Prepared By: Er.

Gopal Sapkota Manmohan Memorial Polytechnic

(Asst. Lecturer)

Unit 1
Electrical Measuring Instrument
 Introduction
 Types and application of indicating, recording, integrating, analog
and digital measuring instruments.
 Essential features of indicating instruments (deflecting, balancing and
damping torque), their construction and operating principles.
 Moving coil instrument – construction, operating principle, scale
features and application as d.c. ammeter and voltmeter.
 Moving iron instrument – construction, operating principle, scale
features and application as a.c. ammeter and voltmeter.
 Electrodynamometer instrument – construction, operating principle,
scale features and application as ammeter, voltmeter, watt-meter and
power factor meter.
 Cathode-ray Oscilloscope – basic construction, operation and
application.

Electrical Measurement
Measurement is the act, or the result of a quantitative comparison
between a given quantity and a quantity of the same kind chosen as a
unit.It is a process of comparing unknown quantity with known and
standard quantity. The result of the measurement is expressed by a
pointer deflection over a predefined scale or a number representing the
ratio between the unknown quantity and the standard.

Measuring Instruments
An instrument is a device in which we can determine the magnitude or
value of the quantity to be measured. The measuring quantity can be
voltage, current, power and energy etc.All measuring instruments are
classified as absolute and secondary instruments.

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Prepared By: Er. Gopal Sapkota Manmohan Memorial Polytechnic
(Asst. Lecturer)

Absolute Instruments
Absolute instruments show the quantity to be measured in terms of
instruments constant and its deflection and they require no comparison
with any other standard instruments. Tangent Galvanometer,Raleigh
Current and Absolute electrometer are examples of absolute
instruments.They are mostly used in laboratories as standardizing
instruments.

Secondary Instruments
Secondary instruments are those which gives the value of the quantity on
its scale or its display unit directly by a pointer. The scale is calibrated by
comparison with absolute instruments.Most of the measuring
instruments,which are generally used are of“Secondary Type”.The
ordinary Voltmeter,Ammeter,Energy meter are examples for secondary
instruments.

i. Indicating instruments
Indicating instruments are those which indicate the magnitude of the
instantaneous value being measured by means of a pointer over a
calibrated scale.The indication of pointer also change with respect to time
giving no scope to know the previous value.
Ammeter,Voltmeter,Watt-meter,Frequency meter,Power factor meter,etc.
fall under this category.

ii. Recording instruments

The instruments which not only read the instantaneous value but also
make a record continuously is called Recording instruments.The
magnitude of the quantity is recorded on a paper for certain period of
time.In such instruments, the moving system carries an ink and pen which
touches lightly a sheet of paper wrapped round over uniformly rotating
drum.
iii. Integrating Instruments
Integrating instrument are electrical measuring instruments, which
measures the electrical quantity and sum up with previous value and
provide a cumulative result of electrical quantity under measurement.
Eg: House hold energy meter.
From the date of installing/fixing the meter in a house/electrical
installation, it keep on measures the electrical energy and provides the
cumulative result for the total period.

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(Asst. Lecturer)

Analog Instrument and Digital Instrument

Analogue instrument

The instrument whose output is the continuous function of time, and they
have a constant relation to the input. The physicals quantity like voltage,
current, power and energy are measured through the analogue instruments.
Most of the analogue instrument use pointer or dial for indicating the
magnitude of the measured quantity.

Digital Instrument

The instrument which represents the measurand value in the form of the
digital number is known as the digital instruments. It works on the
principle of quantization. The quantization is the process of converting
the continuous input signal into a countable output signal.The
construction of the digital instrument is very complex, and their cost is
also very high. The digital instruments consume very less power as
compared to analogue instruments. The digital multimeter, digital
voltmeter, digital frequency meter, etc. are the examples of the digital
instruments.

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(Asst. Lecturer)

Essential features of indicating instruments

For satisfactory operation electro-mechanical indicating instrument, three
forces are necessary. They are
(a) Deflecting Torque
(b) Controlling Torque
(c)Damping Torque

a) Deflecting Torque

The deflecting torque is produced by utilizing other effect

like magnetic, electrostatic, electrodynamics, thermal or inductive etc.
This deflecting torque causes the moving system to move from its zero
position.

i. Magnetic Effect:
When a current carrying conductor is placed in uniform magnetic field,it
experiences a force which causes to move it.This effect is used in many
indicating instruments mainly in moving iron attraction and repulsion
type instrument,PMMC ,etc.

ii. Thermal Effect:

The current to be measured is passed though a small element which heats
it up and raise the temperature which is converted to emf by a
thermocouple attached to it.

iii. Induction Effect:

When a non magnetic metallic disc is placed in a magnetic field produced
by electromagnets, an emf is induced in that disc.if closed path is
provided,there is flow of current in that disc.The interaction of magnetic
field of electromagnet and induced current exerts torque in the disc which
is called induction effect.This principle is used in electrodynamometer
and energy meter instruments.

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Prepared By: Er. Gopal Sapkota Manmohan Memorial Polytechnic
(Asst. Lecturer)

b) Controlling Torque
It produces a force equal and opposite to the deflecting force in order to
make the deflection of the pointer at defined magnitude.Controlling
torque is also useful to bring moving system back to the zero position
when the force which causes the deflection of the moving system is
removed. Controlling torque may be provided by gravity control system
or spring control system.

i. Gravity control
In gravity control, a small weight is placed on an arm attached to
the deflecting system.The position of this weight is adjustable.This
weight produces a controlling torque due to gravity.The figure right side
shows the pointer at zero position.In this case, the control torque is
zero.Suppose the system deflects through an angle θ, the weight acts at a
distance 'l' from the centre, the component of weight trying to restore the
pointer back to zero position is Wsin θ.Therefore, controlling torque is

Tc = W Sin θ × l = Wl Sin θ
= K Sin θ
where ,K = Wl = a constant

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Prepared By: Er. Gopal Sapkota Manmohan Memorial Polytechnic
(Asst. Lecturer)

Thus the controlling torque is proportional to the sine of the angle of

deflection of moving system.

Advantages of Gravity Control

 It is cheap and not affected by temperature variations.
 It does not deteriorate with time.
 It is not subject to fatigue.

Disadvantages of Gravity Control

 Since the controlling torque is proportional to the sine of the angle of
deflection, the scale is not uniformly divided but cramped at its lower
end.
 It is not suitable for use in portable instruments (in which spring
control is always preferred).
 Gravity control instruments must be used in vertical position so that
the control weight may operate and also must be leveled otherwise
they will give zero error.
 In view of these reasons, gravity control is not used for indicating
instruments in general and portable instruments in particular.

ii.Spring control:
A hair spring attached to the moving system that exerts a controlling
torque.The essential requirements for instrument springs are:
 They should be non-magnetic.
 They should be proof from mechanical fatigue.
 They should be small and sufficient to carry the current without
temperature rise that affect their constant.
 They should also have a low resistance temperature coefficient.

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Prepared By: Er. Gopal Sapkota Manmohan Memorial Polytechnic
(Asst. Lecturer)

In spring control system the controlling torque provide is proportional t

he angle of twist of spring.

i. e
TC=k.θ
Where k is called a spring constant.

Advantages of Spring Control

 It is suitable for portable instruments, because it can work in any
position of the instrument.

 There is no increase in weight of the moving system.

 These types of instrument have uniform scale.

Disadvantages of Spring Control

 Controlling torque can not be adjusted unless the springs are changed.

 Change in temperature changes lengths of spring and hence

the controlling torque.

 Accidental stresses in spring may damage them.

 The stiffness of the spring is function of temperature. Hence readings

given by instruments are temperature dependent.

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(Asst. Lecturer)

 The usage of the spring develops inelastic yield which affects the zero
position of the moving system.

c. Damping torque.

A damping torque is produced by a damping or stopping force which acts

on the moving system only when it is moving and always opposes its
motion. Such a torque is necessary to bring the pointer to rest quickly. If
there is no damping torque, then the pointer will keep moving to and fro
about its final deflected position for some time before coming to rest, due
to the inertia of the moving system.

i. Air Friction Damping

In this type of damping, a light aluminum piston is attached to

the spindle which carries the pointer and the pointer produces a minor
move in it . However, the air on the piston removes the bent of the pointer
to move easily on its final deflected position.

ii. Fluid Friction Damping

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Prepared By: Er. Gopal Sapkota Manmohan Memorial Polytechnic
(Asst. Lecturer)

Fluid friction damping consists of discs which are attached to

the spindle of the moving system. The moving system is kept in an oil
containing container. The container is filled with high viscosity oil. When
the pointer starts moving, the friction between the oil and discs starts
opposing to the moving of a pointer and then damping is provided to
the pointer.

iii. Eddy Current Damping

In this type of damping, a copper or aluminum disc is attached to the

moving system of the pointer and permanent magnets are attached to
the poles. When the pointer moves the copper or aluminum disc cuts the
magnetic flux between the poles of a permanent magnet and eddy

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Prepared By: Er. Gopal Sapkota Manmohan Memorial Polytechnic
(Asst. Lecturer)

current is produced with the flow and produces the damping force in a
required direction.

Permanent Magnet Moving Coil or PMMC Instrument

The instruments which use the permanent magnet for creating the stationary
magnetic field between which the coil moves is known as the permanent
magnet moving coil or PMMC instrument. It operates on the principle that
the torque is exerted on the moving coil placed in the field of the permanent
magnet. The PMMC instrument gives the accurate result for DC
measurement.

Construction of PMMC Instrument

The moving coil and permanent magnet are the main part of the PMMC
instrument.

i. Moving Coil The coil is the current carrying part of the instruments
which is freely moved between the stationary field of the permanent
magnet. The current passing through the coil deflects it due to which
the magnitude of the current or voltage is determine

ii. Magnet System The PMMC instruments are using the permanent
magnet for creating the stationary magnets. Alnico material is used
for creating the permanent magnet because this magnet has the high
coercive force.

iii. Control Torque In PMMC instrument the controlling torque is

because of the springs. The springs are made up of phosphorous
bronze and placed between the two jewel bearings.

iv. Damping Torque The damping torque is used for keeping the
movement of the coil in rest. Eddy current damping torque is induced
because of the movement of the aluminium core between the poles of
the permanent magnet.

v. Pointer & Scale The pointer is linked with the moving coil. The
pointer notices the deflection of the coil, and the magnitude of their
deviation is shown on the scale.

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(Asst. Lecturer)

Working Principle

When the moving coil instrument is connected in the circuit, the

operating current flows through the coil which is mounted on the spindle.
Since the coil is placed in the strong field of permanent magnets, a force
is exerted on the current carrying conductors of the coil which produces
deflecting torque. Thus the pointer attached to the spindle in deflected
over the calibrated scale.If the current in the coil is reversed, the direction
of deflecting torque will be reversed because of the field produced by the
permanent magnets remains the same. This will give a wrong direction of
rotation thus the instrument cannot be used on AC, permanent magnet
moving coil instruments can be used for the measurement of DC only.

Torque Equation for PMMC Instrument

The deflecting torque induces because of the movement of the coil. The
deflecting torque is expressed by the equation shown below.

Fd  NBIL sin 
but ,   90.Hence, sin  1 for radial magnetic field
Also, Td  Fd  d; as d  horizontal width of side
Td  NBILd

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(Asst. Lecturer)

Where, N – Number of turns of coil

B – flux density in the air gap
L, d – the vertical and horizontal length of the side.
I – current through the coil.

Hence,Td=G.I

Where,G=NBLd= constant.The spring provides the restoring torque to

the moving coil which is expressed as:

Tc  k
where, ' k' is a spring constant and ' ' is an angle of twist

For balanced condition,Tc=Td

G.I  k.
k
or , I  
G
i.e.I

The above equation shows that the deflection torque is directly

proportional to the current passing through the coil.

Advantages:

 The scale of permanent magnet moving coil instrument is uniform.

 Very effective and reliable.
 Eddy current damping is used, no hysteresis loss as the former is of
aluminum.
 Low power consumption because driving power is small.
 No effect of the stray magnetic field as working field provided by the
permanent magnets is very strong.
 High torque/weight ratio, therefore, such instruments require small
operating current.
 Very accurate and reliable.

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(Asst. Lecturer)

Disadvantages:

 These instruments cannot be used for AC measurements.

 These are costlier in comparison of moving iron instruments.
 Friction and temperature might introduce some errors.
 Some errors are also caused due to the ageing of control springs and
the permanent magnets.

Application of PMMC as an Ammeter

 Without shunt (i.e. instrument alone) 0 – 5 µA to 0 – 50 mA.

 With internal shunts, up to 0 – 200 A.
 With external shunts, up to 0 – 5000 A.
Application of PMMC as a Voltmeter

 Without series resistance or multiplier (i.e. instrument alone)

0 – 50 mV.
 With series resistance, 0 – 30,000 V.

Moving iron instrument

There are two types of moving iron instrument.

i. Attraction type
ii. Repulsion type

i. Attraction type Moving Iron instrument

Construction
Attraction type moving iron instruments consists of a stationary hollow
cylindrical coil carrying current to be measured. An oval shaped soft iron
piece is mounted eccentrically to the spindle to which a pointer (needle)
is attached as shown in figure below.

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(Asst. Lecturer)

Working
The current to be measured is passed through the fixed coil. As the
current flows through the fixed coil, a magnetic field is produced. By
magnetic induction the moving iron gets magnetized. The north pole of
moving coil is attracted by the south pole of fixed coil. Thus the
deflecting force is produced due to force of attraction. Since the moving
iron is attached with the spindle, the spindle rotates and the pointer moves
over the calibrated scale. But the force of attraction depends on the
current flowing through the coil.

Control torque is provided by spring or weight (gravity).

Damping torque is normally pneumatic, the damping device consisting
of an air chamber and a moving vane attached to the instrument spindle.

ii. Repulsion type moving iron instrument

Construction

It consists of a fixed cylindrical hollow coil which carries the operating

current. Inside the coil, there are two soft iron pieces (rods or vanes)
placed parallel to each other and along the axis, of the coil.

One of the rod or vane is fixed and the other is movable connected to the
spindle. A pointer is attached to the spindle which gives deflection on the
scale. The controlling torque is provided by spring control method while
damping torque is provided by air friction.

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(Asst. Lecturer)

Working

When the instrument is connected in the circuit, the operating current

flows through the stationary (or fixed) coil. A magnetic field is setup
along the axis of the coil, this field magnetizes both the pieces similarly
i.e. both the pieces attain similar polarities. A force of repulsion acts
between the two, therefore movable piece moves away from the fixed
piece. Thus the pointer attached to the spindle deflects over the calibrated
scale.

Damping: Air friction damping is used to reduce the oscillation. Eddy

current damping is not possible because of the presence of permanent
magnet needed for such purpose would affect the deflection.
Control: Spring control is used.

Advantages of moving iron instruments

 The instruments can be used both in ac as well as dc circuits.

 These instruments are simple in construction of moving part.
 The stationary part of the instruments is very Simple.
 They are less costly.
 These instruments possess high operating torque.
 These instruments can withstand overload momentarily.

Disadvantages of moving iron instruments

 Scale of these instruments are not linear.

 Power consumption is higher for low voltage range.
 If the temperature increases then the stiffness of the spring decreases.

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(Asst. Lecturer)

 The errors that are caused by hysteresis in the iron of the operating
system and due to stray magnetic field.
 Change in frequency and in waveform causes serious errors in ac
measurements.

Errors in M.I Instruments
 Error due to variation in temperature.

 Error due to friction is quite small as torque-weight ratio is high in

moving coil instruments.

 Stray fields cause relatively low values of magnetizing force produced

by the coil. Efficient magnetic screening is essential to reduce this
effect.

 Error due to variation of frequency causes change of reactance of the

coil and also changes the eddy currents induced in neighbouring metal.

 Deflecting torque is not exactly proportional to the square of the

current due to non -linear characteristics of iron material.

Torque developed by M.I

Let ‘θ ’ be the deflection corresponding to a current of ‘i’ amp. Let the

current increases by di, the corresponding deflection is ‘θ + dθ ’ There is
change in inductance since the position of moving iron change w.r.t the
fixed electromagnets. Let the new inductance value be ‘L+dL’. The
current change by ‘di’ is dt seconds. Let the emf induced in the coil be ‘e’
volt.

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(Asst. Lecturer)

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(Asst. Lecturer)

Electrodynamo-meter instrument

The instrument whose working depends on the reaction between the

magnetic field of moving and fixed coils is known as the
Electrodynamo-meter Wattmeter. It uses for measuring the power of both
the AC and DC circuits.Electrodynamometer instrument is a transfer type
instrument which is calibrated for dc source and can be used to measure
ac source without any modification.

Construction

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(Asst. Lecturer)

i. Fixed coil: The fixed coil connects in series with the load. It is
considered as a current coil because the load current flows through
it. For making the construction easy the fixed coil divide into two
parts. And these two elements are parallel connected to each other.
ii. Moving Coil: Moving coil consider as the pressure coil of the
instruments. It connects in parallel with the supply voltage. The current
flows through them is directly proportional to the supply voltage. The
pointer mounts on the moving coil.
iii. Controlling Torque : Gravity control and the spring control are the
two types of control system. Out of two, the Electrodynamo-meter
Watt-meter uses spring control system. The spring control system is
used for the movement of the pointer.
iv. Damping Torque: Damping torque is produced by the air
friction. The other types of damping are not used in the system because
they destroy the useful magnetic flux.

Working
When the current flows through the fixed coil, it produced a magnetic
field, whose flux density is proportional to the current through the fixed
coil. The moving coil is kept in between the fixed coil. When the current
passes through the moving coil, a magnetic field is produced by this coil.
The magnetic poles are produced in such a way that the torque produced
on the moving coil deflects the pointer over the calibrated scale. This
instrument works on AC and DC. When AC voltage is applied,
alternating current flows through the fixed coil and moving coil. When
the current in the fixed coil reverses, the current in the moving coil also

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(Asst. Lecturer)

reverses. Torque remains in the same direction. Since the current i1 and
i2 reverse simultaneously. This is because the fixed and moving coils are
either connected in series or parallel.

Advantages:

 Their coils are air cored and hence free from hysteresis and eddy
current loses in core.\
 They have precision grade accuracy.
 These instruments can be used for dc as well as for ac.
 Low power consumption.
 Light in weight.

Disadvantages:

 Low sensitive due to low torque to weight ratio.

 More expensive.
 They have non uniform scale.
 The operating currents of these instruments is large due to weak
magnetic field.

Errors in Electrodynamometer

 Pressure Coil Inductance The pressure coil of the

Electrodynamometer has some inductance Because of
the inductance, the current of the pressure coils lags behind the
voltage. Thus, the power factor of the wattmeter becomes lagging,and
the meter reads high reading.
 Pressure Coil Capacitance The pressure coil
has capacitances along with the inductance. This capacitance
increases the power factor of the instrument. Hence causes the error in
the reading.
 Error due to Mutual Inductance Effect – The mutual inductance
between the pressure and current coil produces an error.
 Eddy Current Error – The eddy current induces in the coil creates
its own magnetic field. This field affects the main current flows
through the coil. Thus, the error occurs in the reading.

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(Asst. Lecturer)

 Stray Magnetic Field – The stray magnetic field disturbs the main
magnetic field of the Electrodynamic Wattmeter. Thus, affect their
reading.
 Temperature Error The variation in temperature will change
the resistance of the pressure coil. The movement of the spring, which
provides the controlling torque also affected because of the
temperature change. Thereby, the error occurs in the reading.

Torque Equation for Electrodynamometer instrument

The instantaneous torque acts on the pointer of the wattmeter and is

given by the equation

dM
Ti  i pi c
d

Where,ip–pressure coil current ,ic–current coil current and dM/dθ–the rate

of change of deflection of pointer concerning angle ‘θ’.

Case-I: For DC operation:

dM
Td  I1I 2
d

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(Asst. Lecturer)

Where,I1 and I2 are the current through series and shunt coil.The
controlling torque is provided by spring control.

Tc  k  
At steady state condition, Tc  Td
. dM
I1I 2  k
d
I I dM
 1 2
k d

Thus, deflection is proportional to the product of two currents and rate

of change of mutual inductance which makes non uniform scale.

Case-II: For AC operation:

Total deflecting torque over a cycle must be obtained by integrating

instantaneous deflecting torque(Ti) over one time period ‘T’.

1T
Td   Ti dt
T0
dM 1 T
d T 0
i.e, Td  i1 .i 2 dt

But , i1  I m1 sin(  t )
and , i 2  I m 2 sin(  t  )
i.e. two sinusoidal currents are displaced one other by a phase angle ' '
Now , solving for above equation, we will get
I I dM
Td  m1 m 2 cos( )
2 d
dM
 I1I 2 cos( )
d

Where,I1 and I2 are r.m.s. Values of current in series and shunt coil
respectively.

At steady state condition,

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Tc  Td
dM
,
i.e, I1.I 2 cos() k.
d
I .I dM
or,   1 2 cos()
k d
Thus,deflection is defined by the product of r.m.s values of two currents,
cosine of phase angle and rate of change of mutual inductance.

Use of Electrodynamo-meter as an Ammeter

When ammeters for ranges above about 250mA , the moving coil cannot
be connected in series with the fixed coil (note the control spring is
unsuitable for currents above about 250mA ). Therefore, the moving coil
must be connected in parallel with the fixed coils as shown. The coils are
designed such that the resistance of each branch is same.
Therefore,
I1=I2=I

Hence,

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(Asst. Lecturer)

dM
Td  I1I 2
d
dM
 I2
d
but , Tc  k
dM
Hence, k  I 2
d
 1 dM  2
or,    I
 k d 

Use of Electrodynamometer as a Voltmeter

The connection for use as a voltmeter is shown in Fig below, in which

fixed and oving coils are connected in series with a high series resistance
having “zero resistivity coefficients”.

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(Asst. Lecturer)

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope(CRO):

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope is a very useful and versatile laboratory
instrument used for display, measurement and analysis of waveforms and
other phenomena in electrical and electronic circuits.CRO's are in fact
very fast X-Y plotters, displaying an input signal versus another signal
versus time. Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes operate on voltages.

Construction of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

1. Cathode Ray Tube

2. Electronic Gun Assembly
3. Deflecting Plate
4. Fluorescent Screen For CRT
5. Glass Envelop

1. Cathode Ray Tube

The cathode ray tube is the vacuum tube which converts the electrical
signal into the visual signal. The cathode ray tube mainly consists the
electron gun and the electrostatic deflection plates (vertical and
horizontal).The electron gun produces a focused beam of the electron
which is accelerated to high frequency.The vertical deflection plate
moves the beams up and down and the horizontal beam moves the
electrons beams from left to right.

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(Asst. Lecturer)

2. Electronic Gun Assembly

The electron gun emits the electrons and forms them into a beam. The
electron gun mainly consists a heater, cathode, a grid, a pre-accelerating
anode, a focusing anode and an accelerating anode. For gaining the high
emission of electrons at the moderate temperature, the layers of barium
and strontium is deposited on the end of the cathode.

After the emission of an electron from the cathode grid, it passes through
the control grid. The control grid is usually a nickel cylinder with a
centrally located co-axial with the CRT axis. It controls the intensity of
the emitted electron from the cathode.

The electron while passing through the control grid is accelerated by a

high positive potential which is applied to the pre-accelerating or
accelerating nodes.

The electron beam is focused on focusing electrodes and then passes

through the vertical and horizontal deflection plates and then goes on to
the fluorescent lamp. The pre-accelerating and accelerating anode are
connected to 1500v, and the focusing electrode is connected to 500 v.
There are two methods of focusing on the electron beam. These methods
are

 Electrostatic focusing
 Electromagnetic focusing.
The CRO uses an electrostatic focusing tube.

3. Deflecting Plate
The electron beam after leaving the electron gun passes through the two
pairs of the deflecting plate. The pair of plate producing the vertical
deflection is called a vertical deflecting plate or Y plates, and the pair of
the plate which is used for horizontal deflection is called horizontal
deflection plate or X plates.

4. Fluorescent Screen for CRT

The front of the CRT is called the face plate. It is flat for screen sized up
to about 100mm×100mm. The screen of the CRT is slightly curved for
larger displays. The face plate is formed by pressing the molten glass into
a mould and then annealing it.

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The inside surface of the faceplate is coated with phosphor crystal. The
phosphor converts electrical energy into light energy. When an
electronics beam strike phosphor crystal, it raises their energy level and
hence light is emitted during phosphorous crystallisation. This
phenomenon is called fluorescence.

5. Glass Envelope
It is a highly evacuated conical shape structure. The inner surface of the
CRT between the neck and the screen is coated with the aquadag. The
aquadag is a conducting material and act as a high-voltage electrode. The
coating surface is electrically connected to the accelerating anode and
hence help the electron to be the focus.

Working of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

When the electron is injected through the electron gun, it passes through
the control grid. The control grid controls the intensity of electron in the
vacuum tube. If the control grid has high negative potential, then it allows
only a few electrons to pass through it. Thus, the dim spot is produced on
the lightning screen. If the negative potential on the control grid is low,
then the bright spot is produced. Hence the intensity of light depends on
the negative potential of the control grid.

After moving the control grid the electron beam passing through the
focusing and accelerating anodes. The accelerating anodes are at a high
positive potential and hence they converge the beam at a point on the
screen.

After moving from the accelerating anode, the beam comes under the
effect of the deflecting plates. When the deflecting plate is at zero
potential, the beam produces a spot at the centre.If the voltage is applied

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Prepared By: Er. Gopal Sapkota Manmohan Memorial Polytechnic
(Asst. Lecturer)

to the vertical deflecting plate, the electron beam focuses at the upward
and when the voltage is applied horizontally the spot of light will be
deflected horizontally.

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