Climatology

Q1. How atmosphere contributed to the sustaining of life. Write about

Atmosphere and its composition and structure?

Introduction:

Life on the earth evolved millions of the years ago due to many factors and atmosphere
Is main of all other factors. Atmosphere is a deep blanket of the gases which enveloped
our planet earth and it is extending several thousands of kilometres above its surface.
This gaseous cover of the earth is known as the atmosphere. Like land or lithosphere
and water or hydrosphere, the atmosphere is also an integral part of the earth and it
is held in place by the gravitational influence of earth.

Body:

How Earth’s Atmosphere help in sustaining life:

Earth is unique among plants as it has life and life on earth would not have been
possible if not for the present state of atmosphere.

• Life-giving gases: Plants require carbon dioxide to survive while animals and
many other organisms need oxygen for their survival. Nitrogen is fixed by
bacteria and lightning to produce ammonia used in the construction of
nucleotides and amino acids.
• Regulates the entry of solar radiation: All life forms need a particular range of
temperature and a specific range of frequencies of solar radiation to carry out
their biophysical processes. The atmosphere absorbs certain frequencies and
lets through some other frequencies of solar radiation.
• Temperature balance: The atmosphere also keeps the temperature over the
earth’s surface within certain limits. In the absence of the atmosphere extremes
of temperature would exist between day and night.
• Blocks harmful radiation: The atmosphere helps to protect living organisms
from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation, solar wind and cosmic rays.
Shields the earth from impact objects: The atmosphere also takes care of
extra-terrestrial objects like meteors which get burnt 23 up while passing
through the atmosphere (mesosphere to be precise) due to friction.
• Weather and climate: Weather is another important phenomenon which
dictates the direction of many natural and human-made processes like plant
 growth, agriculture, soil-formation (weathering and erosion), human
settlements, etc. Various climatic factors join together to create weather.
• Water on earth exists in liquid state due to Atmosphere: Since liquids cannot
exist without pressure, an atmosphere allows liquid to be present at the
surface, resulting in lakes, rivers and oceans.
• Scattering of light: When light passes through Earth's atmosphere, photons
interact with it through scattering and that scattering helpful for life in many
ways.

The composition of Earth's atmosphere:

It’s composition largely governed by the by-products of the life that it sustains namely
Dry air from Earth's atmosphere contains 78.08% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93%
argon, 0.04% carbon dioxide, and traces of hydrogen, helium, and other noble gases.
The remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases, among which are the
greenhouse gases mainly carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone.
Various industrial pollutants also may be present as gases or aerosols, such as chlorine,
fluorine compounds and elemental mercury vapour. Sulphur compounds such as
hydrogen sulphide and sulphur dioxide may be derived from natural sources or
industrial air pollution.

Features of gases:

• Permanent atmospheric gases remain in fixed proportion to the total gas

volume.
• Other constituents vary in quantity from place to place and from time to time.
• Heavier gases like nitrogen and oxygen tend to stick at the bottom of the
atmosphere.
• The proportion of gases changes in the higher layers of the atmosphere in such
a way that oxygen will be almost in negligible quantity at the height of 120 km.
• Similarly, carbon dioxide and water vapour are found only up to 90 km from the
surface of the earth.

Important constituents of the atmosphere:

• Oxygen
o All living organisms inhale oxygen. Besides, oxygen can combine with
other elements to form important compounds, such as, oxides and Also,
normal combustion is not possible without oxygen.
• Nitrogen
o It is a relatively inert gas and is an important constituent of all organic
compounds. The main function of nitrogen is to control combustion by
 diluting oxygen, i.e., it prevents spontaneous combustion of oxygen in
the atmosphere. It also indirectly helps in oxidation of different kinds.
• Carbon dioxide
o Green plants, through photosynthesis, absorb carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere. Being an efficient absorber of heat, carbon dioxide is a very
important factor in the heat energy budget. With increased burning of
fossil fuels – oil, coal and natural gas – the carbon dioxide percentage in
the atmosphere has been increasing at an alarming rate.
• Ozone
o Ozone (O3) is a type of oxygen molecule consisting of three oxygen
atoms. It forms less than 0.00005% by volume of the atmosphere and is
unevenly distributed between 20 km and 30 km altitude (stratosphere)
that the greatest concentrations of ozone are found. Ozone is formed at
higher altitudes (due to interaction between O2 and UV light) and
transported downwards. Ozone plays a crucial role in blocking the
harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
• Water Vapour
o Water Vapour is one of the most variable gaseous substances present in
atmosphere – constituting between 0.02% and 4% of the total volume
(in cold dry and humid tropical climates respectively). 90% of moisture
content in the atmosphere exists within 6 km of the surface of the earth.
Like carbon dioxide, water vapour plays a significant role in the insulating
action, of the atmosphere. It absorbs not only the long-wave terrestrial
radiation but also a part of the incoming short-wave solar radiation.
• Solid particles
o The Solid Particles present in the atmosphere consist of sand particles,
pollen grains, small organisms, soot, ocean salts; the upper layers of the
atmosphere may even have fragments of meteors which got burnt up in
the atmosphere. These solid particles perform the function of absorbing,
reflecting and scattering the radiation.
Structure:

The atmosphere can be studied as a layered entity – each layer having its peculiar
characteristics. These layers are systematically discussed below.

• Troposphere: 0 to 12 km and the thickness is greater at the equator because

of the heated air that rises to greater heights. The troposphere ends with the
Tropopause. The temperature in this layer with increasing height decreasing
temperature (positive lapse rate) at the rate of 6.5 °C per kilometre known as
lapse rate. It is also meteorologically the most significant zone in the entire
atmosphere as all weather phenomena like cyclones, rainfall, fog and
hailstorm etc. are confined to this layer.
 • Stratosphere: 12 to 50 km and It lies beyond tropopause, up to an altitude of
50 km from the earth’s surface. The temperature in this layer remains
constant for some distance but then rises (negative lapse rate) to reach a level
of 0 °C at 50 km altitude. This rise is due to the presence of ozone layer.
• Inside the stratosphere there is another layer is called Ozonosphere It lies at
an altitude between 20 km and 55 km from the earth’s surface and spans the
stratosphere and lower mesosphere. But the highest concentration occurs
between 20 km and 30 km. Because of the presence of ozone molecules, this
layer absorbs and reflects the harmful ultraviolet radiation.
• Mesosphere: 50 to 80 km. In Mesosphere most of the meteors burn up on
entering from the space. In this layer Temperatures drop with increasing
altitude to the mesopause it is the coldest place on earth.
• Thermosphere: 80 to 700 km height. In thermosphere temperature rises
(negative lapse rate) very rapidly with increasing height because of radiation
from the sun. Ionosphere is a part of this layer. It extends between 80-400
km. The International Space Station and satellites orbit in this layer. Aurora’s
are observed in lower parts of this layer. The Kármán line, located within the
thermosphere at an altitude of 100 km, is commonly used to define the
boundary between Earth's atmosphere and outer space.
• Exosphere: 700 to 10,000 km. This is the uppermost layer coincides with the
spce. Light gases like helium and hydrogen float into the space from here.
Temperature gradually increases through the layer (as it is exposed to direct
sunlight.

Conclusion:

The components mentioned above are both encouraged and protected life on Earth
as it developed, not only by providing oxygen for respiration, but by
shielding organisms from harmful UV rays and by incinerating small meteors before
they hit the surface. Additionally, the composition and structure of this unique
resource are important keys to understanding circulation in the
atmosphere, biogeochemical cycling of nutrients, short-term local weather patterns,
and long-term global climate changes.
Q2. What are the forces that drives the wind to blow? Explain the Wind
system throughout the world?

Introduction:

Wind is basically the horizontal movement of air. The wind system begins with the
sun’s radiation, which is absorbed differently on the earth’s surface. The earth’s
surface is heated differently because of scenarios like cloud cover, mountains, valleys,
water bodies, vegetation and desert lands which creates the pressure differences led
to the movements of air.

Body:

Forces that drives the wind to blow:

• Pressure gradient force: This force provides initial flow and direction to the
wind. The flow is from high pressure to low pressure and it is at right angles to
isobars. The velocity of wind is directly proportional to pressure gradient force.
• Coriolis force/deflection force: The force that deflects the direction of the wind
is called deflection force. They are deflected to the right in the northern
hemisphere and the left in the southern hemisphere.
• Friction force generated by surface: It is a restraining force on the flow of the
wind. The amount of friction is an outcome of surface irregularities and the
orientation of natural landforms. Friction is least above smooth oceanic
surfaces. The frictional force is effective up to a height of a few thousand meters
only.

Classification of winds:

Global wind system can be studied under two headings planetary winds and local
winds.
• Planetary Winds
o The winds blowing almost in the same direction throughout the year are
called prevailing or permanent winds. These are also called as invariable
or planetary winds because they involve larger areas of the globe. The
two most significant winds for climate and human activities are trade
winds and westerly winds.
o Easterlies:
▪ They known as trade winds blowing from the sub-tropical high-
pressure areas towards the equatorial low-pressure belt. these
are confined between 30°N and 30°S . They flow as the north-
eastern trades in the northern hemisphere and the south-eastern
trades in the southern hemisphere.
 ▪ Trade winds are descending and stable in areas of their origin
(sub-tropical high-pressure belt), and as they reach the equator,
they become humid and warmer after picking up moisture on
their way. The trade winds from two hemispheres meet near the
equator, and due to convergence, they rise and cause heavy
rainfall.
o Westerlies:
▪ The westerlies are the winds blowing from the sub-tropical high-
pressure belts towards the sub-polar low-pressure belts. They
blow from southwest to northeast in the northern hemisphere
and northwest to southeast in the southern hemisphere. The
westerlies of the southern hemisphere are stronger and
persistent due to the vast expanse of water, while those of the
northern hemisphere are irregular because of uneven relief of
vast land-masses. The westerlies are best developed between
40°S and 65°S latitudes. These latitudes are often called Roaring
Forties, Furious Fifties, and Shrieking Sixties – dreaded terms for
sailors. These winds produce wet spells and variability in weather.
o PolarEasterlies:
▪ The Polar easterlies are dry, cold prevailing winds blowing from
north-east to south-west direction in Northern Hemisphere and
southeast to north-west in Southern Hemisphere. They blow from
the high-pressure polar areas of the sub-polar lows.
• Secondary or Periodic Winds
o These winds change their direction with change in season. Monsoons are
the best example of large-scale modification of the planetary wind
system. Other examples of periodic winds include land and sea breeze,
mountain and valley breeze, cyclones and anticyclones, and air masses.
o Monsoons:
▪ Monsoons were traditionally explained as land and sea breezes
on a large scale. They were earlier considered as a convectional
circulation on a giant scale. The monsoons are characterized by
seasonal reversal of wind direction.
▪ During summer, the trade winds of southern hemisphere are
pulled northwards by an apparent northward movement of the
sun and by an intense low-pressure core in the north-west of the
Indian subcontinent. While crossing the equator, these winds get
deflected to their right under the effect of Coriolis force. These
winds now approach the Asian landmass as south-west
monsoons.
During winter, these conditions are reversed, and a high-pressure
core is created to the north of the Indian subcontinent.
The monsoon winds flow over India, Pakistan, Bangladesh,
 Myanmar (Burma), Sri Lanka, the Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal,
south-eastern Asia, northern Australia, China and Japan.
o Valley Breeze and Mountain Breeze
▪ In mountainous regions, during the day the slopes get heated up,
and air moves upslope. The air from the valley blows up the valley
to fill the resulting gap. This wind is known as the valley breeze.
During the night the slopes get cooled, and the dense air descends
into the valley as the mountain wind. The cool air, of the high
plateaus and ice fields draining into the valley, is called katabatic
wind (high-density air flowing down the slope).
o Land Breeze and Sea Breeze
▪ In the day time land heats up faster and becomes warmer than
the sea. Therefore, over the land, the air rises and giving rise to a
low-pressure area, whereas the sea is relatively cool and the
pressure over sea is relatively high.
Thus, pressure gradient from sea to land is created, and the wind
blows from the sea to the land as the sea breeze. In the night the
reversal of condition takes place. The land loses heat faster and is
cooler than the sea. The pressure gradient is from the land to the
sea and hence land breeze results.
• Tertiary or local winds
o These winds are local in extent and are confined to the lowest levels of
the troposphere. Some of the examples given below:
o Loo
▪ In the plains of northern India and Pakistan, sometimes a very
hot and dry wind blows from the west in May and June, usually
in the afternoons. It is known as loo. Its temperature invariably
ranges between 45 °C and 50 °C. It may cause sunstroke to
people.
Foehn
▪ Foehn or Fohn is a hot wind blows in the Alps. It is a strong,
gusty, dry and warm wind which develops on the leeward side of
a mountain range. As the windward side takes away whatever
moisture there is in the incoming wind in the form of orographic
precipitation, the air that descends on the leeward side is dry
and warm (katabatic wind). The temperature of the wind varies
between 15°C and 20°C. The wind helps animal grazing by
melting snow and aids the ripening of grapes.
o Chinook
▪ Chinooks are foehn like winds in USA and Canada move down
the west slopes of the Rockies. It is beneficial to ranchers east of
the Rockies as it keeps the grasslands clear of snow during much
of the winter.
o Mistral
▪ Mistral blows from the Alps over France towards the
Mediterranean Sea. it is very cold and dry with a high speed.
o Sirocco
▪ Sirocco is a Mediterranean wind that comes from the Sahara and
reaches hurricane speeds in North Africa and Southern Europe.
It arises from a warm, dry, tropical air mass that is pulled
northward by low-pressure cells moving eastward across the
Mediterranean Sea.
Q3. Explain the Precipitation process and forms of precipitation also explain
the mechanism of Rainfall and the types of rainfall?

Introduction:

Precipitation is a process of falling atmospheric moisture on the surface due to gravity

in various forms like rain, sleet, hails, snowflakes, fog, mist.
In Precipitation air becomes saturated with water vapour or reached the full capacity
of holding moisture then condensation process takes place and precipitates occurs.

Types of precipitation:

• Rainfall: It is the fall of atmospheric moisture in the form of water due to

gravity.
• Snow: Precipitation of white opaque crystals when cloud forms below zero-
degree Celsius.
• Hail: It falls in the form of small ice pellets and is a very destructive form of
precipitation produced by thunderstorms or cumulonimbus clouds.
• Sleet: It is a mix of rain and snow or it is frozen rain that forms when rain passes
through very cold air mass before reaching the land.
• Drizzle: Very small and uniform sized raindrops (less than 0.5 mm size)
• Mist: evaporation drizzle occurs before reaching the ground leading to foggy
weather.

Rainfall:
• The warm and moist air has properties to always go upwards hence the warm
air after being lifted upward becomes saturated and clouds are formed but the
process of condensation begins only when the relative humidity of ascending
air exceeds a hundred percent.

• Then the water droplets become heavier after mixing with the hygroscopic
nuclei like dust particles etc. present in water and falls onto the earth.
Rainfall does not occur unless these cloud droplets become so large due to
coalescence that the air becomes unable to hold them.

Types of rainfall:

• Convectional Rainfall
o The air on being heated, becomes light and rises in convection currents.
As it rises, it expands and loses heat, and consequently, condensation
takes place, and cumulous clouds are formed. This process releases
latent heat of condensation which further heats the air and forces the
air to go further up.
 o Convectional precipitation is heavy but of short duration, highly localised
and is associated with minimum amount of cloudiness. It occurs mainly
during summer and is common over equatorial doldrums in the Congo
basin, the Amazon basin and the islands of south-east Asia.
• Orographic Rainfall
o This type of precipitation occurs when warm, humid air strikes an
orographic barrier like mountain range. Because of the initial
momentum, the air is forced to rise. As the moisture-laden air gains
height, it expands and the temperature falls adiabatically. Condensation
sets in, and soon saturation (dew point) is reached. The surplus moisture
falls as orographic rainfall along the windward slopes of the mountain
and leeward slopes remain rainless and dry.
o The area situated on the leeward side, which gets less rainfall is known
as the rain-shadow area some arid and semi-arid regions are a direct
consequence of rain-shadow effect. Example: Patagonian Desert in
Argentina, Eastern slopes of Western Ghats, etc.
• Frontal rainfall
o Cold and warm air masses when meets, turbulent conditions are
produced. Along the front convection occurs and causes precipitation for
instance, in north-west Europe, cold continental air and warm oceanic
air converge to produce heavy rainfall in adjacent areas.
• Cyclonic rainfall
o Cyclonic Rainfall is convectional frontal rainfall on a large scale. The
precipitation in a tropical cyclone is of convectional type while that in a
temperate cyclone is because of frontal activity.
• Monsoonal Rainfall
o This type of precipitation is characterized by seasonal reversal of winds
which carry oceanic moisture especially the south-west monsoon with
them and cause extensive rainfall in south and southeast Asia.
Q4. Explain the concepts of Solar radiation and heat budget also describe the
factors affecting the global temperature distribution and how temperature
inversion is the exception to general rule?

Introduction:

Since the evolution of earth, the sun is the primary source of energy for the earth for
each living and non-living beings. The sun radiates its energy in all directions into space
in short wavelengths, which is known as solar radiation and the energy received by
the earth’s surface in the form of short waves is termed as Incoming Solar Radiation
or Insolation.

Heat Budget: The earth maintains temperature equilibrium or a budget of heat

wherein earth receives a certain amount of Insolation short waves – UV and visible
part of the electromagnetic spectrum and gives back heat into space by terrestrial
radiation (longwave or infrared radiation). Through this give and take, or the heat
budget, the earth maintains a constant temperature.

Temperature is unevenly distributed on earth as it affected by many factors as

follow: -

• The Angle of Incidence or the Inclination of the Sun’s Rays: The area lying
close to the equator receive the maximum heat due to near vertical rays of
the sun. The sun’s rays get progressively slanting as one moves away from the
equator towards poles. As a result, the heat received from the sun decrease as
the distance increases from the equator towards the poles.
• Duration of Sunshine: Heat received depends on day or night; clear sky or
overcast, summer or winter etc so as atmosphere plays an important role in
moderating the temperatures between seasons and between days and nights.
• Ocean Currents: Ocean currents transfer the heat from low pressure areas to
high pressure areas that too influence the temperature of adjacent land areas
considerably for example, U.K., considering its latitudinal location, has a
relatively moderate climate due to the warm North Atlantic Drift.
• Altitude With increase in height, pressure falls, the effect of greenhouse gases
decreases and hence temperature decreases (applicable only to troposphere).
• Transparency of Atmosphere: Aerosols (smoke, sooth, pollen), dust, water
vapour, clouds affect transparency then scattering of radiation may takes
place
• Albedo: Albedo of a surface is the proportion of sunlight that the surface can
reflect back into space.
• Aspects of slope: The direction and the steepness of the slope control the
amount of solar radiation received locally. Slopes more exposed to the sun
receive more solar radiation than those away from the sun’s direct rays.
 • Land-Sea Differential: Due to differential heating of land and water heat
exchanges between land and ocean which keeps diurnal and annual
temperature ranges low.
• Prevailing Winds: Winds transfer heat from one latitude to another. E.g. Poles
would have been much colder if it is not for the moderating effect by the
atmospheric circulation. Winds also help in exchange of heat between land
and water bodies. E.g. Land breeze and sea breeze.

Principles of the general trend In Temperature Distribution:

• The horizontal or latitudinal distribution of temperature is shown with the help

of a map with isotherms. Isotherms are the imaginary lines which joins the
places of equal temperature over the earth.
• The direct insolation occurs over the tropics and subtropics so here the highest
temperature. The lowest temperatures occur in polar and sub-polar regions and
the interiors of large continental subpolar regions due to the effect of
continentality.
• The northern hemisphere is warmer because of the predominance of land over
water in the north.
• Mountains also affect the horizontal distribution of temperature. For example,
the Himalayas insulate India from the cold winds of Siberia, the Rockies and the
Andes block the oceanic influence from going inwards into North and South
America.
The deviation from this general trend occurs due to seasonal temperature variation
which is more pronounced in January than in July, especially in the northern
hemisphere because of the land surface area which is much larger than in the southern
hemisphere.
• In January, there is winter in the northern hemisphere and summer in the
southern hemisphere because The isotherms deviate towards the north
over the oceans and to the south over the continent.
• In July, there is summer in the northern hemisphere and winter in the
southern hemisphere. The isothermal behaviour in July is opposite to the
behaviour observed in January. The isotherms run generally parallel to the
latitudes.

How temperature inversion is the exception to general rule:

• The condition at which the temperature increases with the altitude is called
“inversion of temperature”. In this condition, warm air lies over the cold air.
Normally temperature decreases with the increase in elevation, which is called
normal lapse rate. but sometimes, the normal lapse rate is inverted which is
called inversion of temperature. It can occur near the earth’s surface or upper
troposphere.
Conclusion:

Earth is the planet with its extremely important diversities Supports various forms of
life but these environmental factors are uniquely related to each other and if their
balance get disturb would be a serious blow to the humanity hence it’s natural duty of
every living inhabitants to preserve such a delicate balance among the natural factors.
Q5. Explain the mechanism of generating cyclones and write why some
Indian states included in cyclone prone areas? Also highlight the cyclone
management framework in India.

Introduction:

Cyclones are rapid inward air circulation around a low-pressure area. The air circulates
in an anticlockwise direction in the Northern hemisphere and clockwise in the
Southern hemisphere. Cyclones are usually accompanied by violent storms and bad
weather. The word Cyclone is derived from the Greek word Cyclos meaning the coils
of a snake. It was coined by Henry Paddington because the tropical storms in the Bay
of Bengal and the Arabian Sea appear like coiled serpents of the sea.

Types of cyclone:

Tropical cyclone: A Tropical cyclone is an intense circular storm that originates over
warm tropical oceans and is characterized by low atmospheric pressure, high
winds, and heavy rain. The low-pressure at the centre is responsible for the wind
speeds and the closed air circulation (cyclonic circulation) is a result of rapid upward
movement of hot moist air which is subjected to Coriolis force.

• Necessary Conditions to form the tropical cyclones:

o Good Source of Latent Heat: Ocean waters having temperatures of 27°
C and depth of warm water extending for 60-70 m deep supply enough
moisture, and hence latent heat of condensation, to generate and drive
a tropical storm. On landfall, the storm is cut-off from adequate
moisture supply and hence it is deprived of latent heat of condensation.
Thus, the storm dissipates or weakens or dies off on landfall.
o Tropical cyclones are weaker on the eastern margin because the cold
currents lower the surface temperatures of the eastern parts of the
tropical oceans making them unfit for the breeding of cyclonic storms.
o Coriolis Force: The Coriolis force is zero at the equator, but it increases
with latitude. Coriolis force at 5° latitude is significant enough to create
a storm (cyclonic vortex). About 65 per cent of cyclonic activity occurs
between 10° and 20° latitude.
o Low-level Disturbances: Low-level disturbance is a low-pressure trough
that moves from east to west in the form of easterly wave disturbances
in the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Easterly wave
disturbances act as seedling circulations (birthplace) for a large number
of tropical cyclones. However, not all disturbances develop into
cyclones
o Temperature Contrast Between Air Masses: The convergence of air
masses of different temperatures results in instability causing low-level
 disturbances which are a prerequisite for the origin and growth of
violent tropical storms.
o Wind Shear: Wind Shear is the difference between wind speeds at
different altitudes. Tropical cyclones develop when the wind is uniform.
o Tropical cyclones form mostly on the western margins of the oceans
because of warm ocean currents (easterly trade winds drag ocean
waters towards west) that flow from east towards west forming a thick
layer of warm water with temperatures greater than 27°C which is
required temp. for latent heat.

Temperate cyclones:
• These are storms that occur outside the tropics. These are referred to as
extratropical cyclones. Other names are frontal cyclones and wave cyclones.
They occur in polar regions, temperate and high latitudes

Cyclone management in India:

• In India cyclone given the status of a disaster and In 2005, the country
introduced new law the National Disaster Management Authority, for
responding to and minimizing the impact of disasters.
 • India established National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) with
25000personnel is a specialized corps of highly trained men and women
focused on disasters such as cyclones and earthquakes.
• National Cyclone Risk Mitigation project for coastal states and UTs to
undertake structural and non-structural measures to mitigate the cyclone’s
effects. Financed by world bank and implemented by NDMA.
• Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) Project
• Coastal Regulation Zones (CRZ)
• IMD’s Colour Coding of Cyclones to warn peoples of degree of hazard.
• INCOIS set up a Storm Surge Early Warning System (SSEWS) for the Indian
coasts, in collaboration with the IMD, to forecast cyclone-induced storm
surges and inundation extent.

India’s location makes it cyclone prone:

• India has a long history with cyclones. Some states like west Bengal, Odisha ant
Tamil nadu are most hit by cyclones because the location of India in the north
Indian Ocean makes it vulnerable to the tropical cyclone. In 2019-20, India
witnessed multiple cyclones including Amphan, Nisarga, Nivar, vayu, yass . etc.

Way forward:

• Mapping of cyclone prone areas represents the results of cyclone hazard

assessment on a map, helps in oriented actions.
• Cyclone resilient buildings on stilts or on earthen mounds. Buildings should be
wind and water resistant and storing food supplies should be protected against
the winds and water.
• Cyclone Shelters are necessary for areas vulnerable to cyclones.
• Mangrove Plantation should be promoted because protect the coastal area
from storm surge and wind accompanied with cyclones.
• Community Participation Since the local people are the persons best aware of
the strengths and weaknesses of their area.
• Land Use Planning Policies should be in place to regulate land use and
enforcement of building codes.
Q6. Elaborate the Atmospheric circulation induced by atmospheric pressure
and how it affects the global Weather system. Explain the pressure belts
formed at the different latitudes?

Introduction:

Atmospheric circulation is the main factor affecting the weather of an area. There is a
general rule that air expands when heated and gets compressed when cooled. This
results in variations in the atmospheric pressure. The result is that it causes the
movement of air from high pressure to low pressure, setting the air in motion that is
called the atmospheric circulation. Atmospheric pressure also determines when the
air will rise or sink. The wind redistributes the heat and moisture across the planet,
thereby, maintaining a constant temperature for the planet as a whole.

Body:

• Atmospheric pressure:
o The weight of a column of air contained in a unit area from the mean sea
level to the top of the atmosphere is called the atmospheric pressure.
Due to gravity the air is at the surface is denser and hence has higher
pressure. The pressure decreases with height. At any elevation it varies
from place to place and its variation is the primary cause of air motion,
i.e. wind which moves from high pressure areas to low pressure areas.
• Vertical Variation of Pressure
o In the lower atmosphere the pressure decreases rapidly with height. The
decrease amounts to about 1 mb for each 10 m increase in elevation.
The vertical pressure gradient force is much larger than that of the
horizontal pressure gradient. But, it is generally balanced by a nearly
equal but opposite gravitational force. Hence, we do not experience
strong upward winds.

Factors affecting the Wind Movement:

• Pressure gradient force: The pressure gradient (difference in pressure)

between atmospheric pressure cells and the surroundings causes the
movement of air from relatively high-pressure centres to relatively low-
pressure centres. Greater the pressure difference, greater is the wind speed.
• Buoyant force: The surrounding atmosphere exerts a force which is called
buoyant force on low-pressure cells and hence the air within a low-pressure cell
rises.
• Frictional Force: The irregularities of the earth’s surface resist the wind
movement in the form of friction and its influence may extends up to an
elevation of 1-3 km while Over the sea surface, the friction is minimal.
 • Coriolis force: It is the imaginary force that applies on the freely moving object
over the surface. Due to this effect, winds in the northern hemisphere get
deflected to the right of their path and those in the southern hemisphere to
their left. This deflection force does not seem to exist until the air is set in
motion and increases with wind velocity and an increase in latitude.
• Geostrophic Wind the Coriolis force acting on a body increases with increase in
its velocity. When isobars are straight, and when there is no friction, the
pressure gradient force is balanced by the Coriolis force, and the resultant wind
blows parallel to the isobar. This wind is known as the geostrophic wind.

There are some distinctly identifiable zones of horizontal pressure systems or

pressure belts:

• Equatorial low-pressure belt or doldrums: The equatorial low-pressure belt lies

between 10°N and 10°S latitudes. The position of the belt varies with the
apparent movement of the Sun. Its width may vary seasonally between 5°N and
5°S and 20°N and 20°S. This belt happens to be the zone of convergence of trade
winds (Intertropical Convergence Zone or ITCZ) from two hemispheres from
sub-tropical high-pressure belts. This belt is also called the doldrums, because
of the extremely calm air movements.
• Subtropical high-pressure belt Lies between 30°N to 35°N and 30°S to 35°S.
Over the equatorial region, air rises up and cools when it reaches higher
altitudes. The cool air moves towards the poles and collides with the winds
coming from the polar region at high altitudes. Being heavy it subsides over the
subtropical latitudes which leads to the formation of a high-pressure belt along
the subtropical region.
o The sinking air bifurcates into two branches – one branch towards the
equator called trade winds and the other towards poles called
westerlies. Westerlies turn towards right and left in the northern
hemisphere and southern hemisphere respectively.
This belt of high pressure is also called “Horse Latitude”. It is said that to
avoid slowing down and sinking the ships due to high pressure, the
horses were thrown into the sea.
• Subpolar low-pressure belt Lies between 60°N to 65°N and 60°S to 65°S.
The warm westerly winds from the subtropical region move towards the poles
and collide with cold polar easterly winds from the polar high-pressure region
and rise up to form subpolar low-pressure belt.
• Polar high-pressure belt Lies between 85°N to 90°N and 85°S to 90°S.
The constant low temperature at the poles due to inclined solar radiation and
reduced insolation leads to the formation of polar high-pressure belts on both
poles.
 • These pressure belts are not permanent in nature. They oscillate with the
apparent movement of the sun. In the northern hemisphere in winter they
move southwards and in summer they move northwards

Conclusion:

The aggregated effects of the atmospheric elements manage the general circulation
of the wind resulted into setting the global weather system. although some local
factors also affect the weather of an area which could be separately studied.
Q7. Discuss the mechanism and significance of Tri-cellular meridional
circulation of atmosphere.

Introduction:

The meridional circulations are all the result of nature's attempt to balance the
insolation heat imbalance. Ferrell Cell, Hadley Cell, and Polar Cell make up the
tricellular meridional circulation.

Body:
• The atmospheric circulation on a non-rotating earth would have consisted of
one thermal convective cell in each north and south hemisphere. Hadley cells
are the name given to these cells. They are depicted in the diagram below:

• However, due to the rotation of the earth and the generation of the Coriolis
force, this simplified version is modified into three cells, as proposed by Ferrel.
The mechanism of tri-cellular meridional circulation are as follows:

• Hadley Cell/Tropical Cell:

o The air at the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) rises because of
convection cause by high insolation near equator and a low pressure is
created. The winds from the tropics also converge at this low-pressure
zone. The winds rise up to troposphere and then move towards poles.
This causes accumulation of air around 30-degree N and S.
 o The accumulation of air around the tropics and simultaneous cooling of
air causes subsidence of air around the tropics. It causes high pressure
zone near the tropics. The subsiding air move towards equator in the
form of easterlies and converge in the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ). This ultimately completes a cell called Hadley Cell.
• Ferrel Cell/Mid-Latitude Cell:
o In the middle latitudes, there is development of sub-tropical high
pressure around 60-degrees N and S. The rising air gets cooled and one
branch of it subsides near the tropics. The other branch moves towards
the poles.
o The subsiding winds at the tropics move towards sub-tropical high
pressure at the surface in the form of westerlies. This completes
another cell called Ferrel Cell as shown in diagram below.
• Polar Cell:
o The other branch of the rising air at sub-tropical high-pressure zone
converges towards the poles. The cold dense air subsides near the
poles and move towards middle latitudes as the polar easterlies. This
completes the third cell called Polar Cell as shown above in the
diagram.
These three cells set the pattern for the general circulation of the atmosphere.
These meridional circulations hold great significance, which are as follows:

• Meridional circulations help in transporting surplus energy from lower

latitudes to energy deficit higher latitudes.
• Meridional circulation also affects the oceans as large-scale-winds of the
atmosphere initiate large and slow-moving currents of the oceans.
• Meridional circulations help in sustaining life and vegetation in energy
deficit areas such as polar and sub-polar areas. Example: The North
Atlantic Drift carries warm water across the Norwegian Sea and keep the
port of Murmansk (Russia) ice free in Barent Sea (Arctic Ocean).
• It explains the general direction of planetary winds.
• It explains equatorial wet conditions like strong convection leading to
heavy rainfall and resulting in Tropical Rainforest biome in Indonesia,
Congo, Brazil, etc.
• It explains the location of deserts like Kalahari, Namib, Stony Stuart, etc.
and associated anti-cyclonic activities, atmospheric stability and aridity
around sub-tropical high-pressure belts.
Conclusion:
Meridional circulations play an important role in the distribution of lifeforms and
vegetation in energy-stressed areas, and it is also due to these circulations that
equatorial zones become habitable.
Q8. Indian Ocean Dipole plays a significant role in Indian monsoon
mechanism. Comment.

Introduction:

The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is defined as an irregular oscillation in sea surface
temperature between two areas (or poles, hence a dipole) - a western pole in the
Arabian Sea near Africa's east coast and an eastern pole in the eastern Indian Ocean
south of Indonesia. The IOD, like ENSO, has both ocean and atmosphere
components, but it occurs in the equatorial Indian Ocean.

Mechanism of Indian Ocean dipole

• There can be three phases of Indian Ocean Dipole- Neutral Indian Ocean
Dipole, Positive Indian Ocean Dipole and Negative Indian Ocean Dipole.
• Neutral Phase of IOD
o During this phase Water from the Pacific Ocean to Indonesia’s islands,
keeping seas warm to the northwest of Australia. Air rises above this
area and falls across the western half of the Indian Ocean basin,
blowing westerly winds along the equator.
• Positive Phase of IOD
o During this phase,due to the weakening of the westerlies, warm water
reaches till African coast.These changes in the winds make room for
rise of cool water from the deep ocean in the east. This creates a
temperature difference across the tropical Indian Ocean with cooler
than normal water in the east and warmer than normal water in the
west.
• Negative Phase of IOD
o During negative phase westerly winds intensify along the equator.This
allows for the concentration of warmer waters near Australia. This
creates a temperature difference across the tropical Indian Ocean, with
warmer than normal water in the east and cooler than normal water in
the west. Progression of monsoon over India is obstructed by this.
Impact of Indian Ocean Dipole:
• It influences monsoon rainfall in conjunction with other factors such as ENSO,
ITCZ, and so on. Despite an El Nino year, a positive IOD allows for more
monsoon rainfall and more active monsoon days. Negative IOD causes less
rainfall and more monsoon break days (no rainfall). It has the potential to
amplify the impact of the El Nino event. For example, in 1992, a negative IOD
and El Nino worked together to produce insufficient rainfall. The IOD has a
significant impact on rainfall variability in this area.
Conclusion:
The Indian Ocean Dipole is a major phenomenon that is studied in order to better
understand the South West Monsoon. It has an effect on rainfall not only in India but
also in Australia and Indonesia (shown through fig-1). In Australia, however, negative
IOD causes increased rainfall, as opposed to India.
Q9. Discuss how planetary winds differ from local winds. Highlight the role
played by these winds in influencing climate, agriculture and livelihood in
local regions using suitable examples.

Introduction:

Local winds are those that are restricted to the lower levels of the troposphere. In
many ways, they differ from planetary winds. Local winds are caused by local
variations in temperature and pressure. Although most have a local extent, some
have very large dimensions, such as the Northers of North America, which originate
in Arctic Canada and reach as far south as the Gulf of Mexico.

Body:

Local vs. planetary winds

Local Winds Planetary Winds

Local winds are caused due to local Planetary winds are large air masses
differences in temperature and that are created mainly as a result of the
pressure. earth’s rotation, the shape of the earth
and the sun’s heating power.
The winds blow for some days or The winds blow through-out the year
months at local level due to local from one latitude to another in
conditions. response to latitudinal differences in air
pressure
They are more localised in their extent They involve large areas of the globe
and cover limited horizontal and vertical with large horizontal and vertical extent.
dimensions.
Wind blow extensively over continents Wind blow extensively over continents
and oceans and oceans
They usually change very often. They do not change often.
They can move from mild to extreme These winds exhibit a constant
winds in just hours. character with less extreme behaviour.

Influence of local winds on climate, agriculture and livelihood:

Impact on Climate:
 • Temperature: Local winds increase or decrease the temperature of a region.
Some local winds like land breeze, sea breeze, are responsible for dropping of
temperature. Winds like Loo, Foehn lead to rise in temperature of the area.
• Rainfall: Many local winds like Valley breezes also known as Anabatic Wind
cause heavy orographic rainfall.
o This type of winds in the Mountainous region may cause occasional and
afternoon thundershowers on warm and humid days.
o Sometimes, they are also accompanied by the formation of cumulus
cloud near mountain peaks or over slopes and escarpments.
o Sirocco wind that comes from the Sahara causes dusty dry conditions
along the northern coast of Africa, storms in the Mediterranean Sea,
and cool wet weather in Europe.
• Snow: Winds like mountain breeze produces temperature inversions and
valley bottom becomes colder than the Mountain Slopes. The valley floors are
characterised by frost during the night while upper part/ hill-side are free
from frost in cold areas.
• Cyclones: Local wind like Bora has been associated with the passage of a
temperate cyclone.

Impact on agriculture:
• Beneficial impact: Some local winds are beneficial for agriculture and crop
production.
o Winds like Foehn wind helps animal grazing by melting snow and aids
the ripening of grapes.
o Local winds increase transpiration rate thus also increase in
photosynthetic activity.
o Chinook in USA and Canada move down the west slopes of the Rockies.
It is beneficial to ranchers east of the Rockies as it keeps the grasslands
clear of snow during much of the winter
• Adverse impact:
o Hot wind like Loo accelerates the drying of the plants and destroys crop
production. Generally strong wind damages the shoots.
o Crops and trees with shallow roots are uprooted.
o Cold wind causes chilling injuries to the plants.
o Frequent winds and sudden winds in dry season causes wind erosion of
soil.
o Mistral wind blow from the Alps over France towards the
Mediterranean Sea. It brings blizzards into southern France and is
harmful to crops.
Impact on livelihood:

Local winds impact livelihood of many in both positive and negative ways.
• Negative impact: Hot winds like Loo may cause sunstroke to people and may
destroy crops of the region. This led to diseases and decrease working of
farmers and reduce their profitability. Winds like Bora winds attain hurricane
force at the foot of the mountain and cause disastrous impacts on properties
and livelihood.
• Positive impact: Local winds in many areas lead to upwelling of cold water
and thus a fishing zone that support fishery and provide livelihood to many.
Further many local winds lead to increased crop production and produce
grasslands for grazing of animals supporting horticulture.
Q10. Discuss the mechanism of monsoon in Indian Subcontinent. Assess its
ecological, economic and social impact.

Introduction:

India has different climatic regions, ranging from the glacial north, to desert in the
west and the tropical coast and islands in the south. The country has four seasons –
“winter” in January and February, summer between March and May, a monsoon wet
season from June to December. The Monsoon is a very dominant season which
affects the social, economic life and gives it its unique ecology. Monsoons are
seasonal winds which reverse their direction with the change of season. They flow
from sea to land during the summer and land to sea during winter

Body:

Mechanism of monsoon:

1. Traditional Theory or Thermal Concept

According to traditional theory Monsoon is divided into summer monsoon and
winter monsoon.

Summer monsoon:
• During summer, the interior parts of North Indian Plains covering
Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh are intensely
hot.Such high temperature heats up the air of that region.
• Hot air rises, the low-pressure area is created under it. This low pressure is
also known as the monsoonal trough.
• On the other hand, the temperature over the Indian Ocean is relatively
low, as water needs more time to get heated as compared to land.
• So a relatively high-pressure region is created over the sea.
• Thus, there is a difference of temperature and resultant pressure over
North Central Indian Plains and the Indian Ocean.
• Due to this difference, air from the high-pressure region of the sea starts
moving towards the low-pressure region of North India. This gives birth to
summer Monsoon.
• It is also called South West (SW) monsoon.
Winter monsoon:
• In winter the sun shines vertically over the tropic of Capricorn.
• The northern part of India is colder than the Arabian Sea and the Bay of
Bengal.
 • High pressure is developed over land than sea hence the flow of wind is
reversed.
• The winds flow from North East to South West which is the winter
monsoon.
2. Air Mass Theory of Monsoon:
• Trade winds meet at equator from both hemispheres. The meeting place
of both trade winds is known as Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
• The apparent shift of sun also shifts the ITCZ along the direction of
movement of the sun.
• When in the summer the sun is shining over the tropics of Cancer, the ITCZ
shifts northwards up to 20-25 N and it is located over Indo-Gangetic plains
in India.
• When the sun is in the southern hemisphere and shining over the tropics
of Capricorn, the ITCZ shifts to 20-25 S and it is located in the Indian Ocean
region.
• In the summer the Southeast trade winds of the southern hemisphere
cross the equator and start flowing from south-west direction to northeast
direction under the influence of Coriolis force.
• These displaced trade winds are called south-west monsoons when they
blow over the Indian subcontinent.
• When the winds blow from North East to the south-west in winter from
land to sea, it is called North East monsoon in winter.
3. Effect of Westerly Jet stream on Monsoon:
• Jet stream is wind moving west to east in the upper troposphere at a height
around 12km in temperate regions. It is also called upper air westerlies.
• Jet streams form upper air circulation in winter and affect monsoon.
• The upper air westerly jet streams are extended up to tropics due to an
equator-ward shift of it in northern winter.
• These upper westerlies are split into two distinct currents by a topographical
obstacle from Tibet Plateau, one flowing to the north and to the south of the
plateau.
• Since the westerlies move in wavy form; it creates cyclonic conditions to its
left and anticyclonic conditions to its right.
• The upper air anticyclonic conditions are developed in the troposphere over
Afghanistan, Pakistan and north-western parts of India while cyclonic
conditions get developed over Tibet Plateau where air rises.
• Consequently, the winds tend to descend over the north-western parts of
India, resulting in the development of atmospheric stability and dry
conditions.
 • It also prevents the ascendance of winds from the surface in the region.
• Hence in winter, the rainfall is low due to stability while some rains occur due
to western disturbances which are brought to India by upper air westerlies or
jet stream.
• In summer there is an apparent shifting of the sun from the southern
hemisphere to the northern hemisphere, so the temperature starts rising in
the northern region of India.
• It weakens the southern branch of westerly jet and it gradually withdraws
from India by the end of May.
• Over India, the equatorial trough pushes northwards with the weakening of
the southern branch.
• Withdrawal of the Southern branch leads to movement of monsoon winds
inside and the burst of monsoon takes place.
• Hence the Westerly Jet Streams have a crucial role in the onset of monsoon in
India.
4. Effect of Tropical Easterly Jet on Monsoon:
• In summer the Tibetan plateau starts getting heated and become a source of
the heating atmosphere.
• It generates an area of rising air which descends over the equatorial region of
the Indian Ocean.
• At this stage, the ascending air is deflected to the right by the earth’s rotation
and moves in an anticlockwise direction leading to anticyclonic conditions in
the upper troposphere.
• It finally returns as current from south-west direction and pushes Southwest
Monsoon towards India.
• These easterly winds blowing from Tibet Plateau to the southern tip of India is
called tropical easterly jet (TEJ).
• This jet stream disappears with the coming of winter.
• Warming of Tibet and Development of TEJ is crucial for strong monsoon in
India.
Ecological Impacts of Monsoon
• Monsoon provides India its unique flora and fauna diversity which gives it its
ecological hotspots- in Western Ghats and Sri Lanka, Himalayas, Indo Burma
and Sundaland (Andaman Nicobar islands)
• The peninsular rivers of India are mostly rain-fed and non-perennial in nature,
depending primarily on the monsoon for water supply.
• Ecological disaster: Monsoon is the major cause of floods and drought in
Indian subcontinent. Some mountainous areas, especially in Himalayan
regions, get cut off when roads are damaged by landslides and floods during
 heavy rains.Heavy rainfall is one of the major reasons for soil erosion in the
country.
Economic Impacts of Monsoon:
• It is often said that Indian budget is a gamble in the monsoon. About 61 per
cent of India’s farmers rely on rain-fed agriculture and 55 per cent of the gross
cropped area is under rain-fed farming.
• Summer crops account for almost half of India’s food output and a delayed or
poor monsoon means supply issues and acceleration in food inflation.
• Increases the imports of essential food staples and forces the government to
take measures like farm loan waivers, thereby putting pressure on finances.
• About 800 million people live in villages and depend on agriculture, which
accounts for about 15% of India’s gross domestic product (GDP) and a failed
monsoon can have a rippling effect on the country’s growth and economy.
• High monsoon variations can lead to floods, drought conditions which results
in financial loses.
• Whereas a normal monsoon results in a good harvest, which in turn lifts rural
incomes and boosts spending on consumer goods.
• Good monsoon impact positively on hydro power projects.
• Places like Kerala and the Western Ghats get a large number of tourists, both
local and foreigners, during the monsoon season
Social impacts of monsoon
• India has developed cultural traits related to monsoon, example festivals like
Basant panchmi etc are related to monsoon and its impact on agriculture.
• Powerful flood waters can drown victims and damage infrastructure.
• Internal migration could be increased because of high variations in monsoon
rain which could lead to problems like cultural differences, low job
opportunities, limited resources etc.
• Health hazards during summer monsoon season are diseases like cholera,
dengue, chikungunya, and malaria, as well as stomach and eye infections.
• Good monsoon could lead to an increase in per capita income, tax base, and
surplus agriculture production will increase the export etc.
• Drinking water problems in many rural and urban areas can be mitigated by
monsoon water.
Conclusion:
The monsoon is not only the most important climatic or agricultural event in the
Indian subcontinent; it is also the most important sociocultural and economic event.
Its effects extend far beyond agricultural output, shaping regional and national
political dynamics.
Q10. Explain the concept of Weather Fronts, also discuss their formation and
characteristics.

Introduction:

The weather front is the sloping boundary that separates two opposing air masses
with contrasting air temperature, humidity, density, pressure, and wind direction. A
frontal zone or frontal surface is a large transitional zone between two converging air
masses that represents a zone of discontinuity in the properties of opposing
contrasting air masses. Frontogenesis refers to the process of creating new fronts or
regenerating decaying fronts that are already in place. Fronts are divided into four
types: cold fronts, warm fronts, stationary fronts, and occluded fronts.

Formation of fronts:
• The presence of two opposing air masses with contrasting characteristics in
terms of air temperature, humidity, density, pressure, and wind direction is
required for frontogenesis.
o Temperature variation: The first air mass should be warm, moist, and
light, while the second should be cold, dry, and dense. When two air
masses converge, the colder and denser air mass invades the area of
the warmer and lighter air mass and pushes it upward, forming a front.
o Air masses moving in the opposite direction: Convergence of two
opposing air masses is a necessary condition for frontogenesis; when
they converge, they try to penetrate into one another's region,
resulting in the formation of a wave-like front.
Creation of fronts:
• When two contrasting air masses converge in deformation circulation, they
spread horizontally along the axis of outflow or dilation. In such situation the
creation of front depends on the angle between the axis of outflow and
isotherms. Fronts do not form when this angle exceeds 45 degrees.
• As the convergence of air continues, this angle decreases and isotherms try to
become parallel to the axis of outflow and frontogenesis is activated. The
steepness and intensity of fronts depends on temperature gradient. If two
contrasting air masses are parallel to each other and there is no upward
displacement of air, stationary front is formed. Such fronts are climatically
insignificant because they are not conducive for cloud formation and
precipitation.
• But such situation is not very common because two contrasting and
converging air masses are generally separated by sloping boundary due to
deflective force (Coriolis force) of the earth and cold and dense air mass
pushes warm and light air mass upward.
Characteristics of front:
• The temperature contrast has an inversely proportional effect on the
thickness of the frontal zone. Specifically, two air masses with a greater
temperature difference do not easily merge. As a result, the formed front is
thinner. There is a change in pressure with a sudden change in temperature
through a front, which is reflected in the bending of isobars towards the low
pressure. A front also experiences wind shift because wind motion is
determined by pressure gradient and Coriolis force. Because fronts form as a
result of the convergence of two air masses of contrasting temperatures,
contrasting weather conditions can be found from north to south or south to
north. Temperature, humidity, precipitation, cloudiness, and wind direction
are all different along different front. e.g. warm and cold fronts.
Q11. What factors govern global distribution of rainfall? Explain how rainfall
variation impacts human activities and vegetation in an area.

Introduction:

Precipitation distribution varies greatly across the globe, both spatially and
temporally. For example, the equatorial region has the highest mean annual rainfall,
which is more or less evenly distributed throughout the year; the tropical and
subtropical hot deserts have the lowest mean annual rainfall; the monsoon climatic
regions receive more than 80% of the mean annual rainfall during the four wet
months of the summer season (June to September); and the monsoon lands have the
highest rainfall in the world (at Cherrapunji and Mawsynram, 1087 cm and 1141 cm).

Furthermore, the annual rainfall in a specific area varies greatly over time (Example:
Bahia Felix of Chile has 325 rainy days, while Arica of the same country has only one
rainy day per year) The global average annual rainfall is 970 mm, but this average
annual distribution is highly variable and unevenly distributed.

Body:

Factors Governing Rainfall Distribution:

The spatial and temporal distribution of precipitation over the globe is controlled by
a host of factors like
• The moisture content of the air is thought to be positively correlated with
rainfall (both type and amount), whereas atmospheric humidity is closely
related to air temperature via evaporation.
o The atmospheric moisture is determined by the evaporation of water
or ice caused by heat (solar) energy input. Thus, precipitation is related
to evaporation and a zonal pattern, albeit indirectly.
o Annual rainfall is higher in regions with high temperatures and an
abundance of surface water, as well as wide open oceanic surfaces for
evaporation. Equatorial regions are common examples of such
situations.
o The convergent or divergent air circulation determines the ascent or
descent of air and its adiabatic cooling or heating which in turn
determines the amount of precipitation.
o Example – ITC zone, frontal action and cyclonic rainfall in mid-latitudes.
• Topographic conditions present both favourable and unfavourable conditions
for precipitation. It the mountain barriers parallel the coastal lands and there
is onshore moist air, moist air is forced by the mountains to ascend and cool
adiabatically ultimately yielding precipitation.
 o Example- Western Ghats receive high rainfall
• Distance from the source of moisture determines the amount of precipitation
in different areas. As the distance from the source of moisture (mainly oceans)
increases, the moisture content and hence the amount of precipitation
decreases.
o For example, trade winds give more precipitation in the eastern parts
of the continents and the amount decreases westward because the
westward moving winds lose moisture. The monsoon winds in India
give more rainfall in the coastal areas than in the interior regions. The
continental deserts located in the interior of the continents are arid
because they are far away from oceanic source of moisture.
Impact of ocean currents:
• Warm current increases precipitation in coastal areas of higher
latitude while cold current in tropical latitude results in dryness of
area. Example- cold Peru Current and dryness of Atacama Desert.
Impact of Rainfall Variation on Humans
• Agriculture and allied activities- selection of crop depends upon the
rainfall conditions in area. Plantation crops like rubber, palm oil tree
etc. are grown in equatorial regions.
o Wet crops like sugarcane, rice etc. are grown in tropical
regions where as dry crops like millet are grown in water
deficit regions.
o Commercial animal husbandry is practiced in grasslands of
Argentina and New-Zealand.
o Also, method of soil conservation for maintaining fertility of
soil also depend upon rainfall.
• Settlement- Settlements tend to be compact and clustered around
water source in dry regions example settlement around lakes in dry
regions. In wet areas settlement tends to be located on higher flood
plains to avoid periodic flooding.
• Industries- some industries like aluminum industry prefer to locate
in areas of high rainfall because of the easy availability of bauxite
which is formed because of leaching due to high rainfall.
• Disaster management- areas of high rainfall are vulnerable to
floods especially river flood planes during rainy season and coastal
areas during cyclones.
o On the other hand dry areas face frequent droughts. Rainfall
ensures surplus water in river and contribute to human
 development by providing a source of transportation and
power generation
Impact of Rainfall Variation on Vegetation-
• The areas of high rainfall have dense forests. As the rainfall decreases the
vegetation starts changing from dense forests to monsoon forests to
savannah and grasslands and finally into thorny desert type xerophytes. The
vegetation is also controlled by seasonal distribution of rainfall.
Equatorial rain forest Rainfall all around the year. 80 inches.
Monsoon forest Heavy summer rains. 60 inches
Desert vegetation Little rain, 5 inches.
Mediterranean forests and shrubs Winter rains 35 inches

Conclusion:
Rainfall patterns have changed and become more erratic in recent years as the
frequency of extreme events such as cyclones and droughts has increased due to
human-caused global warming and climate change.
Q12. How would you justify that vagaries in Indian monsoon are caused not
only due to meteorological factors but also anthropological factors.

Introduction:

The Indian Monsoon is extremely important in bringing rains to India, accounting for
more than 75% of the country's annual rainfall. Monsoon rain is critical to Indian
agriculture and thus to the Indian economy. The fate of the Kharif crops is
determined by the southwest Monsoon's performance. Human interference in the
natural landscape, as well as changes made to suit their needs (such as urbanisation,
industrialization, and so on), cause disruptions in the hydrological cycle of the
atmosphere.

Body:

Reasons behind variability of Indian monsoon due to meteorological factors:

• Variability in the monsoon is caused by several meteorological phenomena
such as variable Sea Surface Temperature (SSTs) leading to El-Nino, and La
Nina, shifting of ITCZ, movement of westerly Jetstream, differential heating
patterns of Tibetan plateau and Indian Ocean etc.
• El-Nino leads to weakening of Indian monsoon.
• La-Nina leads to more rains than normal years
• If ITCZ doesn’t establish fully above the Tibetan plateau, then monsoon
remains weak and abrupt changes occur
• Strength of monsoon also depends on the shifting of southern branch of the
westerly Jetstream to the north of the Himalayas. If the southern branch
doesn’t shift to the north of Himalayas, monsoon remains weak.
• South-west monsoon also depends on the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO)
wave for normal monsoon.
Impact on Indian monsoon due to man made changes
• Anthropogenic interventions are leading to excessive deforestation, increase
in pollution and pollutants, rise of built-up area, global warming, etc.
• Increased availability of pollutants and dust particles are leading to an
increase in the number of condensation nuclei, which in turn leads to the
urban regions receiving increased rainfall than the rural regions.
• Increased built up area allows increased heating of the surface. This increased
temperature causes more evaporation and further affects rain patterns
• Deforestation also creates an adverse impact on monsoon.
o Increased concretization leads to increased run-off and less water
percolation thereby affecting water cycle and disrupting monsoon
cycle.
 o The pressure differences which are vital for monsoonal precipitation
have been unbalanced and unpredictable
o High rise buildings cause variations in local wind patterns and alter
precipitation.
• Global warming
o Rise in sea level temperature etc. make the monsoon erratic and
unpredictable. They cause droughts in one region and floods in
another. Such extreme weather events have been on the rise primarily
due to human activities.
• Destruction of Wetlands
o Wetlands help in water purification, flood control, shoreline stability,
and act as a carbon sink. Destruction of wetlands such as lakes or ponds
in urban areas is one of the major reasons of irregular rain pattern in
big cities like Chennai or Srinagar.
• Concrete Use: Use of concrete in urban areas causes poor recharging of
groundwater and changes the hydrological cycle of environment which
ultimately disturbs the Monsoon system of India.
• Agriculture: Large scale use of chemicals and bore well irrigation in agriculture
also influences the hydrological cycle.
o Increasing irrigation using groundwater in North West India is leading
to pre-monsoon greening & wetter surface causes cooling that
weakens the strength of low pressure necessary for monsoons to
progress into northern India. while urban areas experiencing more
rainfall.
o Monsoon requires a warm, dry surface to advance but increased
irrigation leads to a wet, green area, which does not allow the
monsoon to reach far enough north.
• Creation of large dams in hilly areas which have changed the ecological flow
of rivers is also an example of man-made changes.
Conclusion:
Though other factors such as El Nino, cloud cover, and differential heating patterns
of the Tibetan plateau and Indian Ocean contribute to monsoon change, man-made
factors that are negatively impacting the Indian monsoon can be easily controlled.
Q13. By giving suitable examples discuss the interconnectedness of Global
Climate System.

Introduction:

The global climate system is an interactive system composed of five major

components: the atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, land surface, and biosphere,
all of which are forced or influenced by various external-forcing mechanisms.

There are three fundamental mechanisms that govern the Earth's climate and our
environment. These are: (a) solar heating of the planet balanced by energy loss to
space; (b) heating responses of the atmosphere, ocean, land, and ice that provide
feedbacks that either mitigate or accentuate planetary temperature changes; and (c)
regional environmental systems with innate patterns of climate variability dictated
by their unique physical-chemical-biological conditions.

These systems respond to the planetary energy balance and are found to be
interconnected. They interact with one another via teleconnections, such as:

• ENSO (El Nino Southern Oscillation), which is centred in the tropical Pacific,
governs the distribution of ocean surface temperatures and rainfall across the
tropics. ENSO can cause wildfires in Southeast Asia's normally wet tropical
rainforests and floods in western South America's deserts. Furthermore, it
spreads beyond the tropics via ocean and atmosphere teleconnections,
influencing weather as far north as Alaska and as far east as eastern Canada.
o ENSO has a significant impact on India as well. There is scientific
evidence that ENSO modulates the Indian monsoon, with less rain
during El Nino phases and more rain during La Nina phases.
• The PDO (Pacific Decadal Oscillation), a long-term ocean fluctuation (20-30
years) existing in the North Pacific also affects ocean temperatures as well as
atmospheric pressures causing droughts, flooding, hurricane activities, etc. It
is found that even rainfall in North-East India is dependent upon PDO, which
has resulted in deficit rainfall over the region in past few years.
• Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) is a northward flow of
warm salty water in the upper layers of the Atlantic Ocean and a southward
flow of cold fresh water at depth that helps in transporting a huge amount of
equatorial heat northwards. Its decadal variability is associated with many
regional and hemispheric-scale climate phenomena such as shifting in the
Inter Tropical Convergence Zone, summer monsoon in the Sahel region and
India, and hurricanes in the Atlantic. It also has impacts over ENSO, PDO and
North Atlantic Oscillation.
 • Madden Julian Oscillation (MJO), an oceanic-atmospheric phenomenon, most
prominent over the Indian and Pacific Oceans, which is defined as an eastward
moving 'pulse' of clouds, rainfall, winds and pressure near the equator that
typically recurs every 30 to 60 days affects weather activities across the globe.
It has been observed that the changes in MJO phases can result in
temperature and sea ice changes in the polar regions of both hemispheres.
• The glaciers and the sea-ice in the polar region have higher albedo than water
and land. Without them, Earth would absorb more solar radiation and the
climate would be even warmer. It has been found that the melting of ice
sheets and the consequent rise in sea level could affect the distribution of
mass on the Earth’s surface.

Conclusion:

Therefore, changes in a single climate component, for example, temperature of

anomalous ocean current; or drift speed of continents; amount of insolation; or
natural phenomenon like volcanic eruptions; or anthropological factor like global
warming can influence the global climate system because of its interconnectedness.
Q14. Discuss how the Tibetan plateau plays vital role in the monsoon system
over Indian subcontinent.

Introduction:

Monsoon winds are seasonal winds that change direction twice a year. The Indian
monsoon is a complex system that is influenced by a variety of factors, one of which
is the Tibetan Plateau. The Tibetan plateau is a massive block of high ground that
acts as a formidable wind barrier.

The role of Tibetan Plateau in influencing Indian Monsoon can be seen as

following:

• Onset of South-West Monsoon:

o Indian subcontinent is hot enough by the end of April but the onset of
Monsoon usually occurs after June after the summer time heating of
Tibetan Plateau.
o Tibetan Plateau receives 2-3 degree more insolation than the
neighbouring areas thus creating a low-pressure region, which gets
coupled with the Mascarene High pressure area in the Indian Ocean.
o Also, the heating of air above Tibet Plateau also weakens the western
subtropical jet stream south of the Himalayas with the resultant
northward displacement of the jet stream from India. The Monsoon
does not set it foot in India until the summer time Jet Stream
disappears from India.
o This starts a clockwise cyclic air circulation rising up from the Tibetan
Plateau which divides into two separate streams near tropopause. This
is how the easterly jet stream originates which begins to settle down
over the equatorial part of the Indian Ocean.
o Inversely, when this hot jet stream blows over the Indian subcontinent,
it pulls up the surface air and creates a very low pressure there.
o To fill this low pressure, winds from the high-pressure area of Arabian
Sea begin to blow towards the north-east direction.
o This circulation finally approaches the west coast of India as a return
current from a south westerly direction and is termed as equatorial
westerlies.
o It picks up moisture from the Indian Ocean and causes rainfall in India
and adjoining countries.

• North-east Monsoon:
 o During winter, Tibetan Plateau cools rapidly and produces a high-
pressure cell i.e. an anticyclonic condition is established. The high-
pressure cell over Tibet strengthens N-E monsoons.
Conclusion:
As a result of its summertime heating and cooling in September and October, the
Tibetan Plateau influences the withdrawal of Westerly Jet Streams and the onset of
Easterly Jet Streams, which play a critical role in the Indian Monsoon system.
Q15. In the contemporary geopolitical situation, where the threat of war is
indeclinable the crisis of energy security on Europe signals that how the
situation can turn in to worse for any nation. This brings in to notice the
potential of trusted Tidal energy to cater with the issue?

Introduction:

Fossil fuel shortages are heightening the need for renewable alternatives like wave
energy. A combination of factors is pushing prices for oil, gas and coal higher, leading
to a global energy crisis. The world’s recovery from COVID-19 has fuelled demand for
energy, but supplies have faltered. Lower coal production in China, low investment in
oil production in the US and declining gas production in Europe are among the
causes. There have also been global transport bottlenecks.

Now the conflict in Ukraine is pushing oil prices to new highs over supply disruption
fears. Against this backdrop, the reliability of wave energy is a big attraction. While
wind and solar energy are unpredictable, waves are reliably frequent and harbour
more energy than other renewables.

Advantages of Tidal energy:

• Benefit of tidal power is that it is predictable. The gravitational forces of

celestial bodies are not going to stop anytime soon.
• As high and low tide is cyclical, it is far easier for engineers to design
efficient systems, than say, predicting when the wind will blow or when
the sun will shine
• Tidal power is also relatively prosperous at low speeds, in contrast to wind
power. Water has one thousand times higher density than air and tidal
turbines can generate electricity at speeds as low as 1m/s, or 2.2mph. In
contrast, most wind turbines begin generating electricity at 3m/s-4m/s, or
7mph-9mph.
• Technological advances in the industry will only drive cheaper and more
sustainable tidal power solutions.
• Tidal power plants can last much longer than wind or solar farms, at
around four times the longevity.
• Ocean power is not currently on track to play its part in helping the world
reach carbon neutrality by 2050, the International Energy Agency (IEA)
says in its Ocean Power tracking report. To achieve this goal, ocean power
generation needs to grow an average of 33% a year between 2020 and
2030.
However, there are certain limitations in extracting tidal energy, because of which it
has not been exploited to its fullest. The limitations are as follow:

• There are undoubtedly challenges to harnessing this renewable energy.

Building and operating wave energy plants is generally expensive.
• Cables, turbines and other infrastructure could potentially harm marine
life.
• There are few places in the world which are endowed with high tides as
well as location to construct dams/barrages at the same location.
• Lack of commercialization of the available technologies.
• Location limits
• The variable intensity of sea waves

Conclusion:

Waves have the highest energy density of renewable energy sources, compared to
others like wind, solar, biomass and geothermal. This means waves have the greatest
potential to be an important contributor to the world’s “energy mix resilience
“Marine technologies hold great potential, but additional policy support for energy
research, development and demonstration is needed,” the IEA says.