Nature of Heat

A journey for the truth

David Robinson

History of heat
In the 18th century there was the caloric theory which suggested that:
Heat was a fluid or substance that travelled through all matter.
Each body possessed a certain amount of caloric. A hot body was said to possess
more caloric than a cold body.
Caloric particles were supposed to repel each other so they would tend to leave the
hot object and flow to the cold object thus explained why bodies when heated,
gaining caloric, would expand.
Since caloric was a substance it had volume and this fact explained why bodies
when heated, gaining caloric, would expand.
Caloric being a fluid would have mass and therefore a body, when hot, would have a
bigger mass than when cold.
What is a theory?
A theory is an intelligent explanation about some phenomenon.
DEBUNKED

Weaknesses of the caloric theory

Lack of experimental evidence. Due to technological limitations they couldn’t
weight objects properly while heating.
No explanation for why when 2 objects were heated together they wouldn’t reach the
same temperature at the same time.
It could not explain why when heat was supplied during melting , the temperature
did not rise.

Story Time

Brownian motion
Brownian motion is the random, uncontrolled movement of particles in a fluid as
they constantly collide with other molecules.
This is one of the discover that led to the truth or at the very least much closer
to it.
Kinetic Theory

Kinetic Theory
All matter is made up of particles that are in constant random motion.
These atoms are attracted and held to each other through intermolecular bonds.
Hence, it was proposed that heating involved some form of molecular motion . Thus
was born the kinetic theory of heat.
A battle between the two rival theories was born.

Rumford’s Cannon experiment

“Being engaged, lately, in superintending the boring of cannon, in the workshops of
the military arsenal at Munich, I was struck with the very considerable degree of
heat which a brass gun acquires, in a short time, in being bored; and with the
still more intense heat (much greater than that of boiling water, as I found by
experiment) of the metallic chips separated from it by the borer.
The more I meditated on these phenomena the more they appeared to me to be curious
and interesting. A thorough investigation of them seemed even to bid fair to give a
further insight into the hidden nature of heat; and to enable us to form some
reasonable conjectures respecting the existence, or non-existence, of an igneous
fluid: a subject on which the opinions of philosophers have, in all ages, been much
divided.”
Cannon experiment
When he did actually get around to conduct his experiment in 1798, he showed that
the "work" expended by a team of two draft horses , turning a cannon boring drill
bit at a rate of thirty-two revolutions per minute, inside of a cannon barrel,
which itself was submerged in a tank of water, will generate "heat" in the cannon
barrel to the effect that it caused the water to boil at 2 hours and 30 minutes.

James Joule
An english brewer who did science as a hobby in his spare time.
He designed an experiment to prove the Kinetic theory of heat.

The Experiment in a more interesting way.

Boiling water with a blender.

Remember the scientific method

Theory Caloric theory
Experiment Joule’s experiment
Data analysis Heat is a form of energy
Inconsistent with caloric theory
THEORY REJECTED
Theory Kinetic theory
Experiment Joule’s experiment
Data analysis Heat is a form of energy
Consistent with kinetic theory
THEORY ACCEPTED

What is temperature?

Temperature and Heat

David Robinson

Recall: Kinetic Theory

energy
Kinetic theory – particles are constantly moving and have kinetic energy. The
higher the temperature, the faster they move, so the more kinetic energy they
contain.
Energy will flow from a hotter object to a colder one. Particles in the hot object
will lose kinetic energy, whereas particles in the cold object will gain energy.
Energy will continue to flow until both objects reach the same temperature.
Objects at the same temperature will have the same average kinetic energy per
particle.

Heat vs Temperature
Heat - describes the transfer of thermal energy between molecules within a system
and is measured in joules.
Temperature describes the average kinetic energy of molecules within a material or
system and is measured in Celsius(oC) or Kelvin (K)
Are Heat and Temperature the same?
The connection: Heat is a transfer of thermal energy caused by a difference in
temperature between molecules.

Are temperature and heat the same?

Which has the most energy?

Which has the higher temperature?
Higher Temperature
More Heat energy

Units of Temperature
Celsius (oC) also called centigrade, scale based on 0° for the freezing point of
water and 100° for the boiling point of water.
Kelvin (K) base unit of temperature measurement (Si unit of Temperature). The
Kelvin Scale starts at Absolute Zero.

.:. Absolute zero: the lowest temperature that is theoretically possible, at which
the motion of particles which constitutes heat would be minimal. It is zero on the
Kelvin scale, equivalent to −273.15°C.
Other Temperature scales include:
Fahrenheit(oF)
And
Rankine(oR)

Let’s Add some Heat

When heat energy is added to an object:
The average kinetic energy of the atoms in the object increases.
The temperature will increase (with an exception).
The object will expand.
The state of matter may change.

A Change in temperature can affect the properties of an object.

Size (expansion/contraction)
State of matter
Electrical resistance
Pressure
Rate of diffusion
Solubility
Rate of reactions
Which of these Properties can be used to measure temperature.

Simulations
Phet diffusion sim
(https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/diffusion/latest/diffusion_en.html )
Phet Phase Change
Sim(https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/states-of-matter/latest/states-of-
matter_en.html )
JavaLab sim (https://javalab.org/en/bimetal_en/ )

These are some simulations which can help you get a better visual of what happens
at the macroscopic level.

Expansion
&
Thermometers

Questions to answer:

1, What happens when a material is heated.

2. Is it the same for all materials.

3. Does it happen at the same rate in all materials.

Where else should we take thermal expansion into account?

Buildings
Bridges
Bottles
Roads & Sidewalks
Fire arms
Electronics
*Bio-metallic strips
Tell me why
😊
Or you can ask (if you are too chicken to tell me)
😒

Thermometers
Many thermometers we encounter on the day to day take advantage of the thermal
properties of matter.
Whether it be changes in volume by expansion, pressure by kinetic energy of gas
particle, changes in electrical resistance or ,release heat energy via infrared
radiation.
All of these properties can be used to see Who is hot and who is not.

Here are some examples of thermometers.

Lab thermometer
Infrared thermometer
Clinical thermometer
Constant volume gas thermometer
Thermocouple

Lab Thermometer
The lab thermometer is a liquid in glass thermometer. It holds a liquid in the bulb
at the bottom of the thermometer. When the bulb is placed in a substance the liquid
in the thermometer will begging to contract or expand depending of the temperature
of the substance.
It will expand when heated and contract when cooled.
Range typical -10 to 110 ℃

Infrared Thermometer
An infrared thermometer is a thermometer which infers temperature from a portion of
the thermal radiation sometimes called black-body radiation emitted by the object
being measured.
Black-body radiation refers to the spectrum of light emitted by any heated object;
common examples include the heating element of a toaster and the filament of a
light bulb.
RELAX!!! we will get to this later on.

Clinical Thermometer

Constant Volume Gas Thermometer

A constant volume gas thermometer usually consists of a bulb filled with a fixed
amount of a dilute gas which is attached to a mercury manometer.
The manometer is used to measure variation in pressure.
The pressure Law (Gay-Lussac's law) states that the pressure of a given mass of gas
varies directly with the absolute temperature of the gas when the volume is kept
constant. I said RELAX!!! we will get to this later on.

Thermocouple
Thermocouple uses a change in potential difference( Voltage) to determine the
temperature.
It consists of 2 wires made of different metals, when the end of the wire is
exposed to a temperature the wires will have a different p.d between them. Giving
the temperature reading.
Range 95 to 1600 ℃
.:.Different types will have different ranges

Calibrating a thermometer
To define a temperature scale, we first choose two reference temperatures called
the fixed points.

Upper Fixed Point - the temperature of pure boiling water at normal atmospheric
pressure.

Lower Fixed Point - the temperature of pure melting ice at normal atmospheric
pressure.

Phases of Matter

States of Matter

The 3 State of Matter

Solid

Liquid

Gas

Solid
The intermolecular forces between neighboring molecules are strong enough to keep
them locked in position
Solids (like liquids) are not very compressible due to the lack of space between
molecules
If the molecules in a solid adopt a highly ordered packing arrangement, the
structures are said to be crystalline.

Liquid
The intermolecular attractive forces are strong enough to hold molecules close
together
Liquids have a definite volume, independent of the size and shape of their
container
The attractive forces are not strong enough to keep neighboring molecules in a
fixed position and molecules are free to move past or slide over one another.
Slightly Compressible hence why it is said to be incompressible at times.

Gas
A collection of widely separated molecules
The kinetic energy of the molecules is greater than any attractive forces between
the molecules
The lack of any significant attractive force between molecules allows a gas to
expand to fill its container
If attractive forces become large enough, then the gases exhibit non-ideal
behavior. Hmmm. Ideal Gas HMMMM!!!

Change of State

Change of State
Changes of state

Melting
Boiling
Sublimation

Freezing
Condensation
Deposition
Adding heat energy
Removing heat energy

Where you paying attention!

Gas Laws

What do we notice about the Pressure against Temperature graph below. (P/T)

Is there a difference between the:

Pressure /temperature and the

volume /temperature graphs.

Simulation
https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/gas-properties/latest/gas-properties_en.html
Have at it (test it out)
Add particles to the chamber.
Change the constants and observe the effects of each.

Convert between Celsius and Kelvin

Kelvin = Celsius + 273
E.g, 20oC to Kelvin
K = 20oC +273
K = 293K
Celsius = Kelvin - 273
E.g. 50K to oC
oC = 50K - 273
oC = -223oC
Imagine that's all there is to the conversion.

NOTE we will use 273 at this level for the conversion .

Gas Laws you will only be using Kelvin

The Gas laws

Boyle’s Law ( PV = constant)

Charles’ Law ( V/T = constant)

Pressure Law ( P/T = constant)

Combined Gas Law ( (PV)/ T = constant)

Homework go read up about them for next class.

For CSEC Physics :

Don’t sweat the moles.
Don’t sweat the “R”
R is the Ideal Gas constant

If you are doing Chemistry CSEC maybe sweat the above.

NOTE: The units we will use:

Pressure = Pascals = Pa
Volume = meters cube = m3
Temperature= Kelvin = K

However as you will see units will cancel each other out. So examples with atm mmHg
will not matter.

Boyle’s Law
At constant temperature the volume of a fixed mass of gas varies inversely with the
pressure.
P ∝ 1 / V or P = constant x 1/ V
PV = constant
For different pressures p1,p2 and corresponding volumes V1, V2 on a fixed mass of
gas, then
p1V1 = p2V2

Boyle's law
As the volume of the gas decreases, the gas particles have less room to move around
in, and they collide more often with the walls of the container, thus increasing
the pressure:

Boyle’s Law
p1V1 = p2V2
Eg.
P1 = 50kPa
P2=?
V1=20m3
V2 = 10m3

p1V1 = p2V2

50kPa x 20m3 = p2 x 10m3

P2 = (50kPa x 20m3 )/10m3
P2 = 100kPa

Charles’ Law
The volume of a given amount of gas held at constant pressure is directly
proportional to the Kelvin temperature.
The constant depends on amount of gas and pressure. So, as volume goes up, so does
temperature, and vice versa.
This equation can also be described as saying that the volume divided by the
temperature of a gas is constant:
V ∝ T or V/T = constant
V1/T1 = V2/T2

Charles’ Law example

As the balloon warms up, the gas particles start to move faster, and hit the walls
of the balloon harder and more frequently. For the pressure to remain constant, the
balloon must expand, so the collisions occur over a larger area.

V1/T1 = V2/T2
V1 = 30cm3
T1 = 10K
V2 = 100cm3
T2 = ?
V1/T1 = V2/T2
30cm3 / 10K = 100cm3 / T2
T2 = (100cm3 x 10K) / 30cm3
T2 = 33.3K

Pressure Law
This law states that the pressure of a given amount of gas held at constant volume
is directly proportional to the Kelvin temperature.
So, if pressure increases, so will the temperature, and vice versa.
This is the same as saying that the pressure of a gas divided by the temperature
will be constant.
P ∝ T or P / T = constant
P1/T1 = P2/T2

P1/T1 = P2/T2
P1 = ?
T1 = 10K
P2 = 65kPa
T2 = 30K

P1/T1 = P2/T2
P1 / 10℃ = 65 kPa / 30℃
P1 = (65 kPa x 10K )/ 30K
P1 = 21.7kPa

Gay Lussac’s pressure law

General Gas Law

All of the previous laws can be combined into a single proportion:
V ∝ T/P
P1V1 / T1 = P2V2 / T2

The volume of a given amount of gas is proportional to the ratio of its Kelvin
temperature and its pressure.

Examples
P1V1 / T1 = P2V2 / T2
P1 = 350kPa
V1 = 50cm3
T1 = 300K
P2 = 900kPa
V2 = 90cm3
T2 = ?
Have Fun !!!

Revision
Remember Pressure
We made reference to how pressure under your feet can compress soft ground making
you sink.
How water can be pulled up a straw by sucking it.
How air pressure can crush an evacuated can/bottle.
How a pressure cooker cooks foods faster.
How a car tire will explode on a hot long day of driving.

The formulas you’ve seen before

Pressure = Normal Force / Area or p=F/A
How does this relate to Gas?

Pressure = Height x Density x Gravity or P = hρg

What is an example with gases that you can think of?
Which is heavier a deflated balloon or a balloon with air

How gases exert pressure

This is just for Interest, involves water pressure this is not apart of gas
pressure, well kind of, whatever just enjoy.

Question 1
Compression of a gas reduces volume and raises temperature.
A bicycle pump holds 60cm3 of air when the piston is drawn out. The air is
initially at 17℃ and 1 atmospheres pressure.
Calculate the pressure of the air as it is forced into the tyre if compression
reduces its volume to 15cm3 and raises its temperature to 27℃.
P1 = 1.0 atm
P2 = ?
V1 =60cm3
V2 = 15cm3
T1 = 17℃ = 17 + 273 = 290K
T2 = 27℃ = 27 + 273= 300K
Answer: 4.1 atm

Question 2
In a Chemistry experiment, 240cm3 of oxygen gas is collected. The temperature of
the room is 20℃ and the atmospheric pressure, read on the barometer, is 770 mm of
mercury.
Calculate the volume of gas at standard temperature and pressure.(Standard
temperature is 0℃ and standard pressure is 760 mm of mercury)
P1 = 770 mmHg
P2 = 760 mmHg
T1 = 293 K
T2 = 273 K
V1 =240cm3
V2 = ?
Answer: 227cm3

Your task
Using kinetic theory and molecular motion explain the Gas laws, using your own
words (Google is not you, but can help you confirm you explanation)
Plus describe the Formulas used using terms like directly proportional or inversely
proportional.
This task should be done in your book, this is to help you to have explanation that
is easy for you to remember.

Heat Capacity
Heat Capacity
Compare an electric kettle with an immersion heater in a hot water tank, an
electric kettle holds 1.6kg of water and a hot water tank could hold about 160kg of
water.
The power of the kettle is 2.5kW and the power of the immersion heater in the water
tank is 5kW.
As the 5kW immersion heater heats twice as quickly as the 2.5kW kettle, it will
take only half as long to produce the same amount of heat.

Heat Capacity
So if the kettle takes 2 minutes to heat 1.6kg of water, the immersion heater would
take only 1 minute to heat 1.6kg. But in fact the immersion heater takes 100
minutes to heat 160kg of water.
We find that the amount of heat needed is directly proportional to the mass of
water.
This agrees with our personal experiences, while putting on the electric kettle
doesn’t take long , you have to make sure to turn oh the hot water heater as you
wake up else that water gonna be chilly.

Which requires more energy to heat up by 1℃?

Water must be supplied with nearly five times as much energy as aluminium for the
same rise in temperature.
4200 J of energy
900 J of energy
The heat capacity of an object depends on its material.

Heat Capacity “C”

Heat capacity refers to a whole object hence:
The heat capacity, C, of an object is the energy needed to raise its temperature by
1 Kelvin (or 1℃).
Heat capacity = heat energy / temperature change
C = EH/ΔT units are J/K or JK-1
Rearrange the formula to find the heat needed to raise temperature.
EH = CΔT

Specific Heat capacity “c”

Specific heat capacity refers to 1kg of a substance. We use the word specific in
physics to mean per unit mass.
The Specific Heat Capacity, c, of a substance is the heat energy needed to , raise
the temperature of 1kg of the substance by 1K (or 1℃)
Specific heat capacity = heat energy / (mass x temperature change)
c = EH / (m x ΔT) units in Jkg-1K-1
Rearranged to find the heat needed:
EH = mcΔT

Get the calculators!

Recall: Power = energy / time
Hence: Energy = power x time
The power of the electric kettle is 2.5kW the time spent heating was 2 minutes, the
initial temperature of 1.6kg of water was 20℃ and the final is 60℃.
What do we know:
Power (P) = 2.5kW = 2500W
Time (t) = 2 minutes = 120s
ΔT = T2- T1= 60℃ -20℃ =40℃ or 40K difference
Mass of water = 1.6kg
Calculate the energy
EH = 2500W X120s = 300,000J
Calculate the heat capacity:
C = EH /ΔT =
C = 300,000J / 40K = 7,500JK-1
Calculate the specific heat capacity:
c = EH / (m x ΔT) =
c = 300,000J / (1.6kg x 40K) = 4700Jkg-1K-1

Latent Heat

Fun facts!!!
An iceberg can survive many weeks floating in the sea before it all finally melts.
It takes much longer time to turn a kettle full of boiling water into steam, than
it does to bring cold water to the boil in a kettle.
You can test this in your kitchen, get a stopwatch (phone), an put some cold water
into a pot. Start the stopwatch as you turn on the stove record the time for when
it starts to boil, then record the time when the water all evaporates.
You don’t say!!!

Latent Heat
The heat energy needed to change the phase or state of a substance is called
latent heat.
Latent heat means “hidden” heat. As the heat which changes ice into water is hidden
in the sense that when the ice melts it is no hotter than before it received the
heat. The latent, heat turns ice at 0℃ into water at 0℃. So latent heat changes the
phase of an object without causing a change in temperature.

Hmm! Which one needs more energy?

Melting
Vaporisation

Cooling Curve Heating Curve

Fusion vs Vaporisation
The specific latent heat of fusion, l , of a solid substance is the heat energy
required to change 1 kg of it from solid to liquid without any temperature change.
The specific latent heat of vaporisation , l , of a liquid substance is the heat
energy required to change 1 kg of it from liquid to gas without any temperature
change.

Difference in heat of fusion and Vaporization

Latent Heat formula

Heat energy = latent heat x mass
EH = l x m
l = EH/m
Latent heat of Fusion and vaporisation uses the same symbol use your head to
determine which one to use.

MATH Time!
Determine the amount of heat absorbed by 1 kg water to change phase from liquid to
vapor (steam). Heat of vaporization for water = 2256 x 103 J/kg.
Known: Q is the same as EH
Mass (m) = 1 kg
Heat of vaporization (LV) = 2256 x 103 J/kg
Q = m lV
Q = (1 kg)(2256 x 103 J/kg)
Q = 2256 x 103 J

Another one
A popsicle has a mass of 100g. If the specific latent heat of fusion of ice is
340,000Jkg-1, calculate the heat energy needed to melt the popsicle.
EH = l m
= 340,000Jkg-1 x 0.1kg
= 34,000J

Evaporation
In evaporation a liquid changes to a vapour without ever reaching its boiling
point. A puddle of water in the road evaporates and does so much more rapidly when
there is:
Wind
Sun (Heat energy)
Low Humidity (amount of water vapour in the air)

Evaporation vs Boiling

Evaporation
Occurs at any temperature.
Occurs at surface of liquid: no bubbles.
Boiling
Occurs at a definite temperature - the boiling point.
Occurs within liquid: bubbles appear.

Evaporation
Volatile liquids are substances that evaporate readily at normal temperatures. E.g.
(Acetone).
Have you ever cleaned off nail polish and feel the skin on your fingers get super
cold! I wonder why?
This is because the Acetone takes the heat energy from your skin, for it to
vaporize, hence cooling you down.
Why do you think you sweat?

Refrigerator & Air Conditioning

Refrigerators and air conditioners take advantage of the cooling properties of
volatile liquids.

Heat capacity and latent and formulas

Formulas:
Heat capacity
C = EH / ΔT
Specific Heat capacity
c = EH / (m x ΔT)
Specific Latent heat
L = EH / m

Specific heat capacity and Latent Heat

An aluminum can of mass 100g contains 200g of water. Both, initially at 15℃, are
placed in a refrigerator at -5.0℃. Calculate the quantity of heat that has to be
removed from the water and the can for their temperature to fall to -5.0℃.
Water
Ice
Aluminium
Specific Heat capacity (Jkg-1℃-1)
4200
2000
900
Specific Latent Heat (Jkg-1)
340,000
What do you have to look at to complete this questions?
Heat lost by can.
Heat lost by water.
Freezing of water.
Heat lost of ice.
Add all for final energy lose.

Worked question
Heat lost by can from 15℃ to - 5℃
EHc = mc x cc x ΔT
= 0.1kg x 900 Jkg-1℃-1 x (15℃-(-5℃))
=0.1kg x 900 x 20
EHc= 1800J

Heat lost by water from 15℃ to 0℃

EHw = mw x cw xΔT
= 0.2kg x 4200Jkg-1℃-1 x 15℃
EHw=12600J
Water
Ice
Aluminium
Specific Heat capacity (Jkg-1℃-1)
4200
2000
900
Specific Latent Heat (Jkg-1)
340,000
Formulas:
Heat capacity
C = EH / ΔT
Specific Heat capacity
c = EH / (m x ΔT)
Specific Latent heat
L = EH / m

Worked question
Heat lost by water at 0℃ to ice at 0℃
EHw = mw x Lf
= 0.2kg x 340,000Jkg-1
EHc= 68,000J

Heat lost by ice from 0℃ to -5℃

EHw = mi x ci xΔT
= 0.2kg x 2000Jkg-1℃-1 x 5℃
EHw=2,000J
Water
Ice
Aluminium
Specific Heat capacity (Jkg-1℃-1)
4200
2000
900
Specific Latent Heat (Jkg-1)
340,000
Formulas:
Heat capacity
C = EH / ΔT
Specific Heat capacity
c = EH / (m x ΔT)
Specific Latent heat
L = EH / m

Total EH lost = 1,800 + 12,600 + 68,000 + 2,000 = 84,400J

Questions
What are the units for:
Heat Capacity “C”
Specific heat Capacity “c”
Specific latent Heat “L”
[1 mark each 3 Marks total]

2. Find the energy released by a copper block when it is cooled from 100°C to 20°C.
Given that the heat capacity of the block is 770 J°C-1. [2 Marks]

Questions continued

3. When an electric heater is supplied with an electric power of 2.0 kW to heat

4.0 kg of water for 1 minute, calculate the increase in temperature of the water.
Assume that the specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J kg-1 0C-1 and there is no
heat loss to the surroundings. [3 Marks]
4. Find the energy released by 0.3 kg of a liquid sample at 200oC to change to
its solid state at 50oC. Given that the specific heat capacity of the sample in
solid state and liquid state are 770 J kg-1 oC-1 and 900 J kg-1 oC-1 respectively.
The melting point of the sample is 100oC and the specific latent heat of fusion of
it is 10 kJ kg-1. [5 Marks]

👺👺👺Experiments / LABS 👺👺👺

Note these are not going to be done at this moment but just know that whenever the
time is right they will pop-up.
Cooling/ heat curves
Specific Heat capacity/ Specific Latent Heat Capacity

Thermal transfer

Heat Transfer: The Thermal processes

How can heat be transferred?
Conduction
Convection
Radiation

Conduction

Conduction of heat
The flow of heat through a material without the flow of the material.

Conduction

Material
Time for pin to fall (secs)
Aluminium
125
Brass
189
Copper
73
Steel
340
Material
Textbook relative conductivity values.
Aluminium
204
Brass
109
Copper
385
Steel
16

Convection

Convection of heat
The movement caused within a fluid by the tendency of hotter and therefore less
dense material to rise, and colder, denser material to sink under the influence of
gravity, which consequently results in transfer of heat.

1. As the convector heater gets warmer, it heats air immediately above it.

2. The warm air rises, carrying thermal energy all around the room.

3. As the air cools, so it falls towards the floor before being heated again.

Radiation

Radiation
Radiation is the thirds way in which heat can travel, but whereas conduction and
convection both need matter to be present, radiation can be transmitted in a
vacuum.
Radiation is how heat and light reach us from the sun, also mostly through a
vacuum.
Radiation travels in waves.
Definition: Radiation is the flow of heat from one place to another by means of
Electromagnetic waves.

Radiation

Vacuum bottles
Vacuum bottles are effective because they reduce heat transfer caused by
conduction, convection, and radiation.
The insulating plastic cap reduces the lost of heat via convection and conduction.
The silvered surface inside the bottle reflects the thermal radiation back to the
inside of the bottle.
The vacuum separating the layers of the bottle reduces the transfer of heat via
conduction.

Thermal process Recap

Thermal Conduction
Conduction - The flow of heat through a material without the flow of the material.
Of the 3 states of matter solids are the best conductors as their particles are
closely packed together.
The greater a materials conductivity the better it is as a conductor.
A material with a low conductivity is call and insulator.
Doesn’t occur in a vacuum.

Thermal Convection
Convection is the movement of fluids(liquid and gas) due to difference in
temperature, that causes the hot fluids to flow upwards and the cold fluid to flow
down.
Convection currents are the cyclic movement of the fluid.
Convection is one of the reasons for wind.
Does not occur in a vacuum.

Thermal Radiation
Thermal radiation, process by which energy, in the form of electromagnetic
radiation, is emitted by a heated surface in all directions.
All objects emit thermal radiation. All heated bodies emit Blackbody radiation Eg.
heating elements in a toaster.
Can travel through a vacuum, as it uses electromagnetic waves to move rather than
matter.

Solar Water Heater

Thermal radiation entering earth

The End