction in the pump chamber and fuel
is drawn into the chamber through inlet valve. But as the armature moves, the rod
disconnects the breaker points and thus interrupts the electric supply. The electro magnet is de-
energized and the armature falls back due to spring action. This causes the diaphragm to move
down creating pressure in the chamber to open outlet valve. Thus fuel is delivered to the float
chamber. The cycle repeats and fuel continues to be pumped.

These pumps need not be located close to the engine. These electrical pumps are
located near the fuel tank and are not subjected to engine heat. These pumps starts operating
immediately as the ignition is switched on.

Fig. Electrical pump IS.U. type]

2.12 Fuel Injectors

Depending on the method of fuel control the injectors are classified into (I) Mechanical and (2)
Electronic type. Mechanical method is obsolete now. A governor was used to control fuel supply and a
fuel distributor was used to send the fuel to correct injector.

Mechanical Fuel injection:

Department of Mechanical Engineering, KNSIT, B’lore.

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Fig.: Mechanical Petrol Injection System

In this system an electrically driven fuel pump delivers the fuel at a specified pressure (700
kpa) into a metering distributor. The relief valve returns excess fuel to the tank and thus
maintains the metering distributor at constant pressure. The metering distributor supplies fuel
to each injector in turn. The quantity of fuel delivered is also controlled in the distributor by
engine manifold pressure. The injector is held closed until the fuel pressure opens it to deliver
atomized spray of fuel.
(2) Electronic Fuel Injection :
An electric fuel pump draws the fuel from the tank through a filter and supplies the same to
the injectors at a pressure which is held constant by means of a fuel pressure regulator which
returns excess fuel to the tank. This prevents vapour lock in the fuel lines. The injectors are
held closed by spring and are opened by solenoids energized by ECU (electronic control unit).
The strength of the ECU control signal, which determines the open time of the injector to
control the amount of fuel injected depends upon the engine requirements which are
determined by the ECU from the sensor signals from critical locations.

The common sensors used are

J. Manifold absolute pressure (MAP) sensor.
2. Barometric pressure (BARO) sensor.
3. Throttle position sensor (TPS)
4. Coolant temperature sensor (CTS).
5. Vehicle speed sensor (VSS) etc.

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Fig. Electronic Fuel Injection System

2.13 Fuel gauges

All automotives are equipped with an electrically operated fuel gauge for indicating level of fuel in
the tank. Two types of fuel gauges are used on automobile bodies. They are - Thermostatic type and
Electromagnetic type. Both incorporate sending unit and a receiving unit.
Sending Unit: It consists of a float controlled rheostat or variable resistor. The unit is mounted on
the fuel tank with float and float arm extending into the tank. The float always follows the level of
the fuel in the tank. The float position determines the amount of electrical resistance within the
variable resistor which controls the amount of electricity sent to the receiving unit on the
instrument panel.

Receiving Unit: It is mounted on the instrument panel and by the amount of electricity
received from the sending unit indicates, on a calibrated gauge the amount of fuel in the tank.

Thermostatic Fuel Gauge

Here the receiving unit contains a heating coil. When the fuel tank is low at grounded sliding contact
in the sending unit controlled by the float is near the end of variable resistance wire and sends only
a small amount of current to the heating coil in the receiving unit. The heating coil activates a
bimetallic arm which moves the gauge pointer to the 'E' (empty) position. When the tank is
filled, the float rises with the fuel level and moves the grounded sliding

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contact toward the beginning of the resistance wire. Thus electrical resistance decreases and
current flowing to the receiving unit increases. The heating coil in the receiving unit generates
more heat and moves the pointer to the' F' (full) position.

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Fig. Fuel guage

2.14 FUEL FILTERS

A fine mesh gauge is used as a filter to clean the petrol. It is more suitable where petrol
contains very large dust particles, but not so effective in preventing the fine particles and the
water from going inside the cylinder. An ordinary chamois leather which is first moistened
with petrol can be used as an effective device which allow only petrol to pass through it and
water will be intercepted. Fine grit, of course cannot pass through it.

2.13 FUEL INJECTION PUMP

The fuel injection pump delivers accurately, metered quantity of fuel under high pressure, at
the correct instant and in the correct sequence, to the injector fitted on each engine cylinder. In
most of the engines the injection pressure ranges from 7 to 30 MPa and in some cases it may

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be as high as 200 MPa. The timing gears drives the injection pumps and its output is controlled by
drives through accelerator pedal. The injection system has to deliver very small volume of fuel, hence
the volume of fuel to be metered is very small for each injection. The frequency of injection is quite
high. For example, in a 4 stroke, 4 cylinder diesel engine, at maximum speed of6000 rpm, about 150
rnm of fuel is to be metered and injected 20 times in a second. In a two stroke engine the number of
injections per second are twice this valve. Generally the fuel injection pumps are classified in to
jerk pump type and distributor type;
2.13 (a) Jerk Pump type fuel injection pump:

A single cylinder jerk pump type fuel injection pump is as shown in figure. It consists of a spring
loaded delivery valve, plunger, control sleeve and control rack. The fuel quality to be injected is
controlled by the plunger which contains a helix at its top end. The plunger in turn is operated by using
a cam and tappet.

Fig. Single cylinder jerk type fuel injection pump

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In this pump, the plunger stroke remains constant, but the effective stroke is reduced by
changing the position of helix on the plunger with respect to fuel inlet port. The cam produces
forward or delivery stroke and the action of spring returns the plunger. As the plunger
performs down ward stroke, it uncovers the inlet port present in the barrel at atmospheric
pressure and fills the space above the plunger and also vertical groove and space below the
helix. When the plunger raises up, it covers the ports and compresses the fuel. The
compressed fuel lifts the delivery valve and it is supplied to the injector through the delivery
valve. As the plunger moves up wards, the spill port will be uncovered by the plunger helix
and the helical groove on the plunger connects the space above the plunger with the suction
line. The oil at high pressure in the space above the plunger is by passed back in to the pump
and there by decreases pressure near the delivery valve. This closes the delivery valve due to
action of spring. The fuel quantity delivered through the delivery valve depends upon the
opening position of the spill port with respect to helical groove. Depending on the load on the
engine, the position of helical groove with respect to spill port can be changed by rotating
plunger with control rack. The quantity of fuel can be varied from zero to that required at full
load by changing the positions of the rack.

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Fig. Arrangement showing the control of fuel delivery

2.14 FUEL INJECTOR

The fuel injector is used
i) To atomize the fuel to the required degree of fineness. ii) To distribute
the fuel for proper mixing of fuel and air. iii) To prevent fuel injection on
cylinder walls and top of the piston. iv) The fuel injection must start stop
instantaneously.

A spring loaded fuel injector is as shown in figure. The fuel pump supplies fuel to the injector and
high pressure fuel lifts the spring loaded valve. The fuel is then injected into the combustion
chamber of the engine cylinder. As the pressure decreases, the valve is automatically closed by
the spring force. The duration of open period of the valve controls the amount of fuel injected in to
the combustion chamber.

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Fig. Fuel Injector

2.15 GOVERNING AND FUEL CONTROL
Governors are used on engines to keep their speeds below a set maximum. Governors
maintain engine speed constant irrespective of changes in the load. The governor is usually
placed between carburetor and intake manifold. Vacuum and centrifugal type governors are
most commonly used. The operation of vacuum type depends on the pressure of the moving
fuel and air mixture. When this pressure reaches a set value, the fuel mixture is not permitted
to enter the engine at a faster rate. The centrifugal type is attached to the cam shaft by a gear
drive. The fly weight movement attached to pivot arms of governor is used to control the flow
of mixture in the carburetor, thus controls the engine speed. If the engine load decreases the
speed of engine will begin to increase, if the fuel supply is not decreased and if load increases,
speed begins to decrease, if fuel supply is not increased. The governor supplies fuel to the
engine depending on engine load and thus maintain the speed constant. Different methods are
used to control the flow of fuel and hence controls the speed according to load.

They are
1. Hit and Miss Method: In this method, the fuel supply is completely cut off during few
cycles of the engine. This is generally used in gas engines.

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2. Quality Governing: Depending on the engine load, the fuel supply per cycle of the engine is
varied i.e. A:F ratio is changed depending on the engine load. At high loads rich mixture is supplied
and lean mixture is supplied at low loads. This method is used for diesel engines.

3. Quantity Governing: In this method, the quantity of air fuel mixture supplied is varied
according to engine load. The A/F ratio of the mixture supplied to the engine at all loads remain
nearly constant. This is used for Petrol engines.

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MODULE-4
SUPER CHARGERS AND TURBO
CHARGERS

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The power developed by a naturally aspirated engine depends upon

i) Amount of air introduced into cylinder per cycle ii) Degree of
utilization of the inducted air iii) The engine speed and thermal
efficiency iv) Quantity of fuel admitted and its combustion
characteristics.

By increasing engine speed or by increasing air density at the inlet, it is possible to increase
the amount of air inducted in to engine cylinder per unit time. As engine speed increases,
inertia load increases and this calls for rigid and robust engine to with stand stresses. Also
higher engine speed causes decrease in volumetric efficiency, higher friction and increased
bearing loads. The method of increasing the inlet air density is called super charging. This
increases power output of the engine. The super charging is achieved by supply in air or
airfuel mixture at a pressure higher than the pressure at which the engine naturally aspirates
air. This increases air density and hence mass of air or air fuel mixture inducted for the same
swept volume and there by increases power output of the engine. A device called super
charger is used to increase the pressure of air.

The power output of the engine can also be increased by increasing compression ratio.
The high compression ratio results in increase of Brake mean effective pressure and the
maximum cylinder pressure. For a given maximum cylinder pressure more power can be
obtained by super charging compared to that obtained by raising compression ratio. The
increase in compression ratio also increases exhaust temperature and results in higher thermal
loads. Turbo charging uses energy of exhaust gases to drive a turbine that increases inlet air
density.

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3.2 Forced induction

Forced induction is the process of delivering compressed air to the intake of an internal
combustion engine. A forced induction engine uses a gas compressor to increase the pressure,
temperature and density of the air. An engine without forced induction is considered a naturally
aspirated engine.

Forced induction is used in the automotive and aviation industry to increase engine power and
efficiency. A forced induction engine is essentially two compressors in series. The compression
stroke of the engine is the main compression that every engine has. An additional compressor
feeding into the intake of the engine makes it a forced induction. A compressor feeding pressure
into another greatly increases the total compression ratio of the entire system. This intake pressure
is called boost. This particularly helps aviation engines, as they need to operate at high altitude.

Higher compression engines have the benefit of maximizing the amount of useful energy
extracted per unit of fuel. Therefore, the thermal efficiency of the engine is increased in
accordance with the vapor power cycle analysis of the second law of thermodynamics. The
reason all engines are not higher compression is because for any given octane, the fuel will
prematurely detonate with a higher than normal compression ratio. This is called preignition,
detonation or knock and can cause severe engine damage. High compression on a naturally
aspirated engine can reach the detonation threshold fairly easily. However, a forced induction
engine can have a higher total compression without detonation because the air charge can be
cooled after the first stage of compression, using an intercooler.

One of the primary concerns in internal combustion emissions is a factor called the NOx
fraction, or the amount of nitrogen/oxygen compounds the engine produces. This level is
government regulated for emissions as commonly seen at inspection stations. High
compression causes high combustion temperatures. High combustion temperatures lead to
higher NOx emissions, thus forced induction can give higher NOx fractions.

3.3 Supercharger

A supercharger is an air compressor that increases the pressure or density of air supplied to an
internal combustion engine. This gives each intake cycle of the engine more oxygen, letting it burn
more fuel and do more work, thus increasing power.

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Power for the supercharger can be provided mechanically by means of a belt, gear, shaft, or
chain connected to the engine's crankshaft. When power is provided by a turbine powered by
exhaust gas, a supercharger is known as a turbo supercharger– typically referred to simply as
a turbocharger or just turbo. Common usage restricts the term supercharger to mechanically
driven units.
3.31 General Overview of Superchargers

Superchargers are an external mechanism driven off the engine's auxiliary drive belt. The
mechanism can work in many fashions, but all have the same basic effect: to increase the
force on the incoming air to the engine. Since superchargers are belt-driven, they do create
small amounts of parasitic drag on the engine, however the effects of the supercharger greatly
outweigh the drag.

Generally, superchargers work with gear ratios to create the desired speed of the impeller
(or other air-moving mechanism). If less boost is desired, a larger drive-pulley can be
interchanged onto the supercharger. If greater boost is desired, a smaller pulley is used.
However, boost levels can be controlled in other ways too. A waste gate or blow-off-valve
can be used in conjunction with a correctly sized pulley to have great control over boost
levels.

The points to be noted during super charging are

1. It increases power output of the engine

2. Super charging results in higher forces. The engine should be designed to with stand these
higher forces.

3. The power required for air compression has to be taken from engine itself. But net power
output will be more than power out put without super charging for the same capacity.

4. The higher pressure and temperature may lead to detonation. Therefore fuel with better
antiknock characteristics is required.

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3.32 OBJECTIVES OF SUPER CHARGING

Mainly super charging is done to induct more amount of air into cylinder per unit time and hence to
burn more amount of fuel to increase power output. Following are the objectives of supercharging

1.For a given weight and bulk of the engine, super-charging increases power output. This is
important in air craft, marine and automotive engines where weight and space are considered

2.To obtain better performance from the existing engine

3.To compensate for loss of power due to high altitudes for air craft engines

3.33ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SUPER CHARGING

Advantages
1. Power output of the engine can be increased
2. More quantity of charge can be inducted in to engine cylinder
3. Better atomization of fuel is possible
4. Better mixing of air and fuel can be obtained
5. Better scavenging of exhaust gases is possible
6. Torque is improved for whole speed range and better torque at low speeds
7. Faster acceleration of the engine is possible
8. The specific fuel consumption is lowered slightly
9. A better mechanical efficiency and efficient combustion is possible 10 In
CI engines, exhaust smoke is reduced
Disadvantages
1. Detonation tendency increases in SI engines
2. Heat losses due to turbulence and thermal stresses are more
3. The valve overlap period increases up to 60° of crank angle
4. Better lubrication is required
5. Better cooling of piston and valves is required
6. It increases cost of the engine
3.4 METHODS OF SUPER CHARGING

As discussed earlier, super charger is a pressure boosting device which supplies air (in case of diesel
engine) or air-fuel mixture (in case of SI engine) to the engine cylinder at higher pressure.
Different methods are used to run a super charger. The following figures show some

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of the arrangements used to run super charger. In the first arrangement, the engine drives a
compressor which is coupled to it by using step up gearing. A part of the power developed by
the engine is used to run compressor and compressor super charges the engine.

Fig. Supercharging of engine by compressor

In another method, a turbine coupled to the compressor is driven by engine exhaust. The
turbine used in this arrangement is free from engine except that of the exhaust pipe and air
inlet pipe. The power output of the engine is not used to run compressor. This is called Turbo
charging.

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Fig. Super charging with turbine driven by engine exhaust

In the third method, all the components i.e., engine, turbine and compressor are coupled
together with gearing. At part load, turbine develops less power which is insufficient to run the
compressor. In this case, engine supplies additional power to compensate this less power of the
turbine. If turbine is developing more power to run compressor, it can be supplied to engine.

Fig. Super charging arrangement in which engine, turbine and compressor are coupled

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In the fourth arrangement, the total power of the engine is used to run compressor and exhaust
gases from engine drives a turbine to give power output. Such arrangement is also called "free
piston engine". Sometimes, an electric motor drives compressor independently.

Fig.Super charging method in which engine runs compressor and turbine develops power

3.5 TYPES OF SUPER CHARGERS

Usually reciprocating compressors, displacement type rotary blowers, centrifugal compressors
are used to supercharge engine for various applications. If engine crank shaft drives super
charger, then it is called mechanical super charger. If the super charger is driven by a gas
turbine which runs on exhaust gases from the engine, then it is called Turbo-charger. The
main types of super charger are 1) Centrifugal type 2) Roots blower and 3) Vane blower.

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Centrifugal type super charger

Fig. Centifugal type Supercharger

This type of super charger is most commonly used in Automotive engines. It consists of an
impeller made of alloy steels and rotates at high speeds (about 80,000 rpm) inside a closely fitted
casting. I he air enters axially at the centre of impeller and radial vanes deflect air flow by 90°. Due
to centrifugal action, high velocity air from tip of radial vanes is passed to a diffuser or volute
where air pressure increased and then high pressure air is supplied to the engine. This super
charger is driven by engine through V-belt. Due to entry of high pressure air, 30% more air fuel
mixture can be forced in to combustion chamber.

The supercharger consists of an inlet port, an impeller, a scroll, and a discharge port. The air comes in
the inlet port, and is hit by an impeller. The impeller must spin at speeds of 40,000 - 60,000 rotations per
minute in order to create boost. At idle speeds, the impeller does not have enough rotational speed to
produce any boost. The impeller utilizes centrifugal forces in order to produce boost.

The impeller is the integral part of the centrifugal supercharger (depicted as black fins). As the air
comes in at the center of the compressor blades, the impeller grabs the incoming air from the inlet
port (1). Since the impeller is turning at tens-of-thousands of revolutions per minute, the air is
naturally thrown back and towards the outskirts of the fins due to centrifugal forces created by its
rotational inertia (2 &3). "At the outside of the blades, a "scroll" is waiting to catch the air
molecules. Just before entering the scroll, the air molecules are forced

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to travel through a venturi (depicted as the larger grey circle), which creates the internal
compression. As the air travels around the scroll (4), the diameter of the scroll increases,
which slows the velocity of the air, but further increases its pressure (5)."

While a centrifugal supercharger is capable of very high levels of boost and high levels of
horsepower increase, the boost doesn't occur until high RPMs are reached (normally the
supercharger starts creating boost around 3000 RPMs).

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CENTRIFUGAL SUPER CHARGER

1. Low initial cost, less power requirement and high conversion efficiency
2. It requires less maintenance and handles any quantity of air
3. It requires more space due to larger impeller

Roots Supercharger

The roots supercharger is among the oldest designs for pumping air. First implemented in
early 1900, it was used as an industrial air-moving device. In the past thirty years however, it
has been used on many vehicles as a supercharger.

"The roots type supercharger is two counter-rotating meshed lobed rotors. The two rotors
trap air in the gaps between rotors and push it against the compressor housing as they rotate
towards the outlet/discharge port. During each rotation, a specific fixed amount of air is
trapped and moved to the outlet port where it is compressed, which is why the roots type

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supercharger falls under the broader category of fixed-displacement superchargers (like the twin
screw supercharger). As with all positive displacement blowers, boost is directly related to the speed
of the lobes.

The roots supercharger is known for its high levels of low-rpm boost. Used often in
hightorque applications such as towing, the roots blower has also seen much use in top-fuel
dragsters. The simplicity and low-rpm of the design make it a very reliable compressor

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ROOT'S BLOWER SUPER CHARGERS

1. Simple design, low capital and maintenance cost
2. The volumetric efficiency is high and better balancing is possible at high speeds.
3. Chances of leakage are more, air supply is not regular due to pulsed delivery
4. As pressure increases, volumetric efficiency of the super charger decreases

Fig. Root Supercharger

Vane Blowers
It is a positive displacement rotary type super charger. This consists of a cylindrical casing, a rotor
with four slots , remain in contact with casing at least at one point all the time. The rotor is
eccentrically mounted and vanes slides in and out of the rotor slots in radial direction. The air is
induced in the space between the blades due to outward movement of vanes, which

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increases the space between the blades. When the space reduces near the outlet of super
charger, it discharges air. The space between inner surface of body and drum decreases from
inlet to outer side. The air which enters at inlet, decreases in volume and hence pressure
increases as air reaches outlet. The movement of vanes causes flow pulsating and noisy.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF VANE BLOWERS

1. Suitable for high capacity engines

2.High pressure ratio is possible and delivers large quantity of air
3.Maintenance cost and power requirement is high
4.The vanes rubs against cylinders and wears out rapidly

Fig. Vane supercharger

3.6 SUPER CHARGING LIMITS

The parameters such as engine knock, thermal and mechanical loads limits the power output
of the engine. Usually in SI engines, knock limit are reached first, where as in diesel engines
thermal and mechanical loads limits are reached first. If supercharging is to be done in an
existing engine, it is necessary to analyze the factors that limit the extent of super charging.
This in turn depends up on engine's ability to with stand gas loading, thermal stresses,
durability, reliability, fuel economy etc.

In SI engines, the extent of super charging is mainly limited by kriock. The super
charging reduces ignition delay and this result in engine knock at these high pressures.

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Therefore increase in super charging pressure increases the tendency to detonate. Generally for SI
engines, super charging is employed only for air craft and racing car engines. The super charger
pressure is in the range of 1.3 to-T.S bar, corresponds to 30 to 50% super charging.

In CI engines, super charging limits are not due to combustion. The engine runs better, smoother
and quieter due to decrease in ignition delay at high super charging pressure and temperature. But
the degree of super charging is limited by thermal and mechanical load on the engine and mainly
depends on the type of super charger used and engine design. Also the engine reliability decreases at
maximum cylinder pressure, this increases heat release rate and hence thermal load on the engine. For
intake pressures less than 1.5 atm, the cost of super charging is not justified.

3.7 TURBO CHARGING

Turbochargers are a type of superchargers. It effectively 'charges' the incoming air, which is the
definition of supercharging. The turbo differs from a supercharger in that it derives its power from
a different source than previously described designs. The previous designs received power from
the driveshaft of the engine. Turbochargers derive their power from exhaust gasses.

Turbochargers use the power of the exhaust, much like a hydroelectric dam converts power from the
water into mechanical energy. A hydroelectric dam sends water through a hydroelectric turbine. The
turbine design redirects the flow of the water into a circle which is caught by fins/blades. The water
turns these blades, which turns a driveshaft. When the water has released most all of its energy to
the fins, the water then exits the turbine through a port at the center.

Turbos in cars act nearly the same way except the water is replaced with exhaust from the engine.
The drive shaft, in-turn, powers a centrifugal supercharger. Turbochargers are very efficient, because
they do not leech off of the engine's power. The turbo has some downsides however. Boost cannot be
controlled by simply changing a pulley. Boost must be controlled by a wastage or blow off valve.

Another downside to a turbocharger , is the superheating of the intake air. Since the turbine must be
run by hot exhaust gasses, the heat transfers via conduction to the compressor. The

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compressor becomes superheated, and therefore heats the incoming air to the engine. This
can be counteracted by implementing an intercooler.

The other main con of a turbocharger is something called turbo-lag. Turbo-lag is the time it
takes for the turbo to spool up and produce power. Since an engine does not create large
amounts of exhaust in low RPMs, the turbo creates small amounts of boost, and must have
time to gain rotational inertia from the exhaust.

Despite the added downsides, turbochargers can create very large amounts of horsepower and
is able to deliver added torque that a regular centrifugal supercharger lacks.

Fig. Exhaust turbo charging of a single cylinder engine

Working

The turbine uses energy from the exhaust gases to convert heat energy into rotational motion.
This rotational motion of turbine drives the compressor, which draws in ambient air from the

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surrounding and pumps compressed air with high density and pressure into the intake manifold.

The exhaust gas enters the turbine inlet side of the turbocharger through a pressurized chamber
and a series of filters. The nozzle blade rings concentrates the exhaust gas on to the turbine
wheel. The movement of the turbine wheel rotates the shaft which in turn rotates the impellor of
the compressor. A part of this air goes to the labyrinths seal from the outlet side of the turbine.

As the impeller rotates, air is sucked in through the center of the impeller and due to the heavy
rotational movement, experiences circumferential velocity which pushes it outwards. A radial
velocity is gained which pushes the air further outwards on to the inducer. An additional resultant
velocity is gained due to the accurately designed inducer inlet angle which gives maximum
compressor efficiency.

Excessive pressure leads to spoiling or fouling of the impeller and inducer surfaces. These results in
change in angle of incidence and thus drop in efficiency.

All heavy fuel engines are subjected to heavy load variations which results in fluctuation of
exhaust gas pressure. A prolonged fluctuation in pressure leads to detrimental effects on the
internal parts of the compressor. For this reason, constant pressure chambers are provided in
most of the engines. The exhaust gas, instead of directly entering from the engine, first goes to the
pressure chamber and from there it is circulated to the turbine at constant pressure. This reduces
the excessive stress that gets created on the shaft bearing and sealing.

LIMITATIONS-OF TURBO CHARGING

I. The turbo charging needs special exhaust manifolds

2. Larger pumping elements or nozzles are required to inject more fuel per unit time. This over
loads cams and other components.

3. The turbine blade efficiency is very sensitive to gas velocity

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4. It is difficult to maintain satisfactory air charging over the complete operating range of the
engine.

3.8 COMPARISON BETWEEN TURBOCHARGING AND MECHANICAL

SUPERCHARGING

Turbo Charging
1. The energy of exhaust gases is used to run super charger
2. It needs a waste gate control
3. It requires special exhaust manifolds
4. In CI engine it reduces smoke
5. Blade erosion takes place due to entry of dust particles
6. Larger pumping elements or nozzles are needed. This over loads cams
7. Pressure ratio is high
8. It is bulky and heavy
9. Easy scavenging
10. Poor response to load change

Mechanical Super Charging

1. The mechanical energy of prime mover is used to run super charger
2. It does not require a waste gate control .It does not require special exhaust manifolds
4. In CI engines it reduces knocking tendency
5. No blade erosion problem
6. Fuel injection modification is not required and no cam over loading
7. Comparatively pressure ratio is low
8. It is light and compact
9. Scavenging is difficult
10. Better response to load change

3.9 INTERCOOLER

An intercooler is an integral part of most blown setups. The power that a non-intercooled
turbocharger created, could be maximized by using an intercooler. An intercooler can be
compared to a radiator, yet for intake air, and not coolant fluid.

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The intercooler fits on the intake tract to the engine from the supercharger. Generally only
centrifugal superchargers (turbochargers included) can be intercooled, due to their mounting options.
The intercooler dramatically cools the compressed air, and in effect, packs the air closer together.

V=Volume T=Temperature

V1/T2 =V2 /T1

(Given a 2 liters or air at 200°F and an intercooler that cools to 60°F)
What volume of air at can be fit into the same 2 liters that the 200°F air held? 200°F =
366K 60°F=288K
(2L)/ (288K) = (x)/ (366K)
2.54L = x
The intercooler obviously boosts the power of the engine by stuffing more oxygen into the cylinders.
The cylinders can therefore create a larger , and more vigorous explosion, and therefore produce
more power.

Intercoolers can come in two types: air-air, or air-water. Air-air systems use ambient air to
directly cool the pressurized air. Air-water systems first cool water with the ambient air around
the car, and is then filtered into an internal coolant system, where the cooled water cools the
charge-air.

3.10 Turbocharger lag

Turbo lag is a unique phenomenon encountered in turbocharged internal combustion engines,

whereby an operator experiences a short delay in full engine response after pressing the
accelerator pedal. This occurs because a turbocharger relies on pressure from exhaust gasses, and
needs a short amount of time to generate the pressure needed — known as spooling up. Turbo lag
is considered a negative characteristic in automobiles, and one that engineers strive to mitigate in
a number of different ways.

To understand turbo lag, a working knowledge of how turbochargers work and why they are used is
helpful. The idea behind adding a turbo system to an engine is to augment the power generated

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by the engine alone through simple combustion. This basic concept is known as supercharging,
of which turbo charging is but one variant.

A turbo works by using exhaust air to spin a turbine, which is attached to the same shaft as a
compressor. Compressed air created as the turbine spins the compressor is, in turn, fed into
the engine. This allows more horsepower to be generated by improving the engine's
volumetric efficiency, a trait based in part on the fundamental precept that the more oxygen
in a given volume of air, the more potential energy that volume has.

Compared to alternatives like belt-drive superchargers or simply increasing the displacement

of an engine, turbo charging is an attractive option. This is because the proportion of
horsepower a turbo creates, as compared to the weight of its parts — a characteristic known as
power to weight ratio is favorable compared to these other options. Turbo are thus relatively
common in gasoline engines, and almost standard in mass-produced diesel engines, which are
known as turbo diesels. Turbo engines have been particularly embraced by several
automobile manufacturers, including Saab®, Mercedes Benz®, and Volkswagen®.

The basic design of a turbocharger consists of a metal — usually aluminum — center housing
and hub rotating assembly (CHRA), a turbine, a compressor, and a central shaft. The size of
the CHRA, the turbine, and the compressor dictate how much extra horsepower they can
generate, and generally also how much turbo lag is going to be created. The larger the parts,
the longer the turbo typically takes to spool, and the more turbo lag there will be.

The most common way engineers get around turbo lag is simply to use the lightest
components possible, as less inertia means less lag. A more complex way is to pair a large
turbo with a smaller one, or with a supercharger. The instant or near-instant spooling of these
secondary units helps compensate for the lag, while the larger one builds pressure, minimizing
or eliminating it completely.

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MODULE-3
IGNITION SYSTEMS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

We know that in case of Internal Combustion (IC) engines, combustion of air and fuel takes place
inside the engine cylinder and the products of combustion expand to produce reciprocating
motion of the piston. This reciprocating motion of the piston is in turn converted into rotary
motion of the crank shaft through connecting rod and crank. This rotary motion of the crank
shaft is in turn used to drive the generators for generating power. We also know that there are 4-
cycles of operations viz.: suction; compression; power generation and exhaust.

These operations are performed either during the 2-strokes of piston or during 4-strokes of the piston
and accordingly they are called as 2-stroke cycle engines and 4-stroke cycle engines.

In case of petrol engines during suction operation, charge of air and petrol fuel will be taken in.
During compression this charge is compressed by the upward moving piston. And just before
the end of compression, the charge of air and petrol fuel will be ignited by means of the spark
produced by means of for spark plug. And the ignition system does the function of producing the
spark in case of spark ignition engines.

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Figure 4.1 shows atypical spark plug used with petrol engines. It mainly consists of a central
electrode and metal tongue. Central electrode is covered by means of porcelain insulating
material. Through the metal screw the spark plug is fitted in the cylinder head plug. When the
high tension voltage of the order of 30000 volts is applied across the spark electrodes, current
jumps from one electrode to another producing a spark.

Whereas in case of diesel (Compression Ignition-CI) engines only air is taken in during
suction operation and in compressed during compression operation and just before the end
of compression, when diesel fuel is injected, it gets ignited due to heat of compression of
air.

Once the charge is ignited, combustion starts and products of combustion expand, i.e. they
force the piston to move downwards i.e. they produce power and after producing the power
the gases are exhausted during exhaust operation.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• explain the different types of ignition systems,
• differentiate between battery and magneto ignition system
• know the drawbacks of conventional ignition system, and
• appreciate the importance of ignition timing and ignition advance.

4.2 IGNITION SYSTEM TYPES

Basically Convectional Ignition systems are of 2 types :

(a) Battery or Coil Ignition System, and (b)
Magneto Ignition System.

Both these conventional, ignition systems work on mutual electromagnetic induction principle.

Battery ignition system was generally used in 4-wheelers, but now-a-days it is more
commonly used in 2-wheelers also (i.e. Button start, 2-wheelers like Pulsar, Kinetic Honda;

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