SEMICONDUCTORS IN CHIPS

Adithyan TV Anushka B Govind

I Year B Tech I Year B Tech I Year B Tech
Department of Electrical & Electronics Department of Electrical & Electronics Department of Electrical & Electronics
Engineering Engineering Engineering
Amrita School of Engineering Amrita School of Engineering Amrita School of Engineering
Amritapuri Amritapuri Amritapuri

Niranjan M S Udit Anand

I Year B Tech I Year B Tech
Department of Electrical & Electronics Department of Electrical & Electronics
Engineering Engineering
Amrita School of Engineering Amrita School of Engineering
Amritapuri Amritapuri

Abstract— When we click, swipe, type or speak to an heat. Their actual function includes the
electronic device, we expect an instant response correct to our amplification of signals, switching, and energy
instructions. But what is searching , quantifying, optimizing conversion
and delivering our desired results? In most cases, it’s a
semiconductor. In recent years there is an increased demand of  Semiconductors play a crucial role in chipsets,
semiconductors in the field of chipsets in such a way it serving as the building blocks for electronic
triggered massive distress as companies around the world fail devices. Chipsets are collections of integrated
to meet rising demand for a wide range of electronic goods and circuits (ICs) designed to work together to
components. In fact it is considered “brains” of most modern perform specific functions within a device, such
electronic devices and gadgets. For example, when we use our as a computer or a smartphone. In chipsets,
laptops to book a vacation, find a restaurant recommendation, semiconductors are used to create transistors,
stream a movie or access email, the laptop’s semiconductor- diodes, and other electronic components on
based central processing unit (CPU) and graphics processing silicon wafers through processes like doping,
unit (GPU) implement computing functions that instantly turn etching, and layering. These components form
questions into answers. In this journal, we decode what makes
the basis of the electronic circuits that enable the
semiconductors this much crucial element and their roles in
chipsets particularly in the Intel and M-series chipsets.
chipset to function. For instance, transistors act
Towards the end we also discuss the advantages and as switches controlling the flow of electrical
disadvantages of using semiconductors current, which is fundamental to processing and
storing data in digital devices.
Keywords—FPGA, GPU, ASIC
 Chipsets comprise multiple semiconductor
components that work together, including CPUs
I. INTRODUCTION
(Central Processing Units), GPUs (Graphics
Let’s understand what exactly is semiconductors: A Processing Units), memory controllers,
semiconductor is a substance that has specific electrical input/output controllers, and more. The
properties that enable it to serve as a foundation for coordination and interaction of these
computers and other electronic devices. It is typically a solid components, made possible by semiconductors,
chemical element or compound that conducts electricity enable the functionalities of the device.
under certain conditions but not others. This makes it an ideal Advancements in semiconductor technology,
medium to control electrical current and everyday electrical such as smaller transistor sizes (scaling down to
appliances. A substance that can conduct electricity is called nanometer levels) and improvements in
the conductor and a substance that cannot conduct electricity manufacturing processes, have led to more
is known as the insulator. Semiconductors have properties powerful and efficient chipsets, driving the
that sit between the conductor and insulator. A diode, innovation and evolution of various electronic
integrated circuit (IC) and transistor are all made from devices.
semiconductors. It controls and manages the flow of electric
current in electronic equipment and devices. As a result, it is  As small as a fingernail, semiconductors are
a popular component of electronic chips made for computing arguably the most complex products ever
components and a variety of electronic devices, including manufactured. A common chip is only about 1
solid-state storage. Semiconductor chips are made from millimeter thick and contains roughly 30
silicon as it is a good electricity conductor. These chips are different layers of components and wires called
fitted into microcircuits that powers numerous modern-day interconnects that make up its complex circuitry.
electronic goods and components. It may be noted that all Billions of microscopic switches called
active components, integrated circuits, microchips, transistors make semiconductors work.
transistors and electronic sensors are built with II TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTORS
semiconductor materials
Different types of semiconductors are used in chipsets,
 Semiconductor devices can display a range of including: N-type and P-type semiconductors: These are
useful properties, such as showing variable materials with different conductive properties. N-type
resistance, passing current more easily in one semiconductors have an excess of electrons, while P-type
direction than the other, and reacting to light and semiconductors have a deficit of electrons or “holes.”

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  Extrinsic semiconductor
An extrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor that
has been doped with a small amount of chemical
impurity. The impurity alters the electrical
conductivity of the semiconductor
Extrinsic semiconductors are created by adding a
trace element or chemical called a doping agent to the
semiconductor crystal. The doping agent gives the
crystal different electrical properties than the pure
semiconductor crystal
 Intrinsic semiconductors
An intrinsic or pure semiconductor is a semiconductor
that dos not have any impurities or dopants added to Fig 1.1 N Type Semiconductor
it, as in the case of p-type and n-type semiconductors.
In intrinsic semiconductors, the number of excited
electrons and the number of holes are equal: n = p.

A. N-Type Semiconductor
 An n-type semiconductor is an intrinsic
semiconductor doped with phosphorus (P),
arsenic (As), or antimony (Sb) as an impurity.
Silicon of Group IV has four valence electrons
and phosphorus of Group V has five valence
electrons. If a small amount of phosphorus is
added to a pure silicon crystal, one of the
valence electrons of phosphorus becomes free to
move around (free electron*) as a surplus Fig 1.2. P Type semiconductor
electron. When this free electron is attracted to  GPU(Graphics processing unit)
the “+” electrode and moves, current flows.
(fig.1.1) What they do: Make images; accelerate highly
parallel operations.

B. P-Type Semiconductor  CPU(Central processing unit (the brain of the

computer))
 A p-type semiconductor is an intrinsic What they do: Run the computer and all its
semiconductor doped with boron (B) or indium programs.
(In). Silicon of Group IV has four valence
electrons and boron of Group III has three  ASIC(Application-specific integrated circuit)
valence electrons. If a small amount of boron is What they do: One thing very quickly, including
doped to a single crystal of silicon, valence deep learning, encryption and network processing
electrons will be insufficient at one position to
bond silicon and boron, resulting in holes that .III CHIPS THAT WERE USED 10 YEARS AGO
lack electrons. When a voltage is applied in this During earlier times chips were not as much as powerful
state, the neighboring electrons move to the as compared to nowadays. They were able to run
hole, so that the place where an electron was applications which were used in their time but are unable
present becomes a new hole, and the holes to applications that require more processing power in
appear to move to the electron site in sequence. todays use.
(fig 1.2)
The Intel Core i3 550 was released in January 7, 2010
III ACRONYM OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF was one of the finest chips used in that time. The i3 550
SEMICONDUCTORS had wo cores running at 3.20 GHz.(fig. 1.3)
 FPGA (Field-programmable gate array; software- IV INTEL PROCESSORS
configurable circuits)  Intel is a leading semiconductor manufacturer,
What they do: Often used in applications that need producing a wide range of chips for various devices,
to change often, including acceleration, including CPUs (Central Processing Units) for
communications, circuit design.
 V. M SERIES (APPLE PROCESSOR)
M-series chips are made by TSMC, a Taiwan-based
contract manufacturer of computer chips, using leading-edge
5nm semiconductor lithography process technology, which is
often touted as being far ahead of Intel’s current 10nm
processes. In November 2020, Apple announced its first
generation of M-series computer chips in the Apple Silicon
series of in-house-designed chips for Mac computers,
replacing Intel central processing units. One key design
feature of Apple M-series chips sets them apart from chips
previously used in Mac computers. While a “chip” in this
context is often used synonymously with CPU or processor,
the Apple M1 chip integrates several components including
Fig 1.3 Intel Core i3 550 processor
the CPU, GPU, and parts that control I/O, security, and other
computers, mobile processors, and other integrated aspects. Combining these technologies into one central
circuits. component with a unified memory architecture, or shared
memory pool, allows for faster and more energy efficient
 The Intel Core series includes a range of processors communication across all parts of the system. They integrate
designed for various computing devices, including one or more ARM-based processing cores (CPU), a graphics
desktops, laptops, and mobile devices. Core i3, i5, processing unit (GPU), cache memory and other electronics
i7, i9 are the main categories within the Intel Core necessary to provide mobile computing functions within a
lineup, each offering different levels of single physical package.((fig 1.5) and fig (1.6)
performance.
 The M SERIES is an ARM processor, not an x86
 Intel® Core™ i9 Processors processor.
Delivering up to 24 cores for seamless 4K Ultra HD  It integrates more components than an Intel CPU.
and 360-degree video, robust gameplay, and
multitasking performance fig (1.4).  The Apple M SERIES also integrates RAM in the
same package.
 Core™ i7 Processors
 It features Rosetta 2 dynamic binary translation that
This CPU packs the power of up to 20 cores for allows it to run x86 software.
accelerated computing supporting high-end gaming,
connectivity, and security.  The chip boasts eight CPU cores, in addition to the
integrated GPU.
 Intel® Core™ i5 Processors
 It is manufactured using the 5-nanometer process
Experience exceptional performance for home and and has 16 billion transistors.
business PCs with up to 14 cores for gaming,
creativity, and multitasking.  For the average user, most of these specifications
won’t mean much, but power users should take
 Intel® Core™ i3 Processors note: The ARM-based Apple M series is supposed
These value-packed processors deliver outstanding to run legacy x86 software using Rosetta, which
performance for everyday tasks. could cause adverse effects on performance when
running x86 applications. Fortunately, due to its
 Intel® Core™ X-series Processors speed, the M chips will still outperform older Intel
chips in most scenarios, even with legacy x86 apps.
Unlocked CPUs that deliver up to 18 cores for the
most extreme gaming, creative production, and
multi-task

Fig 1.5 Apple M1 Series Processor

Fig 1.4 Core i9 Processor

 hortage of chips. As the situation stands, the global
chip crisis is far from over and prices of many
electronic goods and components could increase
further 1 per cent to 3 per cent, according to
Goldman Sachs. While major chip manufacturing
companies have announced investments to ramp up
producing lines, analysts feel it would take at least
two to three years to build the new semiconductor
chip production plants.
 Future work must aim to first quantify SSC
resilience and find areas where improvements can
Fig 1.6 Apple M2 Series Processor lead to the greatest increase in its resilience.
VI. WHY M SERIES IS BETTER THAN INTEL IX CONCLUSION
 Most laymen to the semiconductor industry are In conclusion, the world of semiconductors stands at the
conditioned to think that more powerful chips are forefront of technological innovation, driving the evolution
entirely due to higher transistor density, i.e. smaller of electronic devices and shaping the way we interact with
transistors on the chips. Indeed, that’s been the way technology. From the foundational properties of
computers have achieved faster speeds since the semiconductors that bridge the gap between conductors and
birth of the semiconductor industry. insulators to the intricate designs of semiconductor chips, this
 For one, we are reaching the limits of how small field plays a pivotal role in the functioning of modern
transistors can become. To simplify, the transistors electronics.
on semiconductor chips send computer instructions A glimpse into the past reveals the progression of
using electricity - so the more transistors you can semiconductor technology through Intel processors, with the
cram on a chip, the more instructions you can send, current era showcasing the prowess of Intel's Core series.
and the faster your computer can become. However, Simultaneously, the advent of Apple's M-series chips
we have now reached the point where the transistors signifies a paradigm shift, integrating multiple components
are so small that they are almost as small as into a unified architecture for enhanced speed and efficiency.
electrons
In this dynamic landscape, where the M-series challenges
 The other thing to understand, is that putting smaller traditional norms and Intel continues to innovate, the choice
transistors on a chip requires better and more between these technologies becomes not just a matter of
expensive machines to build them. Indeed, these performance but a consideration of specific use cases and
semiconductor factories (know as ‘foundries’) are individual preferences. The ongoing advancements and
so prohibitively expensive to build, that right now challenges in the semiconductor industry underscore its
only 2 companies (or 3, depending on who you ask) critical role in shaping the trajectory of technological
are capable of producing the smallest 5 nanometer progress.
(‘nm’) chips. These are Samsung and TSMC,
respectively. Intel is the potential 3rd, but they’re In essence, semiconductors, with their microscopic
still some ways off from achieving the smallest 5nm transistors and intricate circuitry, embody the complexity and
capabilities. sophistication of our technological age. Their continued
evolution promises a future where electronic devices become
VIII DOES THE CHIP SHORTAGE AFFECT THE more powerful, efficient, and integrated into the fabric of our
SOCIETY AND PEOPLE daily lives.
 Yes. The chip shortage directly impacts consumers
as prices of everyday appliances and electronic REFERENCES
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