Basic Electronics

UNIT-I
Semiconductor Basics
Atomic Structure
Atoms have three main parts: Protons, positively charged particles, make up part of the
nucleus, which is in the center of the atom. Neutrons, uncharged particles, make up the other part
of the nucleus. Electrons, negatively charged particles, orbit around the nucleus like the planets
orbit the sun in our solar system.

The atom is the smallest particle of any matter. Everything is made up of atoms. Atoms have three
main parts:

1. Protons, positively charged particles, make up part of the nucleus, which is in the center of the
atom.
2. Neutrons, uncharged particles, make up the other part of the nucleus.
3. Electrons, negatively charged particles, orbit around the nucleus like the planets orbit the sun in our
solar system.

Conductors: Materials that easily conduct electricity (i.e., materials with high electrical conductivity and
low electrical resistivity)

A conductor conducts electricity since it offers little or no resistance to the flow of electrons, thus leading to
a flow of electrical current. Typically, metals, metal alloys, electrolytes and even some nonmetals, like
graphite and liquids, including water, are good electrical conductors.

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 Basic Electronics

Insulators: Materials that do not readily conduct electricity (i.e., materials with high electrical resistivity)

Conductors have electrical resistivity on the order of 10-8 to 10-4 Ωcm whereas insulators have electrical
resistivity on the order of 108 to 1018 Ωcm. Semiconductors have an electrical resistivity value between
those of conductors and insulators—10-4 to 108 Ωcm.

Covalent Bonds

A covalent bond is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electrons to form electron pairs between
atoms. These electron pairs are known as shared pairs or bonding pairs. The stable balance of attractive and
repulsive forces between atoms, when they share electrons, is known as covalent bonding.

Conductivity of Semiconductor

Semiconductors are the materials which have conductivity between conductors and non-conductors or
insulators. In semiconductors, the conduction band electron and valence band hole participate in electrical
conduction. Semiconductors can be compounds such as gallium arsenide or pure elements, such as
germanium or silicon.

1) In intrinsic semiconductors ne = nh, both electron and holes contribute in current conduction.

2) When some potential difference is applied across a piece of intrinsic semiconductor current flows in it
due to both electron and holes i.e. i = ie + ih ⇒ i = eA (neve + nhvh).

Conductivity of Semiconductor

3) As we know that, σ=JE=iAE

. Hence, conductivity of semiconductor: σ = e (neμe + nhμh), where ve = Drift velocity of electron, vh =

Drift velocity of holes, E = Applied electric field, μe=veE=

Mobility of electron and μh=vhE=

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 Basic Electronics

Mobility of holes.

4) Motion of electrons in the conduction band and of holes the valence band under the actions of electric
field is shown below.

Conductivity of Semiconductor 1

5) At absolute zero temperature (0K) conduction band of semiconductor is completely empty i.e. σ = 0.
Hence, the semiconductor behaves as an insulator.

Semiconductors:
Materials with an electrical conductivity value that falls between that of a conductor and that of an
insulator

Semiconductor is a chemical Element in which the conductivity lies between conductor

and insulator, Hence the movement of electrons (Current Conduction) can be controlled easily by
means of an external voltage (Biasing).

Two types of Semiconductors

1. Intrinsic Semiconductor (Pure Semiconductor) and
2. Extrinsic Semiconductor (Impure semiconductor/Added impurity)

Extrinsic semiconductor is further classified into two types

a. P-Type Extrinsic Semiconductor (Doping Trivalent element) and
b. N-Type Extrinsic Semiconductor (Doping Pentavalent element).

The holes are majority charge carriers and electrons are minority charge carriers in P-Type and
electrons are majority and holes are minority charge carriers in case of N-Type Semiconductor.

P-N Junction(Semiconductor Diode/ Diode):

Construction:

Starting with a piece of intrinsic semiconductor and divide it into two halves, one half is
doped with any tri-valent element such as Boron, Aluminum etc., to form P-Type semiconductor,
in which the holes are majority charge carriers and electrons are minority charge carriers. Other
half is doped with any penta-valent element such as phosphorus, arsenic etc., to form N-Type
Semiconductor, in which the electrons are majority charge carriers and holes are minority charge
carriers.

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Basic Electronics

The Junction or a line dividing the P-Type and N-Type is called P-N Junction. Metallic
contact is connected to P-Type and N-Type material to get terminals for the device called
Electrodes such as Anode and Cathode, this device is called P-N Junction Diode or Semiconductor
diode or simply Diode as shown in figure(1).

Figure(1): P-N Junction Diode/Diode

Working:

The working principle can be studied in three different operations or Biasing arrangements
as follows.

Case (1): Zero Biasing.

Without any external supply and at normal room temperature, at the time of contact with
P-Type and N-Type material, it has a tendency to move or diffusing the electrons from N side and
occupies holes from the P side. Similarly holes in the P side attract electrons in the N side. This
results forming a thin layer near the P-N Junction due to loosing electrons near the junction from
the N side and holes near the junction from the P side. This layer or region is called depletion layer
and it acts as an intrinsic semiconductor as shown in figure (2).

Figure (2): P-N Junction Diode/Diode with depletion layer/region.

Case (2): Reverse Biasing.

External supply with Positive terminal of the battery is connected to the cathode and
negative terminal of the battery is connected to the anode is called Reverse biasing.
With this biasing the negative terminal of the battery sucks out or attracts the holes from
P- Type material and positive terminal of the battery sucks out or attract electrons from N-Type
material, this results wider depletion region and the resistance is very high, and the current that
flows through the device only due to minority charge carriers as shown in figure (3).
The magnitude of current under reverse biasing is in terms of nano amperes for silicon
diodes.

Figure (3): P-N Junction Diode is under Reverse Biasing.

Case (3): Forward Biasing.

External Supply with Positive terminal of the battery is connected to the anode and negative
terminal of the battery is connected to the cathode is called forward biasing.

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Basic Electronics

With this biasing the negative terminal of the battery pushes or pumps more electrons to
the N-Type material and positive terminal of the battery pushes or pumps more holes to the P-
Type material. By go on increasing the biasing voltage the width of the depletion region decreases,
Resistance decreases and the current flowing through the device is increases( not proportional to
voltage). If the Biasing voltage VS is greater than or equal to Vγ (Thresold Voltage) the
depletion layer completely vanishes and easily current will flow as shown in figure (4).The cut in
voltage orthreshold voltage (Vγ) for silicon diodes is 0.7 V and for Germanium diodes is 0.3V.

Figure (4): P-N Junction Diode is under Forward Biasing.

V-I Characteristics:

Figure (5): V-I Characteristics of P-N Junction Diode.

Figure (5) shows the V-I Characteristics of P-N Junction diode, VS is the biasing voltage,
ID is the Diode Current and VBD is the Break down voltage. The leakage current flows through
the device under reverse biasing due to minority charge carriers. Under forward biasing and
biasing voltage is greater than or equal to the threshold voltage, the device then acts as a
conducting material.

Diode Characteristic Parameters:

1. Reverse Resistance (Rr):
The ratio of Reverse biasing voltage to the reverse current is called Reverse resistance of the PN
Junction Diode.
i.e., = ; where, VR is the Biasing voltage under reverse biasing, called as reverse voltage and
𝐼𝑜
Io is the reverse leakage current.
2. Forward Resistance (Rf):
The ratio of Forward biasing voltage to the Forward current is called Forward resistance of the PN
Junction Diode.
i.e., = ; where, VF is the Biasing voltage under Forward biasing, called as Forward voltage
𝐼𝐹
and ID is the Forward Current.

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Basic Electronics

Diode Models
A semiconductor diode is a two terminal electronic component with a PN junction. This is
also called as a Rectifier.

The anode which is the positive terminal of a diode is represented with A and the cathode,
which is the negative terminal is represented with K. To know the anode and cathode of a
practical diode, a fine line is drawn on the diode which means cathode, while the other end
represents anode.

As we had already discussed about the P-type and N-type semiconductors, and the behavior
of their carriers, let us now try to join these materials together to see what happens.

Formation of a Diode

If a P-type and an N-type material are brought close to each other, both of them join to form a
junction, as shown in the figure below.

A P-type material has holes as the majority carriers and an N-type material has electrons as
the majority carriers. As opposite charges attract, few holes in P-type tend to go to n-side,
whereas few electrons in N-type tend to go to P-side.

As both of them travel towards the junction, holes and electrons recombine with each other to
neutralize and forms ions. Now, in this junction, there exists a region where the positive and
negative ions are formed, called as PN junction or junction barrier as shown in the figure.
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Basic Electronics

The formation of negative ions on P-side and positive ions on N-side results in the formation
of a narrow charged region on either side of the PN junction. This region is now free from
movable charge carriers. The ions present here have been stationary and maintain a region of
space between them without any charge carriers.

As this region acts as a barrier between P and N type materials, this is also called as Barrier
junction. This has another name called as Depletion region meaning it depletes both the
regions. There occurs a potential difference VD due to the formation of ions, across the
junction called as Potential Barrier as it prevents further movement of holes and electrons
through the junction.

Biasing of a Diode

When a diode or any two-terminal component is connected in a circuit, it has two biased
conditions with the given supply. They are Forward biased condition and Reverse
biased condition. Let us know them in detail.

Forward Biased Condition

When a diode is connected in a circuit, with its anode to the positive terminal and cathode
to the negative terminal of the supply, then such a connection is said to be forward
biased condition. This kind of connection makes the circuit more and more forward biased
and helps in more conduction. A diode conducts well in forward biased condition.

Reverse Biased Condition

When a diode is connected in a circuit, with its anode to the negative terminal and cathode
to the positive terminal of the supply, then such a connection is said to be Reverse
biased condition. This kind of connection makes the circuit more and more reverse biased
and helps in minimizing and preventing the conduction. A diode cannot conduct in reverse
biased condition.

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Basic Electronics

Let us now try to know what happens if a diode is connected in forward biased and in reverse
biased conditions.

Working under Forward Biased

When an external voltage is applied to a diode such that it cancels the potential barrier and
permits the flow of current is called as forward bias. When anode and cathode are connected
to positive and negative terminals respectively, the holes in P-type and electrons in N-type
tend to move across the junction, breaking the barrier. There exists a free flow of current with
this, almost eliminating the barrier.

With the repulsive force provided by positive terminal to holes and by negative terminal to
electrons, the recombination takes place in the junction. The supply voltage should be such
high that it forces the movement of electrons and holes through the barrier and to cross it to
provide forward current.

Forward Current is the current produced by the diode when operating in forward biased
condition and it is indicated by If.

Working under Reverse Biased

When an external voltage is applied to a diode such that it increases the potential barrier and
restricts the flow of current is called as Reverse bias. When anode and cathode are connected
to negative and positive terminals respectively, the electrons are attracted towards the
positive terminal and holes are attracted towards the negative terminal. Hence both will be
away from the potential barrier increasing the junction resistance and preventing any
electron to cross the junction.

The following figure explains this. The graph of conduction when no field is applied and
when some external field is applied are also drawn.

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Basic Electronics

With the increasing reverse bias, the junction has few minority carriers to cross the junction.
This current is normally negligible. This reverse current is almost constant when the
temperature is constant. But when this reverse voltage increases further, then a point
called reverse breakdown occurs, where an avalanche of current flows through the junction.
This high reverse current damages the device.

Reverse current is the current produced by the diode when operating in reverse biased
condition and it is indicated by Ir. Hence a diode provides high resistance path in reverse
biased condition and doesn’t conduct, where it provides a low resistance path in forward
biased condition and conducts. Thus we can conclude that a diode is a one-way device which
conducts in forward bias and acts as an insulator in reverse bias. This behavior makes it work
as a rectifier, which converts AC to DC.

Purpose of a Diode

A diode is used to block the electric current flow in one direction, i.e. in forward direction
and to block in reverse direction. This principle of diode makes it work as a Rectifier.

For a circuit to allow the current flow in one direction but to stop in the other direction, the
rectifier diode is the best choice. Thus the output will be DC removing the AC components.
The circuits such as half wave and full wave rectifiers are made using diodes, which can be
studied in Electronic Circuits tutorials.

A diode is also used as a Switch. It helps a faster ON and OFF for the output that should
occur in a quick rate.

ADV - I Characteristics of a Diode

A Practical circuit arrangement for a PN junction diode is as shown in the following figure.
An ammeter is connected in series and voltmeter in parallel, while the supply is controlled
through a variable resistor.

During the operation, when the diode is in forward biased condition, at some particular
voltage, the potential barrier gets eliminated. Such a voltage is called as Cut-off
Voltage or Knee Voltage. If the forward voltage exceeds beyond the limit, the forward
current rises up exponentially and if this is done further, the device is damaged due to
overheating.

The following graph shows the state of diode conduction in forward and reverse biased
conditions.

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Basic Electronics

During the reverse bias, current produced through minority carriers exist known as “Reverse
current”. As the reverse voltage increases, this reverse current increases and it suddenly
breaks down at a point, resulting in the permanent destruction of the junction.

Applications of Diodes

 Rectifiers
 Voltage Multipliers
 Clipper Circuit
 Clamping Circuit
 Protection Circuit
 In Logic Gates
 Flyback Circuits
 Light Emission
 Light Detection
 AM Envelope Detector
 Frequency Mixer
Power Supply Filters and Regulators

 In most power supplies AC voltage having a sixty-hertz frequency is transformed into the
dc voltage.

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Basic Electronics

 The output of a half-wave rectifier having frequency sixty hertz or output of full-wave
rectifier having a frequency of one twenty hertz should be filtered to remove fluctuations
before connecting with the load.
 The below figure shows the use of filters in the rectifier circuit and its result.
 The minor fluctuations in the output of a filter are known as ripple.

Capacitor-Input Filter
 The half-wave rectifier circuit having a capacitor is shown in the below figure.

 You can see that the filtering circuit is only a capacitor attached to the output of rectifier
and ground terminal.
 The resistance connected with the circuit is equal to the total resistance offered by the
load.
 Now, we will discuss filtering process of a half-wave rectifier and expand it to the full-
wave rectifier circuit.
 In the above figure, you can see that the diode is in forward biased condition of the first
quarter part of a positive cycle of input signal.
 During this cycle, diode gets charged to within 0.7 volts of a peak value of the input.
 In the below figure you can see that when the input signal moves to decrement from a
peak point during this process diode is becomes reversed biased and a capacitor is still
charged.

 Throughout the residual portion of the wave, the capacitor can release charge only over
the load resistor (RL) at a rate find by the RLC that is time constant, it longer than the time
interval of an input signal.
 In the below figure the first quarter portion of next cycle of an input signal is shown. The
diode will be in forward biasing condition when the value of input voltage is larger than
the voltage stored in the capacitor by the almost 0.7 volts.

Ripple Voltage
 As observed that the capacitor charges very fastly at the start of the input cycle and gets
discharged very slowly after the positive extreme point of input voltage across the load
resistance.
 The alteration in voltage of the capacitor after charging and discharging is known as
a ripple voltage.
 Ripples are not good for the filtering process so if their value is less then the filtering
action will be fine.

 In below figure you can see that the output frequency of half-wave rectifier is half the
output of the full-wave rectifier.

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Basic Electronics

 Due to this high value of frequency, the filtering of a full-wave rectifier is easy due to less
time interval among peaks as compared to the half-wave rectifier.
 After filtration process, the output voltage of full-wave rectifier has less ripples than the
output of full-wave rectifier instead of having a similar load and capacitor connected.
 Due to the short time interval among the output voltage signals of a full-wave rectifier the
capacitor gets less discharged.

Ripple Factor
 The ripple factor (r) is a parameter that defines the efficiency of a filter. Its formula is
given here.
r= Vr(pp) /VDC
 In this equation, the Vr(pp) is the peak to peak ripple voltage and VDC average value or DC
value of output of filter circuit.
Voltage Regulators
 As a filter can decrease the ripples of the output of rectifier circuit the best method to
improve the output of rectifier to the desired value is to use a voltage regulator with the
capacitor filter circuit.
 The main purpose of a voltage regulator is to maintain the output voltage at a certain level
irrespective of the variation in the input voltage due to the current variation of temperature
variation.
 As a filter can decrease the ripples of the output of rectifier circuit the best method to
improve the output of rectifier to the desired value is to use a voltage regulator with the
capacitor filter circuit.
 The main purpose of a voltage regulator is to maintain the output voltage at a certain level
irrespective of the variation in the input voltage due to the current variation of temperature
variation.

 The output of the filter providing to the regulator is at an acceptable level. The use of a
larger capacitance capacitor and voltage regulator makes the output of a very fine.
 The regulators are ICs and have 3 connection points, first is input, second is output and
third is a reference point.
 The input of regulators is coming from the filter output that has a ripple level of less than
ten percent.
 After that, the regulators will decrease the ripple almost to zero.
 Mostly regulators have some circuits such as interior voltage reference, short circuit
protection, and thermal shutdown circuit.

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Basic Electronics

 They are existing in different ranges of voltages, containing positive and negative outputs,
and can be manufactured for adjustable outputs with the least of exterior elements.
 Usually, voltage regulators can provide a constant output of 1 ore more than one amperes
with the less ripples.
 The regulator has 3 terminals used to get fix value of output voltage is shown in the below
figure.
 In the above circuit, you can see that there are two capacitors first at the input side of
regulator and second at the output side of the regulator. Normally the capacitance of
output capacitor is 0.1uF to 1.0uF.
 The filtering process done by the input capacitor and output capacitor of regulator
increases the transient response.
 in below figure the power supply having plus five voltage regulator is shown in the below
figure.

Prepared by K.Sirisha., Assistant Professor, Dept. of ECE, GEC Page 13

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Basic Electronics

Unit-II
Special-Purpose Diodes

The PN junctions with additional features are called special types of

diodes, which have special form of PN junction compared to normal diodes. Most
of the special diodes convert one form of energy into another form, few of them
are discussed in the following section.

Zener Diode:
The reverse current through the normal diode is in terms of microamperes
and it is almostconstant until the reverse voltage is less than break down voltage, if
the reverse voltage is greater than or equal to the break down voltage the junction
breaks and high current will flow through the device and more power will be
dissipated then the device may be destroyed or damaged.

If we limit the current through the device by means of connecting a resistor

in series with the device, the power dissipation reduces and the device may not be
destroyed even under breakdown region. By using this principle the special type of
diode is designed by Clearance Zenercalled as Zener diode.
There are two types of breakdown occurs in Zener diode depending on the
break down voltage levels.
i) Zener Break down:
This type of breakdown occurs in the device if the breakdown voltage is
less than or equalto 6V(typically), this strong electric field at the junction becomes
very large and breaks the covalent bonds to release free electrons, due to this very
high current will flow through the device. This mechanism or process is called
ionization by Electric field.

ii) Avalanche Breakdown:

This type of breakdown occurs in the device if the breakdown voltage is
greater than 6V (Typically), this high potential forces minority charge carriers to
move quickly means kinetic energy increases, due to this the minority charge
carriers collide with atoms to break covalent bonds which increase the free
electrons and hence the current increases sharply. This process or mechanism is
called, Impact Ionization or Ionization by collision. In this mechanism, the free
electrons increase in multiples and hence called avalanche breakdown.VI
Characteristics of Zener Diode:

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Basic Electronics

Figure (26): VI Characteristics of Zener Diode.

Zener Diode Voltage Regulator:

Zener diode provides constant voltage if the Zener Current is between
IZmin to IZmax under reverse biasing, this feature of Zener diode will be utilized
to design a voltage regulator.
Voltage regulator is a system which produces the constant voltage
irrespective of variationsin line (Input) and load.
Figure (27) shows the circuit diagram of a Zener Diode Voltage Regulator.
Where, R is the Series Resistor used to limit or control the sharp current flowing
through the Zener diode under breakdown condition, RL is the Load resistance, Vi
is the unregulated power supply, IZ is the current through the Zener diode, IL is
the load current, VR is the voltage drop across series resistor. VZ is the Zener
Voltage, Vo is the voltage across the load resistor called output voltage and I is the

input current.
Figure (27): Zener Diode Voltage Regulator Circuit.

From the above figure, the input unregulated power supply Vi, Positive
terminal is connected to the cathode terminal and negative terminal is connected to
the anode terminal, hencethe Zener diode is operating in the reverse biasing mode.
And the above circuit provides a constant voltage even by varying the
input voltage and varying load, i.e., provides regulation for both line and load.

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Basic Electronics

Case(i): Line Regulation; Variable input and constant load:

If the input voltage Vi is less than the Zener Voltage VZ ( Zener Break
Down Voltage), the output voltage is same as the input voltage Vi, because the
Zener diode is in off state, if the inputvoltage is greater than the Zener voltage VZ,
the diode in ON state and hence it acts as a voltage source of VZ Volts.

If Vi increases, the input current I also increases, and IZ increases to

maintain IL constant, but IZ should be between IZmin to IZmax.
If Vi decreases, the input current I also decreases, and IZ decreases to
maintain IL constant,but IZ should be between IZmin to IZmax.

Therefore the voltage across the load resistor constant and is given by
Vo=VZ

Case(ii): Load Regulation; Fixed input and variable load:

If RL increases, IL decreases and to keep input current I constant IZ

increases, but IZ shouldbe between IZmin to IZmax.
If RL decreases, IL increases and to keep input current I constant
IZ decreases, butIZ should be between IZmin to IZmax.
Therefore the voltage across the load resistor constant and is given by
Vo=VZ

Zener Diode Applications

Zener diodes are widely used in all kinds of electronic circuits.

1. Over voltage protection

2. Voltage regulator

1. over Voltage Protection

Let us understand with an example.

Suppose the circuit requires 6 volt. So we put a Zener diode that has 6 volt of breakdown
voltage. When an over voltage, suppose 10 volt try to rush through circuit that needs 6 volt,
the circuit may get blown.

Here, Zener diode comes in action. Above 6 volt, Zener diode starts conducting current and
provides constant output voltage of 6 volt to the circuit.

2. Zener diode as voltage regulator

The most wide application of Zener diode is its use as voltage regulator. It can input a wide
range of voltage to provide a constant and accurate output voltage.

When the Zener voltage / breakdown voltage is reached the output voltage goes constant.

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Basic Electronics

To limit the excess flow of current through Zener diode, a resistor is added in series.

Advantages of Zener diode are as follows –

1. Zener diodes are cheap.

2. They are small in size
3. Output is highly accurate
4. It can handle high power
Some common specifications of Zener diode are –

1. The range of reverse breakdown voltage in Zener diode ( Vz ) lies between 2.4v to
200v.
2. The minimum current required for Zener breakdown is between 5 mA to 10 mA.
3. The general power rating of Zener diodes are 400 mW, 500 mW, 1 W & 5 W.
4. The tolerance voltage of Zener diode is ± 5 %.

Optical Diodes (OR) Photodiodes:

Photo diodes are special type of diode or special form of PN junction,
which conducts or produces current when the junction is exposed to light radiation
under reverse biasing condition. I.e., photo diodes converts light radiation into
electrical energy. If the radiation increases, the current produced by the device also
increases.

Circuit symbol and realistic view of photodiode:

The pair of inward arrow indicates that, the device starts conducting, when the
device receiveslight radiation.

Internal structure with biasing arrangement:

Figure shows the internal structure of the photodiode, these types of diodes are
surrounded by a glass surface to allow the radiation into the junction. V is the
voltage supply for biasing the device in reverse biasing mode. Ammeter connected

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Basic Electronics

in series with the device to read the current produced by the device. Photo diodes
will work in two modes
i) Photovoltaic (Solar cells) : Under un-biasing condition, when the junction
exposed to radiation,the device will produces current is called photovoltaic mode of
operation of photodiode. Example:Solar cells.
ii) Photoconductive (Photo diode): The device is under reverse biasing and the
junction exposed to radiation, produces current. This mode of operation is called
photoconductive mode. Example:LED (Light Emitting Diode), Laser Diode.

Working principle:

Under reverse biasing the depletion region increases and immobile ions
accumulates near the junction on both sides, which acts as a barrier and avoids
further movement of charge carriers from one region to another region. When the
junction is exposed to light radiation, the junction takes sufficient energy to break
the covalent bonds. The covalent bonds breaks and generates free electrons, due to
the movement of these free electrons, current will be flowing through the device.

VI Characteristics:

Figure shows the VI characteristics of a photodiode, which is a plot of

reverse voltage vs current through the device with constant and different light
intensities. If the device under reverse biasing and does not exposed to radiation,
only small current will flow through the device due to minority charge carriers,
this current is called dark current. If the light intensity increases, the current
through the device increases.

Applications:
• Theft detection
• utomatic door opening and closing
• Obstacle detection

Prepared by K.Sirisha., Assistant Professor, Dept. of ECE, GEC Page 5

Basic Electronics

Varactor Diode
In this article, we will be discussing about varactor diode. We will also discuss its
symbol, construction, its working, and its application in various tuning circuits. In addition to
this, we will discuss the characteristic curve of this diode. Later in the article, we will discuss
the advantages and disadvantages and Applications of using a varactor diode.

What is a Varactor Diode?

A varactor diode, also known as a Varicap or volt-cap, is a type of PN junction
diode primarily utilized in the reverse-biased mode. It is a device whose capacitance varies
with the variation in the applied reverse bias potential. The term “Varicap” originates from
the fusion of the words “variable” and “capacitor.”
While standard diodes are used for current conduction, varactor diodes are specialized for
their capacitance characteristics and are primarily operated in reverse bias to exploit their
capacitance properties effectively.
Its ability to change its capacitance with applied voltage makes it valuable in oscillator
circuits and various tuning applications. Varactor diodes share a similar basic structure with
p-n diodes, but their key feature lies in their nonlinear reactance characteristics. This makes
them useful for applications where precise tuning or voltage-controlled capacitance is
required.
The Vari-cap was first developed by Pacific Semiconductor, a subsidiary of the Ramo
Wooldridge Corporation, which obtained . Subsequently, the device was trademarked as the ”
Vari-cap” by TRW Semiconductors, the successor to Pacific Semiconductors, in October
1967. These historical facts shed light on the various names associated with the device as it
became more widely used.
Symbol of Varactor Diode

symbol of varactor diode

The symbol of a varactor diode bears a resemblance to that of a standard diode. However, it
distinguishes itself by representing the cathode terminal using two plates, akin to those found
in a capacitor.

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Basic Electronics

Formula of Varactor Diode

CT= ɛA/W
CT: - transition capacitance ɛ :-dielectric constant
A:-capacitor’s plate area W:-depletion layer’s width.
The above relationship shows that transition capacitance is inversely related to depletion
layer width. As a result, if we desire a large capacitance magnitude, the width should be
minimal. And if we use a low reverse voltage, the width will be minimal. We can simplify it
to

CT=CK/(Vb-V)m
CT :-transition capacitance V :-applied voltage
C :-diode capacitance when the device is unbiased Vb:-barrier voltage at the junction
m :-constant depending upon the material

Q=F/f
Q :-Quality factor of the Varactor Diode F :-maximum operating frequency
f :-the operating frequency

Construction of Varactor Diode

The construction of a varactor diode is similar to a regular p-n junction diode, with some
additional characteristics. These are added to ensure it shows characteristics of variable
capacitance.
The integral part of Varactor diodes is typically made from semiconductor materials like
silicon (Si) or gallium arsenide (GaAs). Silicon varactors are commonly used because they
have a lower capacitance range.
A varactor diode typically consists of a p-n junction. P-N junctions are created by adding
impurities to semiconductor wafer (doping). The p-type region contains holes ( i.e positively
charged carriers) and the n-type region contains electrons(negatively charged carriers).
The p-n junction creates a depletion region at the boundary between the p-type and n-type
regions. The width of this region depends on the kind of biasing technique used in the diode.
When forward bias is applied this depletion region will be narrow and when reverse bias is
applied the depletion region will be wide blocking most current flow
We also have metal contacts added to the p-type and n-type regions to provide electrical
connections. These contacts allow you to apply an external voltage across the diode.

Working of Varactor diode

An important point to note is that varactor diode works in Reverse biased configuration.
Why does varactor diode work in reverse bias configuration ?
When a diode is subjected to forward bias, the majority carriers in both the p and n regions
are pushed in the direction of the battery’s applied voltage, leading to a reduction in the width
of the depletion region. Eventually, the diode begins to conduct current more readily.
However, a varactor diode is designed with a specific focus on its capacitance properties and
its ability to store charges. This is why it is typically operated in reverse bias. When reverse
biased, the varactor diode’s capacitance varies with changes in the applied reverse voltage,
making it useful in various applications like tuning circuits, frequency modulation, and
voltage-controlled oscillators.
Let us understand how it works in reverse bias condition:-

Prepared by K.Sirisha., Assistant Professor, Dept. of ECE, GEC Page 7

Basic Electronics

reverse bias p-n junction diode

Initially, when there’s no electric force applied, there’s a thin empty region at the junction
between two different materials in a diode. But when we apply a reverse electric force by
connecting it to a battery the wrong way, something interesting happens.
The majority carriers in both the p-region (which has positive charges called “holes”) and the
n-region (which has negative charges called “electrons”) start to move away from the
junction. This means they get pushed apart because of the electric force. As a result, there are
fewer of these majority carriers near the junction.
So, when we increase the reverse electric force by increasing the voltage from the battery, the
empty region, which we call the “depletion region,” gets bigger. It’s like the gap between two
plates of a capacitor. And the depletion region behaves like an insulating material in between
those capacitor plates.
The capacitance at the junction is termed as Transition Capacitance.
Now, here’s the important part: as we increase the reverse voltage (the electric force), the
depletion region gets wider. And because of the formula for capacitance, when the width (W)
of the depletion region increases, the capacitance (CT) decreases.
So, in simple terms, when we change the voltage applied to the diode, the capacitance also
changes. It gets smaller when we increase the voltage because the gap between the plates (the
depletion region) gets bigger.

Varactor Diode in Tuning Circuit

varactor diode in tuning circuit

Prepared by K.Sirisha., Assistant Professor, Dept. of ECE, GEC Page 8

Basic Electronics

In this circuit

where,

L=Inductance in the Circuit(Henry)

C1,C2=Maximum Capacitance in diode
Varactor diodes are commonly used in tuning circuits, especially in radio frequency (RF) and
microwave applications, to achieve variable capacitance and thus frequency tuning. Here’s
how varactor diodes are typically utilized in tuning circuits:
 A varactor diode is constructed similarly to a standard p-n junction diode, consisting of a
p-type and an n-type semiconductor region separated by a depletion region. However, it’s
operated in reverse bias mode.
 When a reverse bias voltage is applied to the varactor diode (the p-side is connected to the
negative terminal, and the n-side to the positive terminal of a power supply), it creates a
depletion region around the p-n junction. This region is essentially a non-conductive area.
 The width of the depletion region in the varactor diode varies with the magnitude of the
applied reverse voltage. As the reverse voltage increases, the depletion region widens,
reducing the effective capacitance of the diode. Conversely, as the voltage decreases, the
depletion region narrows, increasing the capacitance.
 In a tuning circuit, the varactor diode is connected in parallel with a fixed capacitor, often
in an LC (inductor-capacitor) resonant circuit. By changing the reverse bias voltage
across the varactor diode, its capacitance changes, which, in turn, alters the resonant
frequency of the circuit.
 The ability to vary capacitance with voltage allows for precise and rapid frequency
tuning. This makes varactor diodes valuable components in applications like voltage-
controlled oscillators (VCOs), frequency synthesizers, and agile radio systems.
In summary, a varactor diode’s ability to change its capacitance with applied voltage makes it
a key component in tuning circuits.

Characteristic Curve of Varactor Diode

Characteristics curve of varactor diode

Prepared by K.Sirisha., Assistant Professor, Dept. of ECE, GEC Page 9

Basic Electronics

The graph shows the non-linear relationship between capacitance and voltage applied to
diode. It is known that capacitance and width have an inverse relationship which means that
as the width of the depletion region increases with the reverse voltage, the capacitance
decreases (i.e. varies inversely as shown in the graph).
In short, as the reverse voltage increases, the transition capacitance falls rapidly. This
behaviour can be describes as an exponential pattern.

Application of Varactor Diode

 Voltage-Controlled Oscillators(VCOs)
 Frequency Modulation Tunning in Radios
 Phase Shifters
 Voltage-Controlled Filters.

Advantages
 Variable Capacitance
 Frequency Synthesizer
 Phase Shifters.
 Frequency Multipliers and Dividers: .
 Economically Affordable
Disadvantages
 Mode-specific
 Non-linear behaviour
 Sensitive.

Prepared by K.Sirisha., Assistant Professor, Dept. of ECE, GEC Page 10

Basic Electronics

UNIT-III
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
Introduction:
Electronic systems are interconnection or combination of electronic devices and electrical
elements. Electrical elements in the electronic systems are used to bias the electronic devices.
Semiconductor devices such as diodes and transistors are called electronic devices. Electronic
devices are used for switching and amplification purpose. Diodes are used for switching
applications and they are not having the capability of amplifying the signals. Therefore diodes are
limited to switching applications.
The transistor is a three-terminal device that can amplify the signals as well as performing
switching action.
The term transistor is derived from the statement transfer of resistor that is a transistor
will transfers the resistance from one junction to another junction through proper biasing. Hence,
transistors perform amplification by changing their resistance.

Transistor
Transfer of Resistor

The first transistor was demonstrated on 23rd Dec 1947, by Dr. Willian Shockley and
his team at the Bell Telephone Laboratories, USA
The important features of transistors compared to vacuum tubes are listed as follows.
1. Three terminal solid-state device
2. Smaller and lightweight
3. Rugged construction
4. No heater requirement
5. Requires less power
6. Lower operating voltage and
7. More efficient.
With these advantages, transistors are developed and used in all electronic systems as a
switch and/or amplifier.

Classification:
Figure (1) shows the classification of transistors.

Transistor

BJT FET

NPN PNP JFET MOSFET

P- Enhancement
N-Channel Depletion mode
Channel mode

P-
N-Channel N-Channel P-Channel
Channel
Figure 1: Classification of transistors.

Prepared by K.Sirisha., Assistant Professor, Dept. of ECE, GEC Page 1

Basic Electronics

In the following section, BJTs construction, working principle, characteristics and

applications are discussed.
BJT, stands for bipolar junction transistor, figure (2) shows the structure of BJT and
terminologies.

Figure 2: Structure of transistor.

Bipolar: Both electrons and holes are involved in current flow.

Junction: has two p-n junctions.
Transistor: Transfer + Resistor.
• BJTs are current-controlled devices
• Have three regions with three terminals labeled as
i. Emitter (E)
ii. Base (B) and
iii. Collector (C)

Figure (3) shows the structure and circuit symbol of NPN and PNP transistors.

NPN- Bipolar Junction Transistor

PNP- Bipolar Junction Transistor

Prepared by K.Sirisha., Assistant Professor, Dept. of ECE, GEC Page 2

Basic Electronics

Figure 3: Structure and circuit symbols of NPN and PNP transistor.

The arrow in the circuit symbols indicates the direction of the current flow. In the NPN
transistor, current will flow from collector to emitter terminal and in the PNP transistor current
will flow from emitter to collector.
Construction:
In the following section, the step-by-step process of constructing NPN – BJT is explained,
the following specifications are to be considered for constructing BJTs.

Emitter Base Collector

Width Medium Thin High

Doping High Low Moderate

Concentration

Step1: start with a piece of intrinsic semiconductor and divided it into three regions

Figure 4: Piece of intrinsic semiconductor

Step2: Three regions are doped to form NPN regions

Figure 5: Doped intrinsic semiconductor

Doping with pentavalent element gives N-type material and doping with trivalent element gives
P-type semiconductor material.

Step3: Metallic contacts are deposited at each layer to connect the electrodes to form terminals

Figure 6: Electrodes connected to each layer

Step4: Terminals are named as Emitter, Base, and Collector

Prepared by K.Sirisha., Assistant Professor, Dept. of ECE, GEC Page 3

Basic Electronics

Figure 7: Terminals are named as emitter, base, and collector

The emitter terminal emits more electrons and hence, the emitter region is doped heavily,
Collector terminal collects the emitted electrons, hence the width of the collector region is high.
The base terminal is a lightly doped and thin region, which controls the electrons flow from
emitter to collector.

Working Principle:
The BJTs are working under three different modes, such as cut-off, saturation and active modes
and the working principle of NPN-BJT is explained with these three modes.
Case (i): Cut-off mode
• Both Emitter-Base and Collector-Base junctions are reverse biased
• The depletion region widens at both the junctions and no current will flow through the
device.
• Acts as an OFF switch

Figure 8: Cut-off mode operation of BJT

Case (ii): Saturation Mode

• Both Emitter-Base and Collector-Base junctions are forward biased
• The depletion region reduces at both the junctions and maximum current will flow
through the device.
• Acts as an ON switch.

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Figure 8: Saturation mode operation of BJT

Case (iii): Active Mode

• Emitter-Base Junction is forward biased and Collector-Base junction is reverse biased
• The width of the depletion region decreases at EB Junction.
• Width of the depletion region Increases at CB Junction.
• Electrons move through the base region, but the base region is lightly doped and only a
few electrons recombine with the holes present in the base region, remaining electrons are
drifted towards the collector region and constitute a collector current.
• Only 2-5% of electrons recombine at the base region, remaining 95 to 98% electrons move
to the collector region
• Transfer of resistance takes place, hence it is called the transistor.
• Acts as an amplifier

Figure 8: Active mode operation of BJT

Characteristics of BJT:

Bipolar junction transistor is a three-terminal device and BJTs are need to be modeled as a
two-port network. A pair of terminals is called a port, the two-port network means, the network
has two pairs of terminals. One pair of terminals used to apply the input and another pair of
terminals is used to take the corresponding output. Figure (9) shows the block diagram of two-
port model.

Figure 9: Two-port model

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One terminal of BJT can be connected to the ground or made common to both input and
output to form a two-port model, which leads to three different configurations they are.

1. Common Base (CB) Configuration

2. Common Emitter (CE) Configuration and
3. Common Collector (CC) Configuration.

Each of these configurations is having its advantages and disadvantages. To study the behavior of
these configurations, VI characteristics need to be obtained, VI Characteristics of BJTs are divided
into two types they are.

1. Input characteristics and

2. Output characteristics

1. Common Base (CB) Configuration:

Figure 10: CB Configuration of NPN-BJT

• The base terminal(grounded) is common for both input and output
• Input is applied between E and B
• Output is taken across C and B
• IE is the input current and IC is the output current
• VEB is the input voltage and VCB is the output
voltage Where,
• IE - Emitter current
• IC - Collector current
• VEB - Emitter to base voltage
• VCB - collector to base voltage.

Figure (11) shows the circuit arrangement to obtain the VI characteristics

Figure 11: Circuit arrangement to obtain the VI Characteristics

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Input Characteristics:

• VEB vs IE with zero or constant VCB

• Initially, the collector-base voltage VCB is kept at zero, and emitter current IE is
increased from zero by increasing VEB.
• The EB junction depletion region reduces by increasing VEB and if VEB is greater
than or equal to cut-in voltage, current starts increasing.
• This characteristic is similar to the forward bias characteristics of the diode.
• Effect of VCB: If VCB is increased, the depletion region of the CB junction increases
and the depletion region penetrates deeper into the base region, which leads to a
decrease in the width of the based region, so emitter current increases. This effect is
called early effect or based width modulation.

Figure 12: Input characteristics of CB configuration

Output Characteristics:
• VCB vs IC with zero or constant IE
• If IE is zero, and CB junction reverse-biased, a small current will flow through the
device. This current is called reverse leakage current, denoted as ICBO.
• If IE increases by increasing VEB, the emitter terminal injects more electrons and
less recombination takes place at the base region due to early effect, and hence
collector current increases proportionally to emitter current.
• i.e., 𝐼𝐶 = 𝛼𝐼𝐸 + 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂; ICBO is the leakage current and small
• 𝐼𝐶 = 𝛼𝐼𝐸 ; α is the current amplification factor of CB configuration typically 0.95 to 0.98
• 𝐼𝐶 ≈ 𝐼𝐸; Collector current is approximately equal to emitter current.

Figure 13 Output characteristics of CB configuration

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Mathematical Expressions:

𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵 − − − (1)
𝐼𝐶 = 𝛼𝐼𝐸 + 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂 − − − (2)
𝛼𝐼𝐸 ≫ 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂
Where, 𝐼𝐶 = 𝛼𝐼𝐸

𝑰
𝑎= 𝑪
𝑰𝑬
Typically 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑚𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝛼 = 0.95 𝑡𝑜 0.98
;
𝑰𝑪 ≈ 𝑰𝑬

2. Common Emitter (CE) Configuration

Figure 14: CE configuration

• Emitter terminal is common (grounded) for both input and output

• Input is applied between B and E
• Output is taken across C and E
• IB is the input current and IC is the output current
• VBE is the input voltage and VCE is the output
voltage Where,
• IB – Base current

• IC - Collector current
• VBE – Base to Emitter voltage
• VCE - collector to Emitter voltage

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Figure (15) shows the circuit arrangement for obtaining the VI Characteristics

Figure 15: Circuit arrangement to obtain the characteristics.

Input characteristics

• VBE vs IB with zero or constant VCE

• Initially, the collector-emitter voltage VCE is kept at zero, and emitter current IB is
increased from zero by increasing VBE.
• The EB junction depletion region reduces by increasing VBE and if VBE is greater than
or equal to cut-in voltage, current starts increasing.
• This characteristic is similar to the forward bias characteristics of the diode.
• Effect of VCE: If VCE is increased, the depletion region of the CB junction increases
and the depletion region penetrates deeper into the base region, which leads to a decrease
in the width of the base region, so emitter current increases and base current decreases

(IE=IB+IC). This effect is called early effect or based width modulation.

Figure 16: Input characteristics of CE configuration

Output characteristics
• VCE vs IC with zero or constant IB
• If IB is zero, and CB junction reverse-biased, a small current will flow through the
device. This current is called reverse leakage current, denoted as ICEO.
• 𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽𝐼𝐵 + (1 + 𝛽)𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂 − − − (1)
• 𝐼𝐶 ≈ 𝛽𝐼𝐵 − − − (2); β is the current amplification factor in CE configuration
• If IB increases IC also increases.

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• Effect of VCE: If VCE increases base current decreases and collector current
increases due to early effect.

Figure 17: Output characteristics of CE configuration

Mathematical Expressions:
𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵 − − − (1)
𝐼𝐶 = 𝛼𝐼𝐸 + 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂 − −(2)
𝐼𝐶 = 𝛼(𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵) + 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂
𝐼𝐶 = 𝛼𝐼𝐶 + 𝛼𝐼𝐵 +
𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂 (1 − 𝛼) = 𝛼𝐼𝐵 +
Divide (1 − 𝛼) on both sides
𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂
𝛼 1
𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼 + 𝐼
(1 − 𝛼) 𝐵 (1 − 𝛼) 𝐶𝐵𝑂
𝛼 1
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝛽 = ; (1 + 𝛽) =
(1 − 𝛼) (1 − 𝛼)
𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽𝐼𝐵 + (1 + 𝛽)𝑂
Where, 𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐶𝐸𝑂 − − − (3);

𝐼𝐶𝐸𝑂 = (1 + 𝛽)𝑂
𝑰
𝖰 = 𝑪 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝐸
𝑰𝑩

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3. Common Collector (CC) Configuration

Figure 18: CC configuration

• Collector terminal is common (grounded) for both input and output

• Input is applied between B and C
• Output is taken across E and C
• IB is the input current and IE is the output current
• VBC is the input voltage and VEC is
the output voltage Where,
• IB – Base current
• IE – Emitter current
• VBC – Base to Collector voltage
• VEC - Emitter to collector voltage.

Figure () shows the circuit arrangement to obtain the VI Characteristics

Figure 19: Circuit arrangement to obtain the VI characteristics

Input characteristics
• VBC vs IB with zero or constant VEC
• Initially, the emitter to collector voltage VEC is kept at zero.
• If VCB increases the CB junction depletion region increases and the
width of the base region decreases, thereby decreasing the base current
shown in figure.
• Effect of VEC: If VEC is increased, the depletion region of CB junction
increases and depletion region penetrates deeper into the base region,
which leads to further decrease in the width of the base region, so emitter

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current increases and base current further decreases.

Figure 20: Input characteristics of CC configuration

Output characteristics
• VEC vs IE with zero or constant IB
• If IB is zero, and CB junction reverse-biased, a small current will flow
through the device. This current is called reverse leakage current, denoted
as ICBO.
• 𝐼𝐸 = 𝛾𝐼𝐵 + 𝛾𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂 − −(1);
𝛾 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
• The emitter current is proportional to the input current (Base
current), the proportionality constant is the current
amplification factor

Figure 21: Output characteristics of CC configuration

Transistor as an Amplifier and Switch

Introduction

The transistor is the kind of service that works in an active region, the transistor acts as an
amplifier and in case it acts as a switch it tends to perform in various cutoff and saturation

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regions. In the transistor that is working in the cutoff state, both the collector base and the
emitter-base junctions are reverse biased. The transistor can act as a device, switch and
amplifier. All these aspects accumulate to provide a service in multiple regions for example
transistor as an amplifier is useful in the functionality of the optic fibers and is also useful in
amplification of radio signals and other wireless communications.

What is a transistor?

Figure 1: Transistor as a switch

Transistors are generally used in multiple sections that help devise various
applications. Transistors can act as a device that will be used in the form of a switch
especially when it functions in the cut-off region, that is, the open switch and the case of the
saturation region, that is, the closed switch. As opined by chamarchia et al. (2020), in another
case, transistors are used in the form of an amplifier that enhances the magnitude of the
output signal as it continues to operate in an active region. A transistor functions as a switch
as it drives back and forth between the cut-off regions and saturation regions .

The transistor enhances the amplitude of the input signal. The signals of smaller amplitude
are fed to the amplifier which in turn enhances it to derive the output large signals.

Transistor as a switch

If the transistor is utilized as a switch, the 2 operating regions that are formed are the cut-off
region and the saturation region. At the cut-off region the transistors remain totally OFF and
at the saturation region the transistors remain ON fully.

Region of saturation

In the region of saturation, the transistor gets the maximum current when IB is applied to it
and this maximum amount of current is obtained at the IC collector. As the current in this
region is maximum, and the voltage that is present in the collector is minimum. Thus, in this
situation, the transistor is determined to be ON fully.

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Figure 2: Transistor as a switch

AD
The cut-off region

In the cut-off region, the current does not flow through the transistor. Here the base current
that is IB remains zero and the current in the IC collector, also remains zero. As in both cases,
the current value is zero, and the voltage of the collector that is VCE is maximum, which
results in a large layer of depletion.

AD
Transistor as a switch: applications

The main applications of transistors as switches are mentioned below.

 The function of LED is one of the major examples of the transistors as switches.
 The working of DC motors can be controlled by the application of various values to
the motors’ speed and is further4 used in case of turning the motors ON and OFF
(Chauhan et al. 2018).
 The resistor that usually depends on the rays of light uses the transistors as switches.
 The transistors as switches is also used in the low voltage lamps that have digital IC
or logic gates: OR gates and AND gates.
AD
Transistor as an amplifier

The emitter mode is considered to be the common mode of connection. In using a transistor
as an amplifier the performance of the amplifier becomes vital. The amplifier basically
performs the phenomenon like Input resistance, Output Resistance, Voltage gain, Current
Gain, and Power Gain.

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Figure 3: Transistor as an amplifier

Amplifier performance

In the case of Current Gain, the ratio of the current change in collector and change of the base
current is measured. In the Voltage gain, the ratio of input and output voltage is measured. In
Power Gain, the ratio of output signal and input signal of powers are measured (Cheng et al.
2017). Input resistance, measures the ratio of a slight change in emitter-base voltage and
change in base current by keeping the emitter-collector voltage constant. Output Resistance,
is the measurement of the ratio of change in emitter-base voltage and the change in collector
current by keeping the base current constant.

Transistor as an amplifier: applications

The main applications of transistors as an amplifier are mentioned below.

 In the case of optical fiber communication the transistor are often used as an
amplifier. This is because the output signal is high and can be applied in the long-
distance communication channels.
 The transistors as an amplifier are also used in radio signals and wireless
communications.
 The implications of audio can be possible if the transistor is used as an amplifier.
 The transistors as an amplifier are generally used in the electronic and communication
field.

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UNIT-IV
TRANSISTORS

Field Effect Transistor (FET)

A Field Effect Transistor (FET) is a three-terminal Active semiconductor device, where the
output current is controlled by an electric field generated by the input voltage. FETs are also
known as unipolar transistors because, unlike bipolar transistors, FETs only have either
electrons or holes operating as charge carriers. FET uses the voltage applied to its input
terminal (called the Gate), to control the current flowing from the source to drain, making the
Field Effect Transistor a “Voltage” operated device.

FETs are extensively used in Integrated Circuits (ICs) due to their compact size and
significantly lower power consumption. Apart from that, FETs are also used in high power
switching applications, as voltage-variable resistors (VVRs) in operational amplifiers (Op-
Amps), and tone controls, etc., for mixer operation on FM and TV receivers and in logic
circuits.
Field Effect Transistor (FET) – Psychical Overview

A FET has four terminals named Source, Drain, Gate, and Body.

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1. Source: Source is the terminal through which the majority charge carriers are entered in the
FET.
2. Drain: Drain is the terminal through which the majority charge carriers exit from the FET.
3. Gate: The gate terminal is formed by diffusion of an N-type semiconductor with a P-type
semiconductor. This creates a heavily doped PN junction region that controls the flow of the
carrier from source to drain.
4. Body: This is the substrate on which the FET is built. In discrete applications, it is internally
tied to the source pin allowing its effects to be ignored entirely. However, in integrated
circuits, this pin will be typically connected to the most negative power supply in an NMOS
circuit(most positive in a PMOS circuit) because many transistors will share it. Careful
connections and design are critical to maintaining FET performance when the Body
connection is involved.

Channel: This is the region in which the majority carriers pass from the source terminal to
the drain terminal.

FET Classification

FET transistors are classified into Junction Field Effect transistors (JFET) and Metal-Oxide-
Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MOSFET) transistors.

JFET (Junction-Field Effect Transistor)

The Junction Field Effect transistor (JFET) is the earliest type of FET. The current flows
through an active channel between sources to drain terminals. The voltage applied between
gate and source controls the flow of electric current between the source and drain of the
JFET. By applying a reverse bias voltage to the gate terminal, the channel is strained, so the
electric current is switched off completely. That is why JFETs are referred to as “normally
on” devices. The JFET transistors are available in both N-channel and P-channel types.

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N-Channel JFET

In the N-channel JFET, the channel is doped with donor impurities, making it an N-type
semiconductor. Therefore the flow of current through the channel is negative in the form of
Electrons. Hence the name N-channel JFET. Two P-type substrates doped at the opposite
sides of its middle part. Thus two PN junctions are formed by those heavily doped P-type
regions and the N-type channel in between. The gate (G) lead is connected internally to both
the P-type terminals, while the drain (D) and source (S) leads are connected to either end of
the N-type channel.

How does it work?

When no voltage is applied across the gate terminal, the channel becomes a wide-open path
for electrons to flow. Therefore maximum current flows from the source to the drain terminal.
The amount of current flow is determined by the potential difference between source and
drain terminals and the internal resistance of the channel.

But the reverse thing happens when a negative voltage is applied to the gate terminal with
respect to the source terminal, making the P-N junction reverse biased. A depletion region is
created in the channel that makes the channel narrower, increasing the channel resistance
between the source and drain, and the current flow becomes less.

P-Channel JFET

Similarly, in the P-channel JFET, the channel is doped with acceptor impurities, making it a
P-type semiconductor. Therefore the flow of current through the channel is positive in the
form of Holes. Hence the name P-channel JFET. The opposite side of the channel is heavily
doped with N-type substrates. Like in an N-channel JFET, the gate terminal is formed by
joining the N-type regions at both sides. The source and drain terminals are taken from the
other two sides of the channel.

The operating principle is also similar to an N-channel JFET. The only difference is that you
need to provide a positive gate to source voltage to turn it off. However, N-channel JFET has

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a greater current conductivity due to lower channel resistance than their equivalent P-channel
types, since electrons have higher mobility through a conductor compared to holes. This
makes the N-channel JFET more efficient than their P-channel counterparts.

Characteristics

Here a JFET is biased through a DC supply, which will control the VGS of the JFET. We can
control the applied voltage across the Drain and Source terminal by varying the VGS. From
there, we can plot the I-V characteristics curve of a JFET.

The output characteristics of JFET are drawn between drain current (ID) and drain-source
voltage (VDS) at a constant gate-source voltage (VGS), as shown in the following figure.

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 Cutoff Region – This is the region where the JFET is off, meaning no drain current, ID flows
from drain to source.
 Ohmic Region – In this region, JFET begins to show some resistance to the drain current, ID
that is starting to flow from drain to source. The current flowing through the JFET is linearly
proportional to the applied voltage.
 Saturation Region – When the drain-source voltage reaches a value such that the current
flowing through the device is constant with the drain-source voltage and varies only with the
gate-source voltage, the device is said to be in the saturation region.
 Breakdown Region – When the drain to source voltage, VDS exceeds the maximum
threshold value, that causes the depletion region to break down, the JFET loses its ability to
resist current, and the drain current increases indefinitely.

Parameters of JFET:

JFET has certain parameters which determine the performance. Such Parameters of JFET are
(i) ac drain resistance, (ii) transconductance, (iii) amplification factor, and (iv) dc drain
resistance, as explained below:

1. AC Drain Resistance: It is defined as the ratio of change in drain-source voltage to

change in drain current at constant gate-source voltage and is denoted by rd.

i.e. AC drain resistance,

It is also called the dynamic drain resistance.

Referring to the output or drain characteristic shown in Fig. 13.8 (b), it is clear that in the
active region the change in drain current, ID is very small for change in drain-source voltage,
VDS because the characteristic curves are almost flat. Hence ac drain resistance of a JFET is
very large ranging from 10 kΩ to 1 MΩ.

2. Transconductance: The control that the gate-source voltage has over the drain current,
ID is measured by transconductance. It is denoted by gfs. It may be defined as the ratio of
change in drain current to the change in gate-source voltage at constant drain-source voltage.

i.e. Transconductance,

It is also called the forward transconductance (gfs) or forward transadmittance (Yfs). It is

measured in mA/volt or millisiemens.

The transconductance measured at IDSS is denoted by gmo.

3. Amplification Factor: It is defined as the ratio of change in drain-source voltage to the

change in gate-source voltage at constant drain current and is denoted by μ.

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i.e. Amplification factor,

Amplification factor of a JFET indicates how much more control the gate-source voltage has
over drain current in comparison to the drain-source voltage.

Amplification factor,

Amplification factor μ of a FET may be as high as 100.

4. DC Drain Resistance: It is also called the static or ohmic resistance of the channel and is
defined as ratio of drain-source voltage and drain current. It is denoted by RDS

MOSFET (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor)

Metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors, also known as MOSFETs, have greater

importance and are the most useful type among all transistors. The MOSFET has four
terminals: drain, source, gate, and body or substrate. A MOSFET is also a voltage controlled
Transistor, but the main difference between a JFET and a MOSFET is that it has a Metal-
Oxide Gate electrode which is electrically insulated from the main current-carrying channel
between the drain and source by a very thin layer of insulating material, usually silicon
dioxide, commonly known as glass.

The track is made using two highly doped N-type zones diffused into a lightly doped P-type
substrate. These two N-type regions are known as drain and source, and the P-type region is
called the substrate. The isolation of the controlling Gate makes the input resistance of the
MOSFET extremely high way up in the Mega-ohms (MΩ) scale, thereby making it almost
infinite. Thereby no current is allowed to flow into the gate.

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How does it work?

The main principle of the MOSFET device is to be able to control the voltage and current
flow between the source and drain terminal using the voltage applied at the gate terminal. The
semiconductor surface at the below oxide layer, which is located between the source and
drain terminal, can be inverted from p-type to n-type by the application of either a positive or
negative gate voltages, respectively. When we apply a repulsive force for the positive gate
voltage, then the holes present beneath the oxide layer are pushed downward with the
substrate. The depletion region is populated by the bound negative charges which are
associated with the acceptor atoms. When electrons are reached, a channel is developed. The
positive voltage also attracts electrons from the n+ source and drain regions into the channel.
Now, if a voltage is applied between the drain and source, the current flows freely between
the source and drain, and the gate voltage controls the electrons in the channel. Instead of the
positive voltage, if we apply a negative voltage, a hole will be formed under the oxide layer.

Types of MOSFET

There are two MOSFETS widely used:

1. Depletion MOSFET:

The depletion-mode MOSFET is similar to that of an open switch. In this mode, the Gate to
Source voltage (VGS) is applied to switch OFF the device. When the gate voltage is negative,
positive charges get accumulated in the channel. This causes a depletion region in the channel
and prevents the flow of current. Thus as the flow of current is affected by the formation of
the depletion region, it is called depletion MOSFET.

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2. Enhancement MOSFET:

The enhancement-mode MOSFET is similar to that of a close switch. In this mode, the Gate-
Source voltage (VGS) is applied to switch ON the device. When a negative voltage is applied
to the gate terminal of MOSFET, the positive charge carrying holes get accumulated near the
oxide layer, forming a channel from source to drain terminal. As the voltage gets more
negative, the channel width increases and the flow of current enhances; thus it is called
Enhancement MOSFET.

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Further, the depletion and enhancement types are classified into N-channel and P-
channel types.

1.N-channel MOSFET:

The N-channel MOSFET has an N-type channel between the source and drains terminal.
Here the source and gate terminals are heavily doped with N-type semiconductor, and the
substrate is doped with P-type semiconductor material. Hence the current flow between
source and drain is because of electrons. And the current flow is controlled by the gate
voltage.

2.P-channel MOSFET:

Likewise, the P-channel MOSFET has a P-type channel between source and drain terminal.
Here the source and gate terminals are heavily doped with P-type semiconductor, and the
substrate is doped with N-type semiconductor material. Hence the current flow between
source and drain is because of holes. And the current flow is controlled by the gate voltage.

Characteristics

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In general, the operation of a MOSFET happens mainly in three regions and those are as
follows:

1. Cut-Off Region:
In the Cut-off region, the MOSFET remains OFF as there is no current flow in this region.
Here MOSFET behaves like an open switch and is thus used when they are required to
function as electronic switches.
2. Ohmic Region:
In Ohmic or linear region the drain to source current increases with an increment of voltage
across the drain to source. When MOSFETs are operated in this region, they can be used as
amplifiers.
3. Saturation Region:
In this region, the drain to source current value remains constant without considering the
enhancement in the voltage across the drain to source. This happens only once when the
voltage across the drain to the source terminal increases more than the pinch-off voltage.
Under this condition, the device will act like a closed switch. Therefore this operating region
is used whenever MOSFETs are required to perform switching operations.

Applications
MOSFET as a Switch

MOSFETs are used in many different applications. They are widely known for their
switching characteristics. As we have seen earlier, an N-channel enhancement mode
MOSFET has very high input resistance and operates on the positive input voltage. This
allows us to switch high currents or high voltage loads, using a relatively low logic level
signal. In the following example, we will use an Enhancement-mode N-channel MOSFET to
switch a simple lamp ON and OFF.

As you can see, in this setup, we want to switch a 12v lamp using 5v logic signal. We
connected the positive terminal of the lamp to a 12v supply and the other end to the drain

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terminal of the MOSFET. The source terminal is connected to GND. A gate to source
resistance (RGS) is used to avoid any external noise at the gate terminal.

When there is no voltage applied, the lamp will remain OFF condition. If we apply a positive
input voltage (VGS) at the gate terminal of the MOSFET, the lamp will turn ON and remain
ON until we remove the input signal or apply a negative input voltage. Then the lamp will
turn OFF.

MOSFET Amplifier

Enhancement mode MOSFET or eMOSFET requires a minimum gate-to-source voltage,

called the threshold voltage (VTH), that must be applied to the gate so that it starts to flow
current from drain to source (VDS). As the forward bias of the gate increases, the drain-
source current (IDS) will also increase, making the eMOSFET ideal for use in MOSFET
amplifier circuits.

This simple enhancement-mode common source MOSFET amplifier configuration uses a

single supply at the drain terminal to generate the required gate voltage (VG) using a resistor
divider by the resistors R1 and R2. The resistor network creates the required biasing circuit to
operate within its saturation region. We also need a drain and a source resistor and coupling
capacities. The values of R1 and R2 are generally large in order to increase the input
impedance of the amplifier and to decrease the ohmic power losses. The coupling capacitors
C1 and C2 insulate the biasing DC voltage from the AC signal to be amplified. In the above
image, a small AC signal (VGS) is applied to the MOSFET gate, resulting in a fluctuation of
drain current synchronous to the applied AC input.

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Important MOSFET parameters

Two important parameters of a MOSFET that are crucial while selecting a MOSFET are the
on-resistance, Rds(on), and the gate charge, Qg. These two parameters are interrelated and
are responsible for the efficiency of the system.
Some other important parameters that determine the performance of a MOSFET are the
breakdown voltage, BVDSS, and the body drain diode, which is essential to take into account
when the device is used as a power diode, like in synchronous free-wheeling operation mode,
and intrinsic capacitances that can affect the switching times and voltage spikes.

1. On-state resistance, RDS (on)

It denotes the resistance between the drain and source terminals when the MOSFET is in on
state. The conduction loss depends on it; the lower the value of the RDS(on), lower is the
conduction loss.

2. Total gate charge, QG

It denotes the electric charge required by the gate driver to turn the device on/off.

Comparison between BJT, FET and MOSFET

TERMS BJT FET MOSFET

Current Voltage
Device type Voltage Controlled
controlled controlled

Current flow Bipolar Unipolar Unipolar

Not
Terminals Interchangeable Interchangeable
interchangeable

Operational Depletion mode Both Enhancement

No modes
modes only and Depletion modes

Input
Low High Very high
impedance

Output
Moderate Moderate Low
resistance

Operational
Low Moderate High
speed

Noise High Low Low

Thermal
Low Better High
stability

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UNIT-V

Thyristors

A thyristor is a four layer solid-state semiconductor device with P and N type

material. Whenever a gate receives a triggering current then it starts’ conducting until the
voltage across the thyistor device is under forward bias. So it acts as a bistable switch under
this condition. To control the large amount of current of the two leads we have to design a
three lead thyristor by combining the small amount of current to that current. This process is
known as control lead. If the potential difference between the two leads is under breakdown
voltage, then a two lead thyristor is used to switch on the device.

Thyristor
Thyristor Circuit Symbol

Thyistor circuit symbol is as given below. It has three terminals Anode, cathode and gate.

TRIAC Symbol
There are three states in a thyristor

 Reverse blocking mode– In this mode of operation, the diode will block the voltage
which is applied.
 Forward blocking mode– In this mode, the voltage applied in a direction makes a diode
to conduct. But conduction will not happen here because the thyristor has not triggered.
 Forward conducting mode– The thyristor has triggered and current will flow through the
device until the forward current reaches below the threshold value which is known as
“Holding current”.

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Thyristor 4-Layer Diagram

Thyristor consists of three p-n junctions namely J1, J2, and J3.If the anode is at a positive
potential with respect to the cathode and the gate terminal is not triggered with any voltage
then J1 and J3 will be under forward bias condition. While J2 junction will be under reverse
bias condition. So J2 junction will be in the off state (no conduction will take place). If the
increase in voltage across anode and cathode beyond the VBO(Breakdown voltage) then
avalanche breakdown occurs for J2 and then thyristor will be in ON state (starts conducting).
If a VG (Positive potential) is applied to the gate terminal, then a breakdown occurs at the
junction J2 which will be of low value VAK. The thyristor can switch to ON state, by
selecting a proper value VG. Under avalanche breakdown condition, the thyristor will conduct
continuously without taking consideration of gate voltage, until and unless,
 The potential VAK is removed or
 Holding current is greater than the current flowing through the device
Here VG– Voltage pulse which is the output voltage of the UJT relaxation oscillator.

Thyristor 4-Layer Diagram

Thyristor switching circuits

 DC Thyristor Circuit
 AC Thyristor circuit
DC Thyristor Circuit

When connected to the DC supply, to control the larger DC loads and current we use
thyristor. The main advantage of thyristor in a DC circuit as a switch gives a high gain in
current. A small gate current can control large amounts of anode current, so the thyristor is
known as a current operated device.

DC Thyristor Circuit

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AC Thyristor Circuit

When connected to the AC supply, thyristor acts differently because it is not same as DC
connected circuit. During one half of a cycle, thyristor used as an AC circuit causing it to turn
off automatically due to its reverse biased condition.

Thyristor AC Circuit
Types of Thyristors

Based on turn on and turn off capabilities the thyristors are classified into the following
types:

 Silicon controlled thyristor or SCRs

 Gate turn off thyristors or GTOs
 Emitter turn off thyristors or ETOs
 Reverse conducting thyristors or RCTs
 Bidirectional Triode Thyristors or TRIACs
 MOS turn off thyristors or MTOs
 Bidirectional phase controlled thyristors or BCTs
 Fast switching thyristors or SCRs
 Light activated silicon controlled rectifiers or LASCRs
 FET controlled thyristors or FET-CTHs
 Integrated gate commutated Thyristors or IGCTs
For better understanding of this concept,here we are explaining some of the types of
thyristors.

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