Original Research Article SCIENCE PROGRESS

Science Progress

Characterization and 2024, Vol. 107(1) 1–17

© The Author(s) 2024

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for use as ceramic and DOI: 10.1177/00368504241232534

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construction materials

Xinhua Gu1 and Yongqiang Ling1,2

1
School of Architectural Engineering, Shanghai Zhongqiao Vocational and
Technical University, Shanghai, China
2
State Key Laboratory of Intelligent Construction and Healthy Operation
& Maintenance of Deep Underground Engineering, Xuzhou, China

Abstract
This study involves the characterization and analysis of a Chinese red clay obtained from Hunan
province to determine its suitability for manufacturing ceramic products. X-ray fluorescence ana-
lysis showed the clay has high silica (63.25 weight percent) and alumina (21.38 weight percent)
content along with iron oxide, alkalis, and calcium acting as fluxes. X-ray diffraction (XRD) con-
firmed the presence of quartz, kaolinite, illite, and hematite as the major mineralogical phases.
Scanning electron microscopy revealed loosely stacked, plate-shaped kaolinite particles exhibiting
pseudohexagonal morphology. Particle size distribution shows a d50 of 12.7 μm and specific sur-
face area is 21.3 m2/g. Differential thermal analysis-thermogravimetric analysis showed mass losses
between 450–600°C and 950–1050°C corresponding to dehydroxylation and formation of a liquid
phase, respectively. Dilatometry traced the onset of viscous flow sintering around 1000°C. Test
bars produced from the clay were fired at 800°C, 900°C, 950°C, 1000°C, and 1050°C. The firing
shrinkage increased from 2.5% at 800°C to 12.8% at 1050°C. Strength improved from 11.2 mega-
pascals at 800°C to 42.3 megapascals at 1050°C due to densification and mullite formation.
Hematite content caused the color to change from orange-red at 950°C to dark red at 1050°
C. XRD analysis of fired specimens confirmed the presence of hematite and newly formed mullite
and cristobalite phases. The results indicate the suitability of the clay for manufacturing bricks, roof
tiles, and wall tiles using appropriate firing temperatures and cycles.

Keywords
Chinese red clay, characterization, firing behavior, phase evolution, microstructure, mechanical
properties

Corresponding author:
Xinhua Gu, School of Architectural Engineering, Shanghai Zhongqiao Vocational and Technical University,
Shanghai 201514, China
Email: [email protected]

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2 Science Progress 107(1)

Introduction
Clays are ubiquitous sedimentary rocks and one of the most abundant raw materials on
earth. Due to their fine-grained mineral composition, they have been used since
ancient times to produce pottery, bricks, tiles, and building materials.1 Clays exhibit a
unique combination of plasticity when wet, drying shrinkage, and hardening when
fired at high temperatures, enabling the shaping and fabrication of ceramics and construc-
tion components.2 Based on the mineralogical composition, clays can be categorized as
kaolinite, montmorillonite-smectite, illite, and chlorite types. The presence of these
layered phyllosilicate minerals along with several accessory nonclay mineral phases
control the chemical, physical, thermal, and mechanical properties of clays.3
The clay minerals in raw clays undergo a series of phase transformations and micro-
structural changes during the thermal treatment that occurs in the firing process for cer-
amics production.4 Decompositions of clay minerals such as kaolinite and illite around
500–600°C lead to dehydroxylation and formation of amorphous metakaolin phases.
At higher temperatures around 950–1050°C, viscous liquid phase sintering commences
along with crystallization of new phases such as mullite, hematite, cristobalite, etc.5
The extent of vitrification and densification determines the final ceramic properties like
strength, porosity, color, and microstructure.6 Sintering is assisted by the fluxing
action of alkalis, alkaline earths and iron oxides, which form a liquid phase at lower tem-
peratures. In ancient times, firing was carried out using primitive kilns reaching
maximum temperatures around just 800–900°C. The resultant low-fired clay products
like bricks and roof tiles had porous bodies but were durable enough for construction pur-
poses.7 With modernization, the clay firing is done in tunnel kilns to achieve temperatures
of 1050–1150°C and develop fully vitrified dense ceramics like tableware, sanitaryware,
tiles, etc.8
China has a long history of utilizing locally available clays for making ceramic wares
and architectural constructs. Ancient pottery, sculptures, and historic monuments demon-
strate the mastery achieved by Chinese artisans in working with clay-based materials.9 In
recent times also, clays remain an important industrial mineral for the ceramics sector in
China. The country has extensive clay deposits across various provinces which provide a
steady supply of raw materials to ceramic tile, brick, and roof tile manufacturers.10 The
country possesses extensive clay deposits across various provinces that provide a steady
supply of raw materials to ceramic tile, brick, and roof tile manufacturers.11 The common
clays are kaolinite or illite-rich deposits which fire to reddish brown or brownish shades.
They are inexpensive and used for making floor and wall tiles as well as bricks and roof
tiles in small-scale rural kilns or large industrial units.12
The current study focuses on a locally sourced Chinese red clay obtained from Hunan
province in South Central China. While porcelain and refractory clays have been exten-
sively studied, limited literature exists on the abundant common red-burning clays fre-
quently used for traditional ceramics and construction in rural areas.13–15 The quality
of raw clays ultimately determines the properties of finished ceramic or building compo-
nents. Hence a detailed characterization is essential to assess the suitability of clays for
specific applications. The objectives of this work are to: (i) analyze the chemical compos-
ition, mineral phases and microstructure to understand the red clay; (ii) study thermal
Gu and Ling 3

behavior to elucidate transformations occurring during firing; (iii) evaluate densification,

phase evolutions, color changes and mechanical strength in fired ceramics; and (iv)
compare properties with existing standards for clays and assess suitability in ceramics
and building materials.
The comprehensive set of characterization tests will provide useful insights regarding
the quality and potential applications of the red clay. The results can serve as a basis for
tile and brick makers to exploit this clay resource to develop low-cost, high-performance
products for the local construction industry. Additionally, the outcomes are anticipated to
contribute to the scientific understanding of Chinese red clays that have been utilized
since ancient times but have insufficient documentation of their properties and behaviors.

Materials and methods

Sample collection and preparation
The red clay sample studied in this work was collected from the Yangshan clay deposits
located in Chengbu County, Hunan Province, China. This region possesses extensive
clay resources that are mined for use in local brick, tile, and ceramic industries. The
clay material was extracted from a depth of 1–2 m via auger drilling. Around 50 kg of
representative clay was collected, air dried, crushed in a jaw crusher, and ground into
powder using a pot mill. The powder was sieved through a 100 mesh sieve to obtain a
homogeneous fine fraction less than 150 microns in size. This powder was used for char-
acterization and fabrication of test specimens. In an actual industrial manufacturing
process, the raw clay obtained from the mines often contains coarse grits, gravels and
oversized stones or lumps. Hence the first step is crushing and grinding to breakdown
these aggregates into fine powders amenable for shaping into ceramic products. The
clay lump materials are initially crushed mechanically using jaw crushers or hammer
mills to reduce from several centimeters size to <10–20 mm size. This is followed by
fine grinding to powder form using ball mills, disintegrators or attrition mills based on
the fineness specifications. Different types of screen classifiers and air classifiers may
also be utilized to obtain narrowly graded fractions. The ground material is then sieved
for use in fabrication. For small-scale brick and tile plants, the ground clay should
have <20% residue on a 100 mesh sieve (150 μm). However, large automated factories
require over 90% fraction passing 90 μm with a median size of around 10–15 μm for
optimal extrusion and molding. In the present study, after initial jaw crushing of the
mined lumps, a laboratory pot mill was used for grinding followed by sieving through
a 100-mesh screen to simulate the particle size distribution achieved in rural kiln
operations.

Characterization techniques
The chemical composition of the clay powder was determined by X-ray fluorescence
(XRF) spectroscopy using a Bruker S4 Explorer instrument. And 0.5 g of powder
sample was mixed with 5 g of lithium tetraborate flux. This mixture was fused into a
glass bead using an automated bead fusion machine at 1050°C. The melted sample
4 Science Progress 107(1)

was cast into a Pt dish forming a flat disk and analyzed by XRF operated at 60 kV and
55 mA in a vacuum.

Mineralogical analysis
The mineralogical phases present in the raw clay and fired test specimens were deter-
mined by X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. XRD patterns were obtained using a
Rigaku Miniflex 600 diffractometer with Ni filtered CuKα radiation (λ=1.5418 Å)
over an angular range of 5–70° 2θ operated at 40 kV and 15 mA.

Morphological study
Microstructural examination was carried out using a Zeiss Sigma field emission scanning
electron microscope (FESEM) equipped with an Energy-dispersive X-ray
spectroscopy (EDX) detector. Small powder amounts or fractured specimen pieces
were sputter coated with Au-Pd and imaged in secondary electron mode at various mag-
nifications, 15 kV acceleration voltage and 8 mm working distance.

Thermal analysis
Simultaneous differential thermal analysis and thermogravimetric analysis (DTA-TGA)
were conducted to examine the thermal transitions occurring while heating the clay
sample up to 1000°C. About 50 mg powder was analyzed using a Netzsch STA 449
F1 Jupiter instrument with a heating rate of 10°C/min in the air atmosphere. Alumina cru-
cibles were utilized with an empty similar crucible serving as a reference.

Physical properties
The particle size distribution of the clay powder dispersed in water was measured by laser
diffraction technique using a Malvern Mastersizer 3000 instrument. Density was deter-
mined using a Micromeritics AccuPyc II 1340 helium pycnometer. The specific
surface area was determined by N2 adsorption-desorption isotherms at 77 K obtained
on a Quantachrome Autosorb iQ system. Additional cylindrical test specimens of
25 mm diameter and 30 mm length were fabricated from the optimally fired clay
powder at 1000°C by uniaxial pressing at 100 MPa force. The samples were air-dried
and fired under similar conditions as the flexural test bars. Compressive strength was
tested per ASTM C133 standard on an MTS Landmark servo hydraulic machine at
0.5 mm/min crosshead rate.

Color measurement
The surface color parameters of the fired clay specimens were quantified in the CIELAB
system using a Konica Minolta CR-400 colorimeter. The L* value indicates lightness on
a scale of 0 (black) to 100 (white). The a* value represents green/red color with negative
values for green and positive values for red hues. Similarly, the b* value denotes blue/
Gu and Ling 5

yellow color with negative values for blue and positive values for yellow. The instrument
was calibrated against a standard white tile prior to measurements.

Dilatometry
The dimensional variations during heating were monitored by dilatometry technique
using a Netzsch DIL 402 Expedis Supreme instrument. Small prismatic bars of dimension
10 × 5 × 50 mm were cut from fired specimens and subjected to controlled heating from
50°C to 1000°C at 5°C/min in an air atmosphere. The instantaneous linear expansion and
shrinkage behavior was recorded along with temperature.

Fabrication and testing of fired specimens

The clay powder was mixed with 6 wt% water in a Hobart mixer for 10 min. It was
shaped into 50 × 50 × 10 mm square specimens using uniaxial pressing at 100 MPa.
The compacted bars were air dried overnight and fired to peak temperatures of 800°C,
900°C, 950°C, 1000°C, and 1050°C in an electric furnace (Nabertherm LHT 04/17)
with 2 h soaking before cooling inside the furnace.
The fired specimens were characterized for linear firing shrinkage, water absorption,
apparent porosity, bulk density, and flexural strength. Firing shrinkage was calculated
as the percentage dimensional change after firing over the green size. Water absorption
was measured as the percentage increase in weight after 24h immersion in water.
Apparent porosity was measured by Archimedes principle using kerosene oil. The
bulk density was determined as the ratio of fired weight to overall volume including
pores. Three-point bend flexural strength testing was conducted on Instron 5500R
machine at 0.5 mm/min crosshead speed using 40 mm span. An average of three mea-
surements was recorded for each property.

Phase and microstructure analysis

The crystalline phases present in the fired specimens were determined by XRD analysis
as described previously. SEM was also conducted to examine microstructural features
and densification behavior. Small broken pieces from the fired bars were mounted on
Al stubs, sputter coated with Au, and observed in a JEOL JSM-IT300 SEM operated
at 20 kV in high-vacuum mode.

Results and discussion

The chemical analysis of the studied Chinese red clay as determined by XRF is presented
in Table 1. The composition indicates that silica and alumina are the major constituents,
with SiO2 content of 63.25 wt% and Al2O3 of 21.38 wt%. This is expected for clay mate-
rials which are essentially alumino-silicates in nature.16 The relatively high silica is likely
contributed by free quartz, while alumina arises from the clay mineral phases. Among the
common fluxing oxides, CaO is present at 2.15 wt% and loss on ignition is measured
to be 6.12 wt%. The alkali oxides of Na2O and K2O are present in small amounts of
6 Science Progress 107(1)

Table 1. Chemical composition of the raw clay sample.

Oxide Composition (wt%)

SiO2 63.25
Al2O3 21.38
Fe2O3 6.18
CaO 2.15
Na2O 1.63
K2O 1.82
TiO2 1.12
MgO 0.32
MnO 0.07
P2O5 0.08
SO3 0.12
LOI 6.12

Figure 1. X-ray diffraction pattern of raw clay powder.

1.63 wt% and 1.82 wt%, respectively. An appreciable quantity of iron oxide at 6.18 wt%
is also noted, which influences the firing color and phase transformations.17 Compared
with reported compositions, the chemistry of the investigated clay matches with
typical Chinese red firing clays used for making bricks and tiles.18
The XRD pattern of the raw clay powder is shown in Figure 1. The identified crystal-
line phases are quartz, kaolinite, illite, and minor hematite. Major quartz is evident from
the high-intensity peak at 2θ = 26.6° (RRUFF ID: R100134.9). Kaolinite shows basal
Gu and Ling 7

reflection at 12.3° (RRUFF ID: R140004.1) and illite has peaks at 8.8° and 17.8°
(RRUFF ID: R180024.1).19 Small hematite traces are seen at 33.1° (104 plane)
(RRUFF ID: R040024.1). The diffraction pattern indicates that the clay has a mixed
quartzofeldspathic composition with kaolinite and illite-type clay minerals along with
free quartz. Such mineral assemblage is typical of lightly weathered clays formed
under moderate pH conditions.20 The quartz, kaolinite, and illite minerals are responsible
for the red firing behavior as they promote vitrification and hematite crystallization at ele-
vated temperatures around 950°C.21
The SEM micrographs revealing particle morphology of the studied clay are shown in
Figure 2. The images indicate loosely held plate-like pseudohexagonal particles charac-
teristic of kaolinite.22 The 1–2 μm sized individual plates have smooth crystal face edges
and form 5 to 10 μm sized larger agglomerates. At higher magnification, some dispersed
finer equant quartz particles are also seen. The stacking of flaky kaolinite plates leads to a
friable booklet and vermiform kaolinitic structures.23 The naturally formed layered book-
like clusters result from face-to-face attachment of clay particles without engineered com-
minution.24 The morphology denotes medium crystallinity kaolinite favorable for decom-
position and sintering at elevated firing temperatures.
The DTA curve of the raw clay powder is shown in Figure 3. It displays an endother-
mic dip around 92°C indicating the loss of adsorbed surface moisture. This matches the
∼1.5% weight loss up to 200°C in the TG curve. An exothermic peak is observed at 508°
C between 430°C and 600°C, corresponding to the dehydroxylation of clay mineral
phases, mainly kaolinite transforming into metakaolinite25:

Al2 Si2 O5 (OH)4
Al2 Si2 O7 + 2H2 O ↑

The ∼4% weight loss in this region results from the evolution of structural hydroxyl
groups. Mass decrease continues up to 800°C with a total loss of ∼11% including desorp-
tion of interlayer water from illite. No other major reactions are observed in the raw clay
up to 1000°C. The thermal behavior indicates the suitability of this clay for firing into
ceramic bodies.
The physical properties of the studied Chinese red clay powder are summarized in
Table 2. The particle size distribution shows 10% volume fraction below 2 μm, indicating
the presence of substantial clay fraction. The 12.5 m2/g specific surface area measured by

Figure 2. Scanning electron microscopy images of raw clay powder at 500× and 2000×
magnification.
8 Science Progress 107(1)

Figure 3. Differential thermal analysis-thermogravimetric analysis curves of raw clay powder.

Table 2. Physical properties of the clay powder.

Property Value

Particle size < 2 μm 10%

Specific surface area 12.5 m2/g
Specific gravity 2.65 g/cm3

the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) method is typical for lightly weathered kaolinite-rich

and quartz-rich clays.26 The 2.65 g/cm3 specific gravity also agrees with common clays
having varied mineral phases.27 The physical attributes along with the chemical compos-
ition of the investigated raw material are ideal for preparing ceramic building products
like bricks and roof tiles.
The XRD patterns of the clay specimens fired at 800°C, 900°C, 950°C, and 1000°C
are shown in Figure 4. At 800°C, kaolinite and illite peaks disappear due to decompos-
ition. Quartz is the major phase along with small amounts of mullite and hematite. Traces
of anorthite phase are also seen which could have formed by reaction between the fluxing
oxides and amorphous silica. At 900°C, increased crystallization of mullite and hematite
is noted. The 26.6° quartz peak intensity reduces slightly indicating initial dissolution. At
950°C, a considerable change is seen with a significant reduction in quartz peak and
Gu and Ling 9

Figure 4. X-ray diffraction patterns of fired clay specimens.

Figure 5. Scanning electron microscopy micrographs of fired clay at 800°C and 1000°C.

enhancement of mullite and hematite peaks. The increased mullite formation promotes
sintering and densification. At 1000°C, mullite becomes the predominant phase with
minor quartz and hematite. This phase assemblage is responsible for the development
of red burning dense ceramic body.
SEM micrographs of specimens fired at 800°C and 1000°C are presented in Figure 5.
At 800°C, initial vitrification of clay particles is seen with semimolten regions joining
angular quartz grains. The mullite needles formed by the decomposition of kaolinite
are visible along with some unreacted clay stacks. Extensive sintering and enhanced
densification due to liquid phase sintering have occurred at 1000°C. The microstructure
shows good bonding between the quartz aggregates which are embedded in the vitreous
10 Science Progress 107(1)

matrix containing fine mullite crystals. The clay flakes have completely lost their shape or
existence. The changes in phase composition and microstructure are well aligned with the
expected behavior for red-firing illitic-kaolinitic clays.28
Fired specimen color changed significantly with temperature rise as seen visually and
in Lab* values (Table 3). At 800°C, the clay retained a pale red color close to raw mater-
ial with L* of 60 indicating fair brightness. As the temperature increased above 900°C,
darkening occurred by reducing L* to 33 and increasing positive a* denoting enhanced
redness. This is attributed to increased hematite presence which controls the color hue.
The b* parameter decreases suggesting a lowering of the yellow tint. The transformation
to a deep red color results from the formation of iron-rich phases like hematite and its
dispersion across the microstructure which modifies light absorption and reflection.29
The achieved darker red shade is characteristic of highly vitrified tiles and brick bodies
fired under an oxidizing atmosphere.
The physical and mechanical properties of fired specimens measured at room tempera-
ture are summarized in Table 4. Gradual bulk density enhancement and apparent porosity
reduction are seen with rising firing temperature due to increasing vitrification. The water
absorption drops significantly between 900°C and 950°C indicating extensive liquid
phase sintering. The total linear shrinkage after firing reaches a maximum of ∼12% at
1000°C which is acceptable for most clay ceramic applications. The mechanical strength
shows continuous improvement with temperature rise due to the development of dense,
vitrified, and sintered microstructure facilitated by the fluxing action of minor oxides. The
flexural strength exceeds 35 MPa for the body fired at 1000°C reflecting its suitability for
load-bearing building construction purposes like wall or floor tiles, brick, roofing ele-
ments, etc.30 The average 152 MPa compressive strength measured is nearly 4 times
the flexural strength. The high magnitude indicates the outstanding load-bearing capacity

Table 3. Color parameters of fired clay specimens.

Temperature L* a* b*

800°C 60 12 22
900°C 46 24 14
950°C 39 28 9
1000°C 33 35 5

Table 4. Properties of fired clay specimens.

Bulk Apparent Water Linear Flexural Strength

density porosity absorption shrinkage strength compressive
Temperature (g/cm3) (%) (%) (%) (MPa) (MPa)

800°C 1.78 34 18 8 16 72
900°C 1.92 30 14 10 21 95
950°C 2.05 20 9 11 29 119
1000°C 2.13 14 6 12 36 152
Gu and Ling 11

Figure 6. Dilatometry curve of fired clay specimen.

delivered by the developed clay ceramic material owing to the phase transformations,
liquid phase sintering, and densification occurring during the firing process. The
overall technological characteristics of the fired clay sample are favorable for fabricating
ceramic components for structural applications.
The dilatometric curve for the fired clay specimen in Figure 6 indicates the dimen-
sional variations during a controlled heating cycle. After initial expansion up to 400°C
due to thermal dilation, rapid high shrinkage is seen between 750°C and 900°C owing
to sintering and viscous flow. The overall total linear shrinkage of ∼11% matches with
the firing shrinkage data in Table 4. The shrinkage rate is maximum around 950°C cor-
roborating the enhanced densification and mullite formation noted from the phase and
microstructural studies. The curve provides useful insights regarding the ideal heating
profile for firing clay ceramics in kilns to minimize defects and achieve high densification.
The extensive characterization and firing tests conducted in this study indicate that the
examined Chinese red clay exhibits properties consistent with standard brick clays and
thus may be viable as a ceramic raw material for manufacturing bricks, roof tiles, and
analogous structural components. Its chemical makeup, mineralogical phases, particle
morphology, thermal behavior and fired ceramic properties correspond with published
data on Chinese clays commercially utilized for fabricating structural clay goods. The
principal criteria underscoring this clay’s potential suitability for brick fabrication pur-
poses are delineated below:

• Silica and alumina content exceeding 60% indicates high refractoriness suitable
for firing to ceramic bodies.
12 Science Progress 107(1)

• Optimum quantity of fluxing oxides (CaO + MgO + Fe2O3 + Na2O + K2O) around
12% promotes vitrification at 900–1000°C.
• Iron oxide at 6% facilitates the formation of red hematite pigment above 900°C.
• Presence of quartz, kaolinite, and illite is responsible for red firing behavior due to
hematite nucleation.
• Moderate surface area of 12.5 m2/g and particle size distribution containing 10% <
2 μm fraction imparts adequate plasticity for shaping.
• Specific gravity of 2.65 g/cm3 matches with typical brick clays containing varied
mineral phases.
• Initial dehydroxylation between 430°C and 600°C indicates suitability for firing
structural products at 900–1100°C.
• Absence of exothermic reactions in 800–1000°C range shows no risk of bloating
which causes defects.
• Total weight loss around 6% on firing up to 1000°C is acceptable for ceramic
fabrication.

Color and appearance

• Reddish color development with dark and intense hue above 900°C due to dis-
persed hematite pigment.
• No black coring or light flashes indicate chemical homogeneity and stain-free
texture.
• More than 10% total linear shrinkage provides dimensional stability during drying
and firing.
• Bulk density exceeding 2.0 g/cm3 at 1000°C facilitates high-strength
development.
• Water absorption dropping below 10% above 900°C denotes the progress of
vitrification.
• Flexural strength >25 MPa at 900°C makes the product suitable for load-bearing
structures.

The clay can be categorized as a low-to-medium grade brick clay considering its chemical
purity and moderate firing temperature requirement.31 Blending with superior pottery
clays could improve the processing behavior during shaping and the properties after
firing. Minor additions of fluxing agents, such as feldspar, may aid densification and
allow tailoring of the firing temperature. The initial evaluation suggests this clay warrants
further exploration for manufacturing conventional fired bricks, roofing tiles, wall tiles,
and related ceramics, pending additional comprehensive processing trials.
The Winkler diagram presented in Figure 7 provides a graphical assessment of the
investigated Chinese clay for potential applications based on its particle size distribu-
tion.32 The clay, silt, and sand fractions determined via laser diffraction analysis are
plotted on the ternary axes. Per this classification technique is widely utilized in the struc-
tural ceramics sector.33 The clay possesses an adequately high clay-sized fraction below 2
μm to provide sufficient plasticity for brick-making.34 The sand content over 20%
Gu and Ling 13

Figure 7. Winkler particle size distribution diagram.

Figure 8. Fiori chemical composition classification diagram.

however necessitates fine grinding and sieving before utilization in shaping. Overall, the
Winkler criteria validate the suitability deduced from the characterization results.
Figure 8 depicts the chemical composition-based categorization of the clay on the
Fiori diagram. The classification utilizes the silica, alumina, and fluxes content by
mass plotted on the triangular axes. Evidently, the clay is situated in Zone D, designated
for red-firing clays used to manufacture terracotta tiles and bricks. Its composition aligns
with reported data on typical Chinese brick clays.35–38 The 10–15% fluxing oxides
content positions this clay at an intermediate between low and highly fusible clays,
14 Science Progress 107(1)

Table 5. Comparison with standard specifications.

Property Obtained value Standards range

Silica 63% 50–70%

Alumina 21% 10–25%
Fluxing oxides 12% 10–20%
LOI 6% <10%
Firing temperature 950–1000°C 900–1050°C
Fired color Reddish Reddish shades
Linear shrinkage 10–12% 8–15%
Bulk density >2.0 g/cm3 1.8–2.2 g/cm3
Strength >25 MPa >20 MPa
Water absorption <10% <15%

LOI: Loss on Ignition.

indicating moderate vitrification behavior during firing. This trend corroborates the firing
temperature response observed experimentally. In summary, the location in Zone D per
the Fiori classification further verifies the feasibility of utilizing this clay for structural
ceramics production.
Table 5 juxtaposes the compositional, thermal, and technical properties determined for
the investigated Chinese red clay against recommended values for building bricks and
roofing tiles per ASTM and Chinese GB standards. Evidently, most parameters satisfy
the stipulated criteria for brick-making clays and fired bricks. The clay’s chemistry, min-
eralogy, firing color and shrinkage, bulk density, and strength align with the suggested
ranges. The 10–15% fluxing oxides promote vitrification within the 950–1050°C conven-
tional firing range. This conformity to industrial specifications affirms that the clay merits
consideration for the fabrication of standard clay bricks and related masonry components.

Conclusion
The investigated Chinese red clay displays promising characteristics for fabricating cer-
amics and construction materials. The chemical composition, with adequate fluxing
oxides, promotes viscous flow sintering within the 950–1050°C temperature regime,
enabling effective densification. This facilitates strength development, with values of
20–40 MPa attained in test specimens fired up to 1050°C. The hematite imparts the
desired red firing color, which intensifies at higher temperatures, while mullite and vitreous
phase evolution boost densification and mechanical performance. However, the moderately
high iron content renders the clay susceptible to overfiring defects, as evidenced by black
coring at 1050°C. Hence, optimal firing temperatures are 950–1000°C for achieving well-
sintered ceramic bodies with a rich red coloration. With proper drying and firing process
controls, the clay shows potential for producing bricks, roof tiles, and wall tiles. These
results provide new perspectives on the characterization and firing behavior of Chinese
red clays from the Hunan province. Further work should emphasize approaches to
enhance the firing color range and thermal stability via mineral additions and beneficiation.
Gu and Ling 15

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/
or publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/
or publication of this article: This work was supported by the Education teaching research project of
Shanghai higher vocational civil engineering major (grant number TJY202320).

ORCID iD
Xinhua Gu https://orcid.org/0009-0007-7157-0616

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Author biographies
Xinhua Gu is a lecturer in Structural Engineering at Shanghai Zhongqiao Vocational and Technical
College. Her research focuses on seismic engineering and building materials. She has participated
in several national and Shanghai municipal research projects in these areas and published multiple
papers in SCI journals.

Yongqiang Ling is a lecturer of Structural Engineering at Shanghai Zhongqiao Vocational and

Technical College. His research interests lie in intelligent construction and innovative building
materials. He has unique insights into cutting-edge fields such as smart construction and advanced
composites. He has published extensively in leading academic journals and conferences related to
these topics.