YOKSAMON - 2020 - Thai Street Food in The Fast Growing Global Food Tourism Industry - Preference and Behaviors of Food Tourists

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Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 45 (2020) 641–655
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Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhtm
Thai street food in the fast growing global food tourism industry:
Preference and behaviors of food tourists
Yoksamon Jeaheng a, Heesup Han b, *
a
Suratthani Rejabhat University, 272 Moo 9 Surat-Nasan Road, Khun Taleay, Muang Surat Thani, 84100, Thailand
b
College of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Sejong University, 98 Gunja-Dong, Gwanjin-Gu, Republic of Korea
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: The interest in street foods is increasing. Hence, many tourism destinations are exerting effort to identify initial
Thai street foods needs and understand the reasons why street foods are capturing the interest of tourists. This study was designed
Food tourism to identify the attributes of street foods and test them on tourist behavior by applying qualitative and quanti
Satisfaction

tative methods. Firstly, in-depth interviews were conducted with 22 respondents including 14 international
Attitude
Attachment
tourists, six professional tour guides and two street food business owners. Second step, a total of 475 effective
Loyalty survey questionnaires with non-probability convenience sampling of international tourists was used to conduct;
the 45 attributes of Thai street foods were identified and grouped into 9 dimensions; namely, cultural and local
experiences, menu and atmosphere, staff service, core food quality, value for money, product attractiveness, staff
proficiency, packaging and portions, and tradition and authenticity. Results indicated that the attributes were
positively significant in predicting tourist behaviors. This study also investigated the moderating role of the
perceived risks of consuming Thai street foods and found that this variable is a potential moderator. Implications
related to the study were examined to perform the factors of street food that significantly influence on tourist
post-purchase behaviors and can be boost tourist intention.
1. Introduction traditional values by using local resources, contributing to local econ

omies and maintaining a sustainable tourism system (Ellis et al., 2018;
Over the past decades, food tourism has become as a dominant trend Henderson et al., 2012). Street foods experience challenges and oppor

in global traveler’s interest (Choe & Kim, 2018). More than one-third of tunities to increase the long-term sustainability at tourist destinations.
tourism expenditures are spent on food (Henderson, Yun, Poon, & Biwei, Moreover, street foods have been used as a tourism tool in many desti

2012). Food is a major component of a travel experience, and it is a part nations and are even regulated in some Asian countries, such as
of travel activities (Lai, 2020; Lee, Chua, & Han, 2020; Lee, Han, Radic, Thailand, Taiwan, Singapore, Korea, Hong Kong, and Vietnam (Ab
& Tariq, 2020). Previous research has confirmed that food and dining Karim & Chi, 2010; Choi, Lee, & Ok, 2013; Chavarria &
are major elements considered by tourists when traveling and choosing Phakdee-auksorn, 2017). In Southeast Asia, street foods have become an
destinations (Ab Karim & Chi, 2010; Choe & Kim, 2018; Mak, Lumbers, essential part of the tourism and hospitality industries because a tourist
Eves, & Chang, 2012). Tourists eat the local cuisine in a tourism desti attraction represents the local culture and the way of life of local people

nation to fulfil their travel experiences (Choe & Kim, 2018; Vesci & (Henderson, 2019, pp. 45–57; Henderson et al., 2012). Given the
Botti, 2019). Travelers acquire new knowledge and understanding of the aforementioned reasons, several destinations are focusing on street
traditional local and regional culture of a destination, which are valu foods as an upcoming tourism product.

able in relation to destination image and future tourist intention (Ellis, In the past, scholars have indicated that food (Ab Karim & Chi, 2010;
Park, Kim, & Yeoman, 2018; Kuhzady, Cadici, Olya, Mohajer, & Han, Tsai & Wang, 2017) and street food (Henderson et al., 2012) are the core
2020). Accordingly, several tourism destinations have emphasized food of tourists’ motivation and the main component of tourists’
activities and created gastronomic/culinary experiences to attract in decision-making processes to traveling. For exciple, Henderson et al.

ternational visitors. (2012) found that street food centers played a significant role in Sin

Street foods combine the authentic culture of the local people and the gapore’s tourist attractions. Street food has long been understood as an
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Y. Jeaheng), [email protected] (H. Han).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2020.11.001
Received 2 June 2020; Received in revised form 5 November 2020; Accepted 7 November 2020
Available online 22 November 2020
1447-6770/© 2020 The Authors.
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Y. Jeaheng and H. Han Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 45 (2020) 641–655
important issue related to the tourist’s desire to travel. However, street variety of tourism resources, including scenic landscapes for traveling,
food attributes and the influence of its through tourists behavior remain rich historical sites, diverse cuisines, hospitable locals, and all-year-
unexplored. Furthermore, limiting studies were empirically investigated round tourism activities (Kiatkawsin & Han, 2017). The Tourism Au

local street food. Hence, understanding the future prospects of street thority of Thailand (TAT) reported that approximately 326 billion baht,
foods and tourist behavior toward them is crucial. Accordingly, the or roughly 20% of Thailand’s total tourism revenue from international
current study sets the following objectives: (1) to identify street food visitors, was spent on food in 2016 (TAT, 2017). Thai dining is known
attributes that tourists are concerned about when traveling; (2) to globally as a significant factor that influences international tourists to
determine how the identified attributes contribute to tourist behavior by visit Thailand (Chavarria & Phakdee-auksorn, 2017). Travel Weekly UK
investigating Thai street food attributes and their relationship with (2017) ranked Thailand as the 4th best destination for food and drink.
tourist satisfaction with, attitude toward, attachment to, and behavior Bangkok, the capital city of Thailand was ranked 3rd in the Top Global
toward Thai street foods; (3) to examine the moderating role of the Cities for Dining by The MasterCard Global Destination Cities Index in
perceived risks of street food consumption between tourist attitude to 2018 (TAT, 2019). CNN (2017) named Bangkok as one of the world’s 23

ward and attachment to Thai street foods with behavioral intention best destinations to eat street foods. The Euromonitor International (2017)
regarding such foods; and (4) to propose effective marketing strategies reported that street foods have the largest market share among various
to destination governments and/or food businesses for creating and food business operators in Thailand. Nearly 103,000 out of 150,000 food
improving food and street food quality on the basis of tourists’ percep business operators are street food vendors with total revenue of

tion. The attributes of Thai street food and its contribution to tourist approximately 271,355 million baht (Prachachat News, 2018).
behavior model can be supported them to increase positive street food Street foods in Thailand are commonly uncooked (ready-to-cook) or
image and food goers demand to the destination. ready-to-eat meals, such as Thai cuisine, snacks, desserts, fruits, and
beverages. Empirical evidence indicates that these foods are related to
2. Literature review the culture of the local people. Street foods are divided into the
following categories: (1) sold by mobile vendors/hawkers (e.g., food
2.1. Food and street food in the tourism industry stalls, trollies, carts, trucks, and kiosks on road/street sides or public
areas); (2) sold in fixed locations or trading sites on the ground floor or
Many tourists travel to seek food experiences (Ab Karim & Chi, doorsteps of semipermanent structures, providing only tables and
2010). Food has become a significant tool in tourism marketing and chairs; and (3) sold at a point occupied in marketplaces or in front of the
business as part of the tourism industry’s revenue (Ab Karim & Chi, seller’s house with cooking and food service areas, such as tables and
2010; Henderson, 2009). The United Nations World Tourism Organi chairs in the house and on the sidewalk or street (Chavarria &

zation (2017) defined food tourism or gastronomy tourism as tourism Phakdee-auksorn, 2017; Cohen, 1984; Henderson et al., 2012). The
involving travelers who plan a trip to try the local food and/or food picture of Thai street foods is shown in Appendix A. Street food has
products and/or take part in food activities (World Food Travel Asso become an interesting issue among international tourists, reflecting the

ciation, 2018). In tourism, activities related to food have been called by growth of food tourism in Thailand.
several names, such as food tourism, culinary tourism, and gastronomy
tourism. However, these names refer to tourism in which tourists travel 2.3. Literature review and hypotheses
to a certain destination for the purpose of eating local foods (Ab Karim &
Chi, 2010). Many previous researchers are interested in food in the 2.3.1. Food consumption and street food attribution
tourism industry (Ab Karim & Chi, 2010; Mak et al., 2012; Choi et al., Theoretical product and service attributes can be referred to the
2013; Ellis et al., 2018). Visitors may not only learn about local foods, characteristics, stimulus factors, and role of overall customer evaluation
but also about the way of life, culture, and history of the locals through based on their knowledge and perception (Baloglu & McCleary, 1999).
food tourism. Attributes and factors have been identified in the hospitality and tourism
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defined street foods as industry, and considerable attention has been given to the consumption
“ready-to-eat foods and beverages prepared and sold by vendors, experiences of tourists (Chang, Kivela, & Mak, 2011; Kim, Eves, &
hawkers, stalls, trolley carts notably in streets and public areas” (FAO, Scarles, 2009; Mak et al., 2012; Stone, Soulard, Migacz, & Wolf, 2018),
1986). The primary characteristic of street foods is that they are cooked food and local food products (Choe & Kim, 2018; Kim et al., 2013; Kim &
prior to being sold or after a customer places an order using traditional Eves, 2012), and food service businesses (Han & Ryu, 2009; Jang, Kim,
food processing; most retail outlets are located on the street, with a small & Bonn, 2011; Kwun, 2011). Kim et al. (2009) established local food
operation and low costs (Cohen, 1984). Henderson et al. (2012) reported consumption and divided it into three factors: motivational, individual
that street/hawker food is cooked or uncooked food that symbolizes the demographics, and physiological food. Mak et al. (2012) found that
local people, society, and culture. Street food tourism generally reflects factors that influence food tourism consumption can be divided into five
the food of the traditional local culture and offers tourists the chance to dimensions: symbolic, obligatory, contrast, extension, and pleasure.
experience and understand the local way of life (Chavarria & Chang et al. (2011) found six attributes that affect Chinese tourists’
Phakdee-auksorn, 2017). Street/hawker foods are currently important evaluation of their dining experiences while traveling. These attributes
in the tourism industry, and many tourist destinations use street foods as are tourists’ food culture, dining experience, food variety and diversity,
attraction tools and tourism resources (Henderson, 2019, pp. 45–57; perception of the destination, service encounters, and tour guide per

Henderson et al., 2012). Street food is also a popular subject in tourism formance. Stone et al. (2018) identified five key components that
studies (Henderson et al., 2012; Sun, Wang, & Huang, 2012; Chavarria & contribute to the memorable food and culinary experiences of tourists.
Phakdee-auksorn, 2017). Sum et al. (2012) investigated the hygiene These components are consumed food/beverages, occasion, compan

knowledge and practices of local street food vendors in the night mar ions, setting/location, and touristic elements.

kets in Tainan, Taiwan. Henderson et al. (2012) confirmed that street In particular, food production has been investigated in tourism
food hawkers play a significant role in Singapore’s tourist attractions. studies. Kim and Eves (2012) developed a measurement scale for tourist
Chavarria and Phakdee-auksorn (2017) surveyed the attitudes of inter consumption of local food and created five motivational dimensions of

national tourists toward street foods in Phuket, Thailand. local food: tourist’s cultural experience, personal individual relations,
excitement, sensory appeal, and health concerns. Kim et al. (2013)
2.2. Thai street foods and tourism in Thailand found that customers perceived food healthiness attributes, such as
nutritional information, fresh and natural ingredients, weight control,
Thailand is a world tourism destination; it is known for offering a and a nutritionally balanced diet, as essential factors to increase their
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dining perceptions of value, satisfaction, and revisit intention of healthy confirmed that tourist satisfaction and attitudes are positively related to
restaurants in Korea. Previous food service studies in the hospitality and cultural memories and attachment to a destination. Hence, the mea

tourism field, including that of Han and Ryu (2009), have also investi surement of satisfaction has long been a critical element in customer

gated the three physical environments of restaurants: price perception, decision-making. Consequently, the following hypotheses were
customer satisfaction, and décor and artifacts. These studies have found developed.
that the element décor and artifacts exerts an important positive effect
H2. Satisfaction with Thai street foods significantly influences attitude
on predicating customer price perception and satisfaction. Kwun (2011)
toward Thai street foods.
determined that the enhanced performance of food service attributes,
including service and product quality, menu, and facility, significantly H3. Satisfaction with Thai street foods significantly influences
affects consumers’ perceived value, satisfaction, and attitude. Jang et al. attachment to Thai street foods.
(2011) investigated Generation Y consumers’ evaluation and behavioral
intention toward green restaurants attributes, such as natural/organic 2.3.4. Relationship among attitudes, attachment, and behavioral intention
ingredients, value/service reliability, environmental activities, reputa Attitude is an important factor in a customer’s evaluation of a brand,

tion, food quality, nutritional menu, atmosphere, and location. product, or service (Kwun, 2011), and it is developed on the basis of the
The previous review of the multiple factors/attributes of customers’ difference between pre-information about a product or service and
(tourists’) decision-making processes when considering food, food and post-purchase experiences (Ajzen & Fishbein, 2005; Oliver, 1999).
local food, and food service choices is enlightening, but provides limited Customer attachment is highly beneficial business marketing (Yuksel,
information about street foods. Accordingly, identifying, understanding, Yuksel, & Bilm, 2010). Attachment in previous studies refers to the level
and clarifying specific attributes regarding street foods that are required of emotion a consumer feels toward a product/service/brand/place,
to develop long-term sustainability in the tourism industry are linked from their post-purchase experience, and relate to customer in

important.” dividual interaction behavior (Orth et al., 2010; Kaufmann, Petrovici,
Goncalves Filho & Ayres, 2016). Behavior intention is important goal for
2.3.2. Street food attributes and their influences on satisfaction service provides and business as the higher number of customer inten

Oliver (1997) reported that satisfaction is the total evaluation of the tion is the greater in competitive advantage. Customer behavior inten

purchase situation that includes customer’s expectations regarding a tion can be defined as a customer’s positive assessment after
product or service. The level of customer satisfaction increases if the consumption (Oliver, 1999). Favorable, has been linked to a customer’s
product/service and its attributes are overfulfilled (Han & Kim, 2017; intention continue to repurchase/revisit and their intention to recom

Oliver, 1999). Customer satisfaction is an important topic in marketing mend a product/service to others (Chen & Chen, 2010). Accordingly,
research because it leads to positive behavioral outcomes in predicting behavior intention in this study, defined as an individual customer’s
customer feelings, decision-making, and future intention (Han & Hyun, positive assessment base on their past experiences and information,
2015; Kim, 2018). The relationship between attributes and satisfaction desire to return/re-purchase the same produce/service, and willingness
has been widely studied (Kim, 2018; Kuo, Wu, & Deng, 2009; Trang, Lee, to recommend/sharing about produce/service to other.
& Han, 2019; Zhao, Lu, Zhang, & Chau, 2012). Kuo et al. (2009) found The study of tourist attitudes have been investigated in previous
that customer satisfaction plays a significant role in the mediation of research to explain the evaluation, feelings, emotional attachment, and
perceived value and the future intention of mobile phone companies’ behavioral intention of tourists (Li & Liu, 2019; Choi et al., 2013; Choe &
value-added service quality. Zhao et al. (2012) studied mobile service’s Kim, 2018). Such as, Choe and Kim (2018) found that the value attri

customer behavior and identified three attributes of service quality: butes of tourists’ local food consumption, including taste/quality,
interaction, environmental, and outcome qualities. The result showed epistemic, and emotional attributes, exert a positive effect on tourists’
that these attributes exert a positive effect on customer satisfaction and attitudes, food destination image, and behavioral intention. Further

intention. Kim (2018) found that satisfaction plays an important medi more, tourists’ attitudes and attachments have been highlighted in

ating role that indicates visitors’ behavioral intention. Previous studies previous research as requirements for improving future behavioral
of food in tourism, such as that of Canny (2014) who focused on res intention (Jeaheng, Al-Ansi, & Han, 2019; Liu, Wang, Chiu, & Chen,

taurants in Jakarta, Indonesia, determined that service quality attributes 2018; Yuksel, Yuksel, & Bilim, 2010). Yuksel et al. (2010) showed that
exert a positive impact on customer satisfaction and intention. Customer affective attitude and emotional attachment to a place can influence
satisfaction generally influences customers’ perception of products and tourists to recommend the place and their revisit intention. Jeaheng
service attributes. Considering this information, the first hypothesis of et al. (2019) confirmed that Muslim guests perceive Halal-friendly hotel
this study is as follows: attributes to be related to their attitudes and positive emotional evalu

ations, increasing Muslim customers’ revisit intention. Liu et al. (2018)
H1. Multiple attributes of street foods in Thailand significantly influ
showed that hotel guests’ positive brand attachment positively in

ence tourist satisfaction.

fluences their intention. Given the aforementioned data, increasing
positive attitudes and emotions, such as attachment to a product or
2.3.3. Relationship among satisfaction, attitudes, and attachment
service, can play a key role in predicting tourists’ future behavioral
Customer satisfaction influences post-purchase attitudes and feelings
loyalty. Hence, the following hypotheses were developed.
and future intention (Han, Lee, Chua, Lee, & Kim, 2019; Kwun, 2011;
Oliver, 1997). Several studies on food services and tourism have found H4. Attitude toward Thai street foods significantly influences attach

empirical evidence that customer satisfaction is likely to influence ment to Thai street foods.
customer outcomes, such as overall attitude and emotions, and it is
H5. Attitude toward Thai street foods significantly influences inten
related to intention (Han, Lee, Chua, & Lee, 2020; Kwun, 2011; Ryu, Lee,

tion to continue eating Thai street foods.
& Kim, 2012; Moon & Han, 2019; Orth, Limon, & Rose, 2010; Li & Liu,
2019). Kwun (2011) studied campus food service attributes and deter H6. Attitude toward Thai street foods significantly influences inten

mined that customer attitudes toward perceived value are affected by tion to recommend Thai street foods.
the quality of products and services, the menu, and the facility. Ryu, Lee,
H7. Attachment to Thai street foods significantly influences intention
& Kim, 2012 confirmed that high customer satisfaction creates a positive
to continue eating Thai street foods.
customer attitude through the restaurant’s image and consumer inten

tion. Orth et al. (2010) indicated that customer satisfaction mediates the H8. Attachment to Thai street foods significantly influences intention
emotional attachment to a brand of retail customers. Li and Liu (2020) to recommend Thai street foods to others.
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2.3.5. Perceived risk and its moderating impact H9c. The perceived risk of Thai street food consumption significantly
The level of risk perception toward an object is related to a cus moderates the relationship between attachment to Thai street foods and

tomer’s evaluating behavior (Choi et al., 2013). The role of perceived the intention to continue eating them.
risk has been identified as critically influencing consumer behavior in
H9d. The perceived risk of Thai street food consumption significantly
diverse sectors, and it has been used to determine consumer
moderates the relationship between attachment to Thai street food and
decision-making, as indicated in several studies (Lai-Ming Tam, 2012;
the intention to recommend them.
Choi et al., 2013; Casidy & Wymer, 2016). Choi et al. (2013) examined
the relationship among customer perceived risks and the benefits toward
3. Methods
street food, customer attitude, and intention outcomes. They found that
the perceived risk dimension influences the relationship between con
This study aims to contribute to Thai street food attribution and

sumer attitude and behavioral intention. The concept of perceived risk
tourism post-consumption behavior. The research methodology is
has been investigated because of its moderating role in previous studies,
illustrated in Fig. 1. First, an approach used in previous studies was
such as that of Lai-Ming Tam (2012), which determined that low and
adopted to assess street food attributes and measure the items by
high perceived risk groups exhibit a significant relationship with
reviewing existing studies and conducting in-depth interviews (Ander
customer post-purchase evaluation and loyalty. Casidy and Wymer

son & Gerbing, 1998; Churchill, 1979; Kim & Eves, 2012). Thereafter,
(2016) tested the relationship among satisfaction, loyalty, and willing
survey development and pretest were conducted. Subsequently, data

ness to pay and the moderating role of perceived risk. The result showed
were collected from international visitors who had experience with Thai
that customers’ perceive risk exerts significant positive effects as a
street foods using a nonprobability sampling method. Exploratory factor
moderator in the customer behavioral model. In the current study, the
analysis (EFA), which was recommended by Churchill (1979), was used
perceived risk of Thai street food consumption may play a moderating
to refine and implement the measurement model items. The two-step
role in influencing tourist attitude and attachment toward Thai street
approach of Anderson and Gerbing (1998) was then adopted to
foods on tourist behavioral intention. If tourists’ perceived risk is high,
examine the variable attributes. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was
then they are likely to continue eating and their intention is to recom
applied to the initial model. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was

mend Thai street foods. By contrast, if tourists’ perceived risk is low,
used to test and determine the fit to the proposed model and its rela
then they are not likely to continue eating and recommending Thai

tionship to the research. In addition, mediation analysis was conducted
street foods. Therefore, the following hypotheses are proposed.
using a bootstrapping method. Lastly, a moderator was tested with
H9a. The perceived risk of Thai street food consumption significantly metric invariance on the basis of Steenkamp and Baumgartner’s (1998)
moderates the relationship between attitude toward Thai street foods and Yoo’s (2002) procedures.
and the intention to continue eating them.
H9b. The perceived risk of Thai street food consumption significantly
moderates the relationship between attitude toward Thai street foods
and the intention to recommend them.
Fig. 1. The research methodology flow chart.
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3.1. Measurement tools for the study international visitors who had previously experienced with Thai street
foods. Initially, The screening question was “Have you ever experienced
3.1.1. Thai street food measurement items eating Thai street food?“. The survey team informed the participants
In this study, the key attribute items of the Thai street food ques about the definition of “Thai street food” and research purpose in order

tionnaire statements were obtained from previous studies and in-depth to ensure that the potential participants understood the concept of “Thai
interviews. Initially, the previous literature was reviewed on the basis street food”. Using a non-probability convenience sampling technique,
of the characteristics of food tourism and the functions of local and the questionnaires were distributed in tourist sites where street foods are
traditional foods that are related to food tourism (Chang et al., 2011; easily available in Thailand. The questionnaire was delivered and
Choe & Kim, 2018; Jang et al., 2011; Kim et al., 2009; Kim & Eves, 2012; returned onsite to increase the response rate. A total of 503 question

Kwun, 2011; Mak et al., 2012; Chavarria & Phakdee-auksorn, 2017). In naires were collected over a period of four weeks from the third week of
this study, the key attribute items of the Thai street food questionnaire January 2019 to the second week of February 2019. After removal of
statements were obtained from previous studies and in-depth in incomplete response, 475 valid cases were used for data analysis.

terviews. Initially, the previous literature was reviewed on the basis of A total of 475 valid cases were used for the analysis. Among the 475
the characteristics of food tourism and the functions of local and tradi survey participants, approximately 44.4% (211) had experienced Thai

tional foods that are related to food tourism (Chang et al., 2011; Choe & street foods 2–5 times, 26.7% (127) had experienced them 6–10 times,
Kim, 2018; Jang et al., 2011; Kim et al., 2009; Kim & Eves, 2012; Kwun, 20.6% (98) had experienced them only once, and 8.2% (39) had expe

2011; Mak et al., 2012; Chavarria & Phakdee-auksorn, 2017). After a rienced them >10 times. Approximately 39.4% (187) had eaten Thai
review of the relevant literature, in-depth interviews were conducted street foods in the past 1–3 days, 32.2% (153) had eaten them the day of
with 22 respondents who have direct and indirect relevance to Thai the survey, 13.5% (64) had eaten them within the past 4–7 days, 11.4%
street foods. In particular, 14 international tourists who experience Thai (54) had eaten them 1–2 weeks ago, and 3.6% (17) last ate them more
street food, 6 professional local food tour guides, and 2 street food than 2 weeks ago. The majority of the respondents, i.e., 53.9% (256),
business owners participated in the interviews. were female, and 46.1% (219) were male. A total of 45 different na

tionalities were represented, and the largest group was from China,
3.1.2. Other measurement tools 16.6% (79). The next largest groups were from Japan and the USA, 9.1%
In this study, other valuable measurement instruments were adopted (43) and 6.1% (29), respectively. The Russian and British groups both
from existing scales in previous studies, including satisfaction with Thai accounted for 5.3% (25). The respondents’ mean age was 27.6 years old
street foods, attitudes toward and attachment to Thai street foods, (6.848 SD) and ranged from 16 years old to 70 years old.
tourists’ behavioral loyalty, and perceived risks. The study variables The respondents were highly educated: 50.1% (238) were college
were measured using multi-item and seven-point Likert scales with the graduates, 16.8% (80) have graduate degrees, 18.1% had finished high
following choices: extremely disagree (1), moderately disagree (2), school, 13.7% (65) had college education, and 1.3% (6) had below high
slightly disagree (3), neutral (4), slightly agree (5), moderately agree school education. The majority of the respondents, i.e., 35.2% (167),
(6), and extremely agree (7). The statements for customer attitudes to reported that they worked in the business sector, 24.2% (115) were

ward Thai street foods were adopted from Jeong et al. (2014) and Choe students, 12% (57) were professionals, 5.9% (28) were government
and Kim (2018) and measured using a semantic differential rating scale employees, 5.1% (24) worked in the education sector, 4% (19) were in
with a seven-point scale ranging from bad to very good. The measured the agricultural sector, 1 respondent was retired, and 13.4% (64) had
variables for satisfaction with Thai street foods were developed from other occupations or did not reply to that question. Among the 475 re

existing studies (Choi et al., 2013; Kim, 2018; Ryu, Lee, & Kim, 2012) spondents, 23.4% (111) indicated that they had an income between
and included five items, such as “I am sure being a customer of Thai 55,000 and 69,999 USD, 23.1% (110) had an income within the range of
street foods is the right thing.” A five-item scale of attachment to Thai 25,000–39,999 USD, 21.1% (100) had an income of <24,999 USD,
street foods, such as “I feel that Thai street foods are a part of me,” was 19.6% (93) had an income between 40,000 USD and 54,999 USD, 10.5%
also included. The scales were developed from a previous study by (50) had an income between 70,000 USD and 84,999 USD, and 2.3%
Yuksel et al. (2010) and Jang, Kim, and Lee (2015). Subsequently, (11) had an income of >85,000 USD. The majority of the respondents, i.
statements related to tourists’ loyalty toward Thai street foods were e., 70.3% (334), reported that the purpose of their visit to Thailand was
developed from previous studies (Han & Hyun, 2017; Kim, 2018; Ryu, for a holiday. More than a half of the respondents, i.e., 53.3% (253),
Lee, & Kim, 2012), including three items of intention to continue eating planned to stay in Thailand for 1–7 days, 30.7% (146) planned to stay
Thai street foods, such as “I will eat Thai street foods when traveling.” for 8–14 days, and 16% (76) planned to stay for ≥15 days. The
Three items of intention to recommend Thai street foods, such as “I will descriptive statistics of the respondents are summarized in Table 1.
encourage my friends and relatives to eat Thai street foods when trav

eling,” were also included. Lastly, the measurement of the perceived risk 4. Results
of Thai street food consumption in this research was obtained from
previous assessments (Casidy & Wymer, 2016; Choi et al., 2013) and 4.1. Qualitative procedures
included 10 items, such as “Thai street foods are unsanitary.”
This research used a mixed purposeful sampling process. First, an in-
3.2. Data collection and demographic profiles of the samples depth interview with international tourists who have experience with
Thai street food was conducted. International respondents (n = 14) were
After the questionnaire measurement variables were gathered, the individuals’ tourists and familys tourist who experience Thai street food.
proposed survey questionnaire was sent to two academics/professionals They work in government, business, private employees and students
for review and to check its reliability and validity. A pretest was con within the age group of 18–54 years. Next, a nonprobability sampling

ducted to ensure that the questions were clear and understood by the 14 with a snowball technique was applied in this process, a total of 6 cer

respondents who participated and had experience with street foods in tificate tour guides participated in this interview. All of them were
Thailand. No major changes to the initial survey were required, and only professional in culture and local experience tour and food tour and have
a few words were clarified. The survey questionnaire was designed and experience with international tourists between 10 and 25 years. Lastly,
developed in English. The questionnaire was then translated into three in-depth interview with 2 street foods (one got Michelin Bib Gourmand
languages, namely, Chinese, Korean, and Japanese, by using the back- and one operated more than 60 years) both located in China town
translation method. Bangkok (the most famous place for street food in Thailand).
The survey was conducted in Thailand. The samples were The interview period was from the end of November 2018 to early
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Table 1 Aside from tours of Wung (Temple) and Wang (Palace), a local food
Demographic information. tour is one of the favorite requested programs. Eating Thai street
Variable Category Distribution foods is a part of our tour program. I think Thai street foods offer a
sense of Thailand to tourists. They will learn something new and see
Thai street food experiences while Once 98 20.6
traveling 2–5 times 211 44.4 traditional Thai. Many international tourists like the street food
6–10 times 127 26.7 experience.
10 + 39 8.2
Last time Thai street food was Today 153 32.2 The most common issue about Thai street foods is related to quality.
experienced 1–3 days ago 187 39.4 The following quotes reflect these concerns.
4–7 days ago 64 13.5
1–2 weeks ago 54 11.4 I am looking for high turnover and clean street food shops. I’m quite
More than 2 weeks 17 3.6 afraid of dirty food. I have gotten food poisoning that required
Gender Male 219 46.1
hospitalization two or three times when traveling in Southeast Asia.
Female 256 53.9
Nationality Chinese 79 16.6
The most important things that I consider are hygiene and freshness.
Japanese 43 9.1
USA 29 6.1
I will be looking for street food stalls that offer freshly cooked food
Russian 25 5.3 with fresh ingredients and recipes.
British 25 5.3
India 23 4.8 The food vendors also addressed the freshness issue.
Indonesia 22 4.6
Korean 19 4.0 As you know, our shop has operated for more than 50 years. This is
Malaysia 17 3.6 the second generation. I provide food products that are new, fresh,
German 16 3.4 clean, and with good quality. I keep the original taste the same as my
Other 177 37.26
father did. I learned everything and every process from my father and
Age Mean (Standard 27.60 6.848
deviation) (SD)
do the same things he did.
Education Less than high school 6 1.3
degree
Other important concerns for tourists are related to the environment
High school degree 86 18.1 of the street food selling area. The respondents commented on the street
Some college 65 13.7 food selling environment as follows.
College graduate 238 50.1
Graduate degree 80 16.8 The street food place must be easily visible and in a good location.
Occupation Business 167 35.2 Moreover, the street food shop should have a good atmosphere and
Professional work 57 12.0
be a hygienic and clean area.
Government 28 5.9
Education 24 5.1 The guides weighed in on the environment of the street food selling
Agricultural 19 4.0
Student 115 24.2
area in the following statements.
Retired 1 0.2
Tourists are always looking for street food shops that provide a nice
Other 64 13.4
Income Under $24,999 100 21.1 environment and are neat and clean, such as tables and seating areas
$25,000 – $39,999 110 23.1 that are spacious and have easy access along with a pleasant and
$40,000 – $54,999 93 19.6 comfortable atmosphere.
$55,000 - $ 69,999 111 23.4
$70,000 – $84,999 50 10.5 The performance and skills of street food staff were also important
Over 85,000 11 2.3 attributes emphasized by participants. The following statements reflect
Duration of stay in Thailand Between 1 and 7 days 253 53.3
Between 8 and 14 days 146 30.7
these issues.
15 days and more 76 16.0
We need some suggestions. The Thai staff should speak in English or
be willing to communicate with us because we don’t know about the
January 2019. Interviews were conducted in English for the interna menu. If they can speak in English, it will be easy for us to know what
we want to try on the many items listed in the menu of Thai street

tional tourists and in Thai for the tour guides and street food vendors.
The average length of an interview was approximately 24 min. The in foods.

terviews were conducted in comfortable places, such as street food
The menu is also an important element of Thai street foods. The
selling points, coffee shops, hotel lobbies, and residence lobbies of the
menu should provide clear pictures and descriptions of how the food will
respondents. During the interviews, most participants shared their
taste. Clear pricing should also be displayed. A respondent’s statement
opinions with regard to discovering different foods, learning about
regarding this issue is as follows.
culture, and having authentic experiences. The following are important
statements that reflect the valuable role played by street foods in pro The other thing that I prefer and look for in a street food shop is that

moting Thai culture and traditional experiences. the menu is presented with clear pricing and pictures of the food. The
pictures of the dishes are the best way to help me know about them.
I like to understand the differences in the countries I visit, especially
local habits and culture. Eating other countries’ food is the best way Price is a priority that motivates and enforces customers’ purchase
to discover and understand those countries, so when traveling decisions. The affordable pricing of Thai street foods is an attribute
aboard, I always eat the food in those countries. Here in Bangkok, I mentioned in the following tourists’ remarks.
am eating local and street foods.
I like Thai food. I heard that Thai street food is very cheap and tastes
Eating street foods is one way to experience Thai life. I think eating good, so I tried it because of its cost-effectiveness. I am very satisfied.
street foods is more authentic than eating in restaurants, and street foods
Street food is very cheap compared with other food prices, such as in
offer real Thai food taste.
The tour guides offered interesting insights. a restaurant.
The previous literature and in-depth interviews of the 22
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respondents were combined. A total of 61 street food attributes were 4.2.3. Measurement model results
identified. These attributes were divided into seven temporary cate The additional six variable items in this study’s model included

gories: (1) core food production, (2) meal portion and packaging, (3) satisfaction with Thai street foods, attitude toward Thai street foods,
staff performance, (4) menu, (5) physical environment, (6) cultural and attachment to Thai street foods, intention to continue eating Thai street
local experiences, and (7) value for money. foods, intention to recommend Thai street foods, and the perceived risks
of Thai street food consumption. The CFA findings reported that the
goodness-of-fit statistics were adequate (χ2 = 7685.948, df = 2809, χ2/
4.2. Measured model approach df = 2.736, p < 0.001, RMSEA = 0.061, CFI = 0.842, and NFI = 0.773).
The CR presented high values ranging from 0.854 to 0.929 and had
4.2.1. EFA approach excellent reliability that exceeded the suggested cutoff level of 0.60
EFA was applied in this study by using maximal likelihood analysis (Bagozzi & Yi, 1998). Subsequently, the AVE of each item was tested.
and a varimax rotation method to determine Thai street food attributes. The values ranged from 0.530 to 0.747. All the constants were higher
Among the 61 developed items, 45 were explored and condensed into 9 than the minimum recommended cutoff level of 0.50 (Hair et al., 2014).
factors. The value of the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) sampling adequacy The discriminant validity and the reliability of the constructs were
was 0.928, and Bartlett’s sphericity was significant (p < 0.001), veri established. The results showed that the AVE values of all the constructs

fying the adequacy of the EFA. All the nine factors had eigenvalues of were higher than the square correlation of the constructs (Hair et al.,
>1.000, and the total variance of the nine factors accounted for 2014).
63.235%. The first factor was cultural and local experiences, and it
involved nine items with a factor that captured 32.964% of the variance. 4.3. SEM approach
Factor 2 was labeled menu and atmosphere, and it included eight items
and explained approximately 6.833% of the variance. The third factor SEM was used to test the proposed model. The goodness-of-fit sta
tistics of the model were as follows: χ2 = 5774.336, df = 2152, χ2/df =

was termed staff service, and it included six items with 6.091% of the
variance. Factor 4 was called core food quality, and it contained five 2.683, p < 0.001, RMSEA = 0.060, CFI = 0.849, and incremental fit
items with 4.129% of the variance. Factor 5 was labeled value for index (IFI) = 850. The results of SEM are given and summarized in
money, and it included four items that captured 3.607% of the variance. Table 3. Hypothesis 1 states that the attributes of street foods in Thailand
Factor 6 was named product attractiveness, and it involved four items are positively and significantly related to satisfaction with Thai street
with 2.875% of the variance. The seventh factor was called staff profi foods. The findings indicate that the seven of nine important elements

ciency, and it included three items with 2.623% of the variance. The are positively significant (β cultural and local experiences → satisfaction
eighth factor was labeled packaging and portions, and it included three with Thai street foods = 0.214, t = 2.749, and p < 0.01; β menu and
items that accounted for 2.081% of the variance. Lastly, the ninth factor atmosphere → satisfaction with Thai street foods = − 0.142, t = − 2.184,
included three items loaded into a single factor called traditional and and p < 0.05; β staff service → satisfaction with Thai street foods =
authentic. This factor explained approximately 2.032% of the variance. 0.116, t = 1.984, and p < 0.05; β value for money → satisfaction with
All factor loadings for the 45 items were high and exceeded the Thai street foods = 0.307, t = 7.506, and p < 0.001; β product attrac

threshold of 0.50 (Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2014). In terms of the tiveness → satisfaction with Thai street foods = 0.137, t = 2.513, and p
reliability of the explored constructs, the coefficient alpha values were < 0.05; β staff proficiency → satisfaction with Thai street foods = 0.082,
>0.70 and were between 0.876 and 0.917, indicating that the nine t = 2.016, and p < 0.05; β traditional and authentic → satisfaction with
factors meet the reliability criteria (Nunally, 1978). All nine factors were Thai street foods = 0.129, t = 2.242, and p < 0.05). Only wo constructs
statistically appropriate for the data analysis and the measurement were insignificant (β core food quality → satisfaction with Thai street
assessment. The skewness values ranged from − 0.0906 (standard error foods = 0.003, t = 0.067, and p > 0.05; β packaging and portion →
= 112) to +0.055 (standard error = 112) and fell between − 1.00 and + satisfaction with Thai street foods = − 0.012, t = − 0.235, and p > 0.05).
1.00. The kurtosis values ranged from − 0.709 (standard error = 224) to The results of Hypotheses 2 and 3 were supported. Satisfaction with
1.396 (standard error = 224) and fell between − 1.00 and + 1.00. The Thai street foods exerts a significant and positive effect on attitude to

results indicate that the study data set was acceptable and free from ward Thai street foods (H2: β satisfaction with Thai street foods →
skewness and kurtosis problems. The data set was valid in terms of the attitude toward Thai street foods = 0.116, t = 7.264, and p < 0.001) and
normality and homoscedasticity of residuals. Table 2 presents a sum on attachment to Thai street foods (H3: β satisfaction with Thai street

mary of the EFA results. foods → attachment to Thai street foods = 0.434, t = 6.392, and p <
0.001). Hypothesis 4, which involves attitude toward Thai street foods,
4.2.2. CFA approach exerts a positive and significant influence on attachment to Thai street
foods (β attitude toward Thai street foods → attachment to Thai street
CFA was performed to generate the measurement model for quality foods = 0.195, t = 2.393, and p < 0.05). Hypotheses 5 and 6 were used
testing using AMOS software version 23.0. The results of the CFA sum as the basis to test the SEM result. The findings showed that attitude

mary are presented in Fig. 2. The CFA findings indicated that the model toward Thai street foods has a positive and significant affective evalu

exhibited a satisfactory fit for the data, i.e., goodness-of-fit statistics for ation on intention to continue eating Thai street foods (H5: β attitude
the measurement model: χ2 = 3026.919, df = 909, χ2/df = 3.330, p < toward Thai street foods → intention to continue eating Thai street
0.001, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.070, foods = 0.556, t = 7.405, and p < 0.001) and on intention to recommend
comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.855, and normed fit index (NFI) = 0.806. Thai street foods (H6: β attitude toward Thai street foods → intention to
Subsequently, the composite reliability (CR) ranged from 0.854 to recommend Thai street foods = 0.409, t = 6.195, and p < 0.001). Hy

0.919, indicating that the result had excellent reliability values in potheses 7 and 8, which involve attachment to Thai street foods, exert a
accordance with the recommended cutoff level of 0.60 (Bagozzi & Yi, significant and positive impact on intention to continue eating Thai
1998). The average variance extracted (AVE) showed that all the con street foods (H7: β attachment to Thai street foods → intention to

structs were acceptable from 0.530 to 0.746, and they were all greater continue eating Thai street foods = 0.294, t = 6.941, and p < 0.001) and
than the threshold of 0.50 (Hair et al., 2014). The squared correlations on intention to recommend Thai street foods (H8: β attachment to Thai
between the nine constructs were smaller than the AVE values. street foods → intention to recommend Thai street foods = 0.275, t =
Accordingly, the CFA findings confirmed the validity, and the discrim 6.996, and p < 0.001). The total variance of satisfaction with Thai street
foods was R2 = 0.516. Attitude toward and attachment to Thai street

inant validity of the nine measurement items was evident (Hair et al.,
2014). foods were R2 = 0.152 and 0.159, respectively. Intention to continue
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Table 2
Summary of the exploratory factor analytic results. (9 factors).
Factor % of variance Mean Std. Factor Coefficient Skewness Kurtosis (Std.
(Eigen-value) alphas (Std.error) error)
Deviation Loadings
Factor 1 Cultural and local experience (SFCL) 32.964 .892

SV1. Experience with Thai street food offers a sense of Thai culture. 5.68 .958 .628 -.412 .112 -.195 .224
SV2. Experience with Thai street food offers a unique of Thai 5.67 .909 .722 -.361 .112 -.174 .224
traditions.
SV3. Experience with Thai street food presents a traditional and 5.68 .879 .689 -.329 .112 -.032 .224
cultural image of Thailand.
SV4. Experience with Thai street food gives an opportunity to 5.63 .955 .703 -.474 .112 .071 .224
increase new knowledge of Thailand cultures.
SV5. Experiencing Thai street food helps me to understand local 5.68 .905 .831 -.276 .112 -.370 .224
people lifestyle
SV6. Experiencing Thai street food makes me seek things that I 5.70 .925 .775 -.506 .112 .789 .224
don’t usually see.
SV7. Experiencing Thai street food enables me to learn what Thai 5.74 .979 .727 -.524 .112 -.021 .224
food/local food tastes like.
SV8. Experiencing Thai street food allows me to discover 5.65 .944 .615 -.332 .112 -.054 .224
something unique.
SV9. Tasting a Thai street food in an original place is an authentic 5.76 .913 .533 -.418 .112 -.353 .224
experience.
Factor2 Menu and atmosphere (SFMA) 6.833 .893
SM6. Thai street food menu provides picture and description. 5.54 1.053 .732 -.617 .112 .172 .224
SM7. Thai street food menu informs food tastes/grades (i.e. spicy or 5.49 1.133 .809 -.718 .112 .380 .224
not spicy).
SM8. Thai street food menu shows a clear price and easy to 5.59 1.072 .674 -.811 .112 .901 .224
obvious.
SE1. Thai street food areas are neat and clean. 5.34 1.248 .772 -.731 .112 .046 .224
SE2. Thai street food has easy accessibility. 5.63 995 .624 -.498 .112 -.269 .224
SE3. Thai street food eye-catching to the customer (i.e., lighten, 5.61 .975 .635 -.504 .112 -.005 .224
name).
SE4. Thai street food provides information of service time. 5.49 1.122 .701 -.906 .112 1.396 .224
SE5. Thai street food has a pleasant and comfortable atmosphere. 5.59 1.014 .594 -.493 .112 .020 .224
Factor 3 Staff service (SFSS) 6.091 .902
SS1. Thai street food staff is being friendly. 5.59 .988 .679 -.350 .112 − 338 .224
SS2. Thai street food staff is being helpful. 5.53 1.006 .714 -.289 .112 -.391 .224
SS3. Thai staff is willing to go the extra mile. 5.51 1.058 .757 -.481 .112 .068 .224
SS4. Staff is pleased to serve Thai street food. 5.63 .936 .881 -.383 .112 -.323 .224
SS5. Thai street food staff is being kindliness. 5.67 .963 .850 -.369 .112 -.380 .224
SS6. Thai street food staff is being courteous. 5.67 .969 .677 -.318 .112 -.676 .224
Factor 4 Core food quality (SFCQ) 4.129 .876
SC1. Thai street food provides freshness of foods, ingredients, and 4.93 1.145 .620 -.048 .112 .074 .224
recipes.
SC2. Thai street food provides nutrient-rich foods, ingredients, and 4.86 1.138 .564 .055 .112 -.286 .224
recipes.
SC3. Thai street food provides cleanness of foods, ingredients, and 5.01 1.176 .920 -.418 .112 .155 .224
recipes.
SC4. Thai street food is good for health (i.e. many Thai herbs, 5.21 1.097 .649 -.440 .112 -.012 .224
varieties nutrition).
SC5. Thai street food is safe to eat/consume. (i.e. prepare, fresh 5.25 1.175 .670 -.560 .112 .576 .224
products)
Factor 5 Value for money (SFVM) 3.607 .917
SP1. Thai street food is reasonably priced. 5.33 1.072 .806 -.160 .112 -.517 .224
SP2. Thai street food offers value for money to pay. 5.38 1.023 .944 -.077 .112 -.687 .224
SP3. Thai street food charge is appropriated. 5.50 .989 .919 -.095 .112 -.709 .224
SP4. Thai street food is inexpensive. 5.55 1.049 .827 -.428 .112 -.065 .224
Factor 6 Product attractiveness (SFPA) 2.875 .877
SC7. Thai street food smells nice. 5.53 1.070 .606 -.625 .112 .751 .224
SC8. Thai street food is tasty/yummy. 5.61 1.022 .948 -.474 .112 .034 .224
SC9. Thai street food look a pleasant texture. 5.60 .985 .806 -.333 .112 -.369 .224
SC10. Overall, Thai street food preparation/taste/flavor with 5.57 1.050 .540 -.407 .112 -.040 .224
quality.
Factor7 Staff proficiency cooking (SFSP) 2.623 .859
SS9. Thai street food staff is well-known about the street food 5.12 1.160 .747 -.138 .112 -.185 .224
menu.
SS10. Thai street food staff has an efficient cook appearance by 4.95 1.196 .809 -.117 .112 -.493 .224
wearing a clearness and prompt suite.
SS11. Overall performance of street food staff provided is satisfied. 5.32 1.078 .757 -.273 .112 -.196 .224
Factor8 Packaging and portion (SFPP) 2.081 .852
SL2. Thai street food portion/container look delicious. 5.39 1.005 .664 -.459 .112 .234 .224
SL3. Thai street food is a properness and nice packaging. 5.41 1.113 .892 -.743 .112 .938 .224
SL4. Overall, Thai street food presentation is visually attractive. 5.61 1.028 .751 -.638 .112 .512 .224
Factor9 Traditional and authenticity (SFTA) 2.032 .898
SV11. Tasting Thai street food in a traditional way is a special 5.75 .955 .748 -.462 .112 -.242 .224
experience.
5.75 .962 .810 -.613 .112 .243 .224
(continued on next page)
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Table 2 (continued )
Factor % of variance Mean Std. Factor Coefficient Skewness Kurtosis (Std.
(Eigen-value) alphas (Std.error) error)
Deviation Loadings
SV12. Experience with Thai street food provides the original of

Thailand features.
SV13. Thai street food is widely popular and famous (well-known). 5.82 .938 .820 -.426 .112 -.349 .224
Total variance: 63.235
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy = .928.
eating Thai street foods was R2 = 0.304, and intention to recommend χ2/df = 1.880, RMSEA = 0.043, CFI = 0.846, and IFI = 0.847). The
Thai street foods was R2 = 0.313. findings indicated that the χ2 difference test between the unrestricted
Next, the mediating role of each variable was identified using a and fully restricted models was insignificant: (Δχ2=(63) = 30.068, p >
bootstrapping technique, and the result of the indirect impact was 0.01). Hence, the results of the moderating variable were freely esti

assessed through other contrast variables. The findings showed that mated and generally supported. The details are shown in Table 4.
street food attributes exerted a significant effect on the indirect impact The invariance test for the structural model was investigated. The
on attitude toward Thai street foods (β STCL → STSF → ATSF = 0.067, p < model exhibited adequate fit to the data (χ2 = 8518.598, df = 4304, p <
0.05; β SFMA → STSF → ATSF = − 0.045, p < 0.05; β SFSP → STSF → ATSF = 0.001, χ2/df = 1.979, RMSEA = 0.045, CFI = 0.828, and IFI = 0.707).
0.037, p < 0.05; β SFCF → STSF → ATSF = 0.001, p < 0.05; β SFVM → STSF → The baseline model was compared with the nested models between the
ATSF = 0.097, p < 0.05; β SFPA → STSF → ATSF = 0.043, p < 0.05; β SFPS → two groups of perceived risks of Thai street food consumption in
STSF → ATSF = 0.026, p < 0.05; β SFPP → STSF → ATSF = − 0.004, p < 0.05; β accordance with the data reported in Table 4 and Fig. 3. The χ2 test
SFTA → STSF → ATSF = 0.041, p < 0.05). Similarly, the indirect paths results showed that attitude toward Thai street foods to the intention to
exerted a significant impact on attachment to Thai street foods (β STCL → continue eating (Δχ2=(1) = 0.648, p > 0.001) and recommending
STSF → ATSF → ACTSF = 0.106, p < 0.05; β SFMA → STSF → ATSF → ACTSF = (Δχ2=(1) = 0.596, p > 0.001) Thai street foods was insignificant be

− 0.071, p < 0.05; β SFSP → STSF → ATSF → ACTSF = 0.058, p < 0.05; β SFCF → tween the two groups (H9a and H9b). In particular, the path link be

STSF → ATSF → ACTSF = 0.002, p < 0.05; β SFVM → STSF → ATSF → ACTSF = tween the attachment to Thai street foods to intention to continue eating
0.152, p < 0.05; β SFPA → STSF → ATSF → ACTSF = 0.068, p < 0.05; β SFPS → Thai street foods was determined via the χ2 test (Δχ2=(1) = 25.316, p <
STSF → ATSF → ACTSF = 0.041, p < 0.05; β SFPP → STSF → ATSF → ACTSF = 0.001). The intention to recommend Thai street foods (Δχ2=(1) =
− 0.006, p < 0.05; β STSF → STSF → ATSF → ACTSF = 0.064, p < 0.05; β STSF → 33.304, p < 0.001) was significant. This result supported the hypothe

ATSF → ACTSF = 0.061, p < 0.05). The 10 indirect paths exerted a sig sized moderating effect (H9c and H9d).

nificant impact on the intention to recommend Thai street foods (β STCL
→ STSF → ATSF → ACTSF → IRTSF = 0.057, p < 0.05; β SFMA → STSF → ATSF → 5. Discussion and implications
ACTSF → IRTSF = − 0.038, p < 0.05; β SFSP → STSF → ATSF → ACTSF → IRTSF =
0.031, p < 0.05; β SFCF → STSF → ATSF → ACTSF → IRTSF = 0.001, p < 0.05; β 5.1. General discussion
SFVM → STSF → ATSF → ACTSF → IRTSF = 0.082, p < 0.05; β SFPA → STSF → ATSF →
ACTSF → IRTSF = 0.036, p < 0.05; β SFSP → STSF → ATSF → ACTSF → IRTSF = This study was designed to gain a comprehensive understanding of
0.022, p < 0.05; β SFPP → STSF → ATSF → ACTSF → IRTSF = − 0.003, p < 0.05; β the attributes of Thai street foods based on tourists’ post-purchase ex

SFTA → STSF → ATSF → ACTSF → IRTSF = 0.034, p < 0.05; β ATSF → ACTSF → IRTSF periences and their perceptions during their visit to Thailand. In this
= 0.053, p < 0.05). Only one indirect patch exhibited an insignificant study, a qualitative technique was used to identify Thai street food at

relationship (β STSF → ATSF → ACTSF → IRTSF = 0.265, p > 0.05). The tributes. This approach generated Thai street food attributes that are
findings showed that the 10 paths were significantly related to the considered important factors by international tourists. This study also
intention to continue eating Thai street foods (β STCL → STSF → ATSF → ACTSF examined the attributes of Thai street foods among the construct vari

→ ICTSF = 0.069, p < 0.05; β SFMA → STSF → ATSF → ACTSF → ICTSF = − 0.046, ables, including tourist satisfaction with, attitude toward, and attach

p < 0.05; β SFSP → STSF → ATSF → ACTSF → ICTSF = 0.037, p < 0.05; β SFCF → ment to their intention. Lastly, this study identified the role of perceived
STSF → ATSF → ACTSF → ICTSF = 0.001, p < 0.05; β SFVM → STSF → ATSF → ACTSF risks of Thai street food consumption among attitude, attachment, and
→ ICTSF = 0.099, p < 0.05; β SFPA → STSF → ATSF → ACTSF → ICTSF = 0.044, p loyalty. Exploratory and confirmatory statistical analyses were used to
< 0.05; β SFSP → STSF → ATSF → ACTSF → ICTSF = 0.026, p < 0.05; β SFPP → STSF thoroughly verify the elements of Thai street foods. The following nine
→ ATSF → ACTSF → ICTSF = − 0.004, p < 0.05; β STSF → STSF → ATSF → ACTSF → potential dimensions of Thai street foods were acceptable in terms of
ICTSF = 0.041 p < 0.05; β ATSF → ACTSF → ICTSF = 0.057, p < 0.05). And one reliability and validity levels: (1) cultural and local experiences, (2)
indirect path presented an insignificant relationship (β STSF → ATSF → menu and atmosphere, (3) staff service, (4) core food quality, (5) value
ACTSF → ICTSF = 0.321, p > 0.05). The results of the indirect impact for money, (6) product attractiveness, (7) staff proficiency, (8) pack

assessment are summarized in Table 3. aging and portions, and (9) traditional and authentic.
The findings identified cultural and local experiences as the largest
4.4. Moderator model approach by an invariance model assessment factor. All the item variables were related to learning and knowledge of
Thai cultural and local experiences and the realization of authentic Thai
The next stage of the analysis is to investigate Hypotheses 9a–9d, experience by eating Thai street foods. This result substantiates the
which are related to the moderating impact. This task was performed opinion that tourists are generally seeking and focusing on new expe

using metric invariance. The study sample was divided into two con riences, such as local cultural and authentic way of life (Henderson,
2019, pp. 45–57; Kim & Eves, 2012). The second dimension, namely,

spicuous high and low groups using the k-means cluster analytical
approach. The high group perceived the high risks of Thai street food menu and atmosphere, was associated with Thai street food menu in

consumption and provided 288 responses. The low group perceived the formation, description, food picture/presentation, food variety, and at

low risks of Thai street food consumption and provided 187 responses. mosphere of Thai street food areas as clean and comfortable; these
The results showed that the goodness-of-fit statistics of the unrestricted aspects were identified in previous customer food consumption research
model were adequate to the data (χ2 = 8116.356, df = 4238, χ2/df = (Kwun, 2001; Jang et al., 2011; Ali et al., 2015). The third dimension, i.
1.915, p < 0.001, RMSEA = 0.044, CFI = 0.842, and IFI = 0.844) and the e., staff service, comprised of the service offered by street food sellers
full metric invariance to the data (χ2 = 8086.286, df = 4301, p < 0.001, and/or cooks, such as being friendly, helpful, kind, and courteous.
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Fig. 2. The measurement model – the attributes of Thai street food.

Cultural and local experiencing = SFCL, Menu and atmosphere = SFMA, Staff service = SFSS, Core food quality = SFCQ, Value for money = SFVM, Product
attractiveness = SFPA, Staff proficiency = SFSP, Packaging and portion = SFPP, Traditional and authenticity = SFTA.
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Table 3
Results of the structural equation modeling.
Standardized Estimates t-Values Result
SFCL → STSF .214 2.749** Supported
SFMA → STSF -.142 − 2.184* Supported

SFSS → STSF .116 1.984* Supported
SFCF → STSF .003 0.067 Not supported
SFVM → STSF .307 7.506*** Supported
SFPA → STSF .137 2.513* Supported
SFSP → STSF .082 2.016* Supported
SFPP → STSF -.012 − 0.235 Not supported
SFTA → STSF .129 2.242* Supported
STSF → ATSF .316 7.264*** Supported
STSF → ACTSF .434 6.392*** Supported
ATSF → ACTSF .195 2.393* Supported
ATSF → ICTSF .556 7.405*** Supported
ATSF → IRTSF .409 6.195*** Supported
ACTSF → ICTSF .294 6.941*** Supported
ACTSF → IRTSF .275 6.996*** Supported
Indirect – impact assessment
SFCL SFMA SFSP SFCF SFVM SFPA SFSP SFPP SFTA STSF ATSF
STSF – – – – – – – – – – –
ATSF .067* -.045* .037* .001* .097* .043* .026* -.004* .041* – –
ACTSF .106* -.071* .058* .002* .152* .068* .041* -.006* .064* .061* –
IRTSF .057* -.038* .031* .001* .082* .036* .022* -.003* .034* .265 .053*
ICTSF .069* -.046* .037* .001* .099* .044* .026* -.004* .041* .321 .057*
Indirect Goodness-of-fit statistics: χ2 = 5774.336, df = 2152, p < 0.001,χ2/df = 2.683, RMSEA = .060, CFI = .849, NFI = .781 R2
SFTA = .516
ATSF = .152
ACTSF = .159
IRTSF = .313
ICTSF = .304
*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.

Cultural and local experiencing = SFCL, Menu and atmosphere = SFMA, Staff service = SFSP, Core food quality = SFCF, Value for money = SFVM, Product attrac

tiveness = SFPA, Staff proficiency = SFSP, Packaging and portion = SFPP, Traditional and authenticity = SFTA, Satisfaction with Thai street foods = STSF, Attitude
toward Thai street foods = ATSF, Attachment to Thai street foods = ACTSF, Intention to continue eating Thai street foods = ICTSF, Intention to recommend Thai street
foods = IRTSF.
Table 4
The results of the measurement and structural – invariance models for High PRTSFC (288) and Low PRTSFC group (187).
Measurement – invariance models for the high (N = 288) and low (N = 187)
Models X2 df Δχ2 Full-metric invariance
Non-restricted model 8116.354 4238 (63) = 30.068, p > 0.01 (insignificant) Supported
Full-metric invariance 8086.286 4301
Other Goodness-of-Fit indices of the non-restricted model: RMSEA = .044, CFI = .842, IFI = .844
Other Goodness-of-Fit indices of the Full-restricted model: RMSEA = .043, CFI = .846, IFI = .847
Paths High PRTSFC group (n = 288) Low PRTSFC group (n = 187) Baseline model Nested model
Coefficients t-values Coefficients t-values (freely estimated) (Constrained to be Equal)
ATSF > ICTSF .396 4.592*** .510 4.472*** X2 (4304) = 8518.598 X2 (4305) = 8519.246a
ATSF > IRTSF .246 3.787*** .353 3.581*** X2 (4304) = 8518.598. X2 (4305) = 8519.194.b
ACTSF > ICTSF .659 9.274*** .205. 3.584*** X2 (4304) = 8518.598 X2 (4305) = 8543.914c
ACTSF > IRTSF .638 9.507*** 176 3.464*** X2 (4304) = 8518.598 X2 (4305) = 8551.902d
Chi-square difference test:
a Δχ2 = (1) = 0.648, p > 0.001 (not supported)

b Δχ2 = (1) = 0.596, p > 0.001 (not supported)
c Δχ2 = (1) = 25.316, p < 0.001 (supported)
d Δχ2= (1) = 33.304, p < 0.001 (supported) Goodness-of-fit statistics for the baseline model2=8518.598, df = 4304 p < 0.001, χ2/df = 1.979, RMSEA = .045, CFI = 828, IFI = .707
*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.

Attitude toward Thai street foods = ATSF, Attachment to Thai street foods = ACTSF, Intention to continue eating Thai street foods = ICTSF, Intention to recommend
Thai street foods = IRTSF, Perceived risks of Thai street foods consumption = PRTSFC.
Undoubtedly, service from the staff is an important priority factor prices of Thai street food products, which were reasonable with an
related to business success, particularly in the hospitality and tourism appropriate value for money. This factor was confirmed as the key
industries (Chang et al., 2011; Jang et al., 2011). Fourth, the partici characteristic of street foods, which are generally offered for a low price

pants’ perceptions about core food quality included the basic elements, (Chavarria & Phakdee-auksorn, 2017). The sixth dimension, which is
such as freshness and cleanliness of food, ingredients, and recipes. product attractiveness, is related to tourists’ attraction to street foods
The fifth dimension, namely, value for money, was related to the based on good smell, delicious taste, and pleasant texture along with
651
PDFelement
Fig. 3. Structural model estimation (n = 475).

H = High perceived risks of Thai street foods consumption.
L = Low perceived risks of Thai street foods consumption.
Cultural and local experiencing = SFCL, Menu and atmosphere = SFMA, Staff service = SFSS, Core food quality = SFCF, Value for money = SFVM, Product
attractiveness = SFPA, Staff proficiency = SFSP, Packaging and portion = SFPP, Traditional and authenticity = SFTA.
high quality and hygiene. The seventh factor, which is staff proficiency, 2009; Ali et al., 2016).
is related to the ability of the sellers and/or cooks to inform and The menus and atmosphere of street foods exhibited a significant
communicate with tourists about their products and menus and effi negative association to customer evaluation and behavior. Such an

ciently prepare/cook street foods. The next dimension, labeled pack output is statistical because of the high correlation and collinearity

aging and portions, is related to packaging design, portion size, and the values between the constructs. The finding confirms that the essential
general appearance of street foods (i.e., looks delicious and visually role manifests a positive significance over tourists’ feelings. The menu
attractive). The last dimension, namely, traditional and authentic, re and atmosphere dimension is regarded as an important factor in food

lates to the popularity of Thai street foods, which are well-known for marketing, which has been shown in previous food business studies
offering special traditional experiences that are authentically Thai. (Han & Ryu, 2009; Zhao et al., 2012). The results indicated that two
The proposed model indicated that the attributes of Thai street foods attributes, namely, core food quality and street food packaging, were
play a role in tourist satisfaction. Tourists’ attitude toward and attach insignificant with regard to tourist satisfaction with Thai street foods.

ment to Thai street foods are related to behavioral loyalty. The results of Food quality is generally regarded as an important element in the food
the SEM approach showed seven potential elements of Thai street foods business and should be provided to meet the needs and satisfaction of
that were significant predictors of tourist satisfaction with Thai street customers; this aspect has been widely considered in previous studies
foods. These elements included cultural and local experiences, menu and (Canny, 2014; Ryu, Lee, & Kim, 2012). In this case, international visitors
atmosphere, staff service, value for money, product attractiveness, staff may question and worry about hygiene and the quality of street foods,
proficiency, and traditional and authentic experiences. The results which has been observed in past Southeast Asian street food studies
confirmed that the perceived elements were positively significantly (Phakdee-Auksorn, 2017; Henderson et al., 2012).
related to tourists’ satisfaction when they received these elements. For The proposed theoretical model of tourists’ satisfaction, attitude,
example, the findings related to some dimensions, such as cultural and attachment, and behavioral intention exerted a positive effect on tourist
local experiences and traditional and authentic, are consistent with the loyalty intention toward Thai street foods. The results supported pre

past literature (Kim et al., 2011; Chang et al., 2011; Mak et al., 2012; vious studies (Orth et al., 2010; Kwun, 2011; Ryu, Lee, & Kim, 2012; Li
Kim & Eves, 2012). Staff service quality, which included staff perfor & Liu, 2020) and confirmed attitude and attachment as mediating pre

mance and skill, was a key element of success in the hospitality and dictors of tourist loyalty (Li & Liu, 2020; Ryu, Lee, & Kim, 2012). This
tourism industries (Zhao et al., 2012; Chang et al., 2011; Canny, 2014; study also assessed the metric invariance of the perceived risks of street
Zang et al., 2019). The product attractiveness attribute was confirmed to food consumption among tourist attitude, attachment, and behavioral
be positively significant in tourist behavior in previous studies (Han & loyalty. The results confirmed that the perceived risks of the high and
Ryu, 2009; Zhao et al., 2012). Travelers’ perception of price reason low groups play a significant role as moderator in attachment to Thai

ableness is an important predictor of customer satisfaction (Han & Ryu, street foods and behavioral intention. The findings indicated that the
652
PDFelement
perceived risks of the high and low groups had a negative impression as sustainability of a food destination. In addition, to alleviate tourists’
moderator of attitude toward Thai street foods and tourist future concerns, vendors should improve the safety and hygiene of food pro

intention. Given the preceding evidence, this study recommends that duction by considering its quality to build tourist trust and belief toward
tourists’ perceived food consumption risks must be efficiently managed street foods. Enhancing the image of street foods as a food destination
to improve future behavioral intention. will create a competitive advantage. These issues challenge the gov

ernment and food businesses to work closely together in improving food
5.2. Implications tourism strategies/policies and good practices to increase its demand. By
doing so, tourist intention will be boosted, and the positive image of a
Food tourism has increasingly flourished in the hospitality and destination as one of the best places for food tourism will be improved.
tourism contexts. Understanding tourists’ attitudes and needs regarding
food plays a role in the choice of destination. This study investigated
Thai street food attributes and the roles they play in tourists’ satisfac 5.3. Limitations and recommendations

tion, attitude, attachment, and behavioral intention. Furthermore, this
research confirmed that when international visitors receive these attri This study has several limitations. First, the data were collected in

butes poorly, future intention to visit a destination will be affected Bangkok and Phuket only, and thus, do not cover all Thai street foods.
negatively. This study provides the information of the major elements Further studies may look into the other tourism destinations, such as
that tourists required regarding Thai street foods. The results suggest Chaing Mai and Krabi. Moreover, future studies may focus on other
that street food services/marketers should fulfill tourists’ expectations tourist destinations by further exploring other countries, such as
regarding the key attributes of Thai street foods. For example, street Singapore, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan, which are famous for their
food services/marketers should offer authentic Thai food presented in a street foods. This study contributed a general understanding of Thai
manner that represents local culture, wisdom, and daily life to meet the street food attributes and tested their relationship with international
expectations and desires of international tourists of having an authentic tourists visiting Thailand. Future research that specifically focuses on
Thai experience. In addition to reasonable prices and high-quality food, nationalities or cultural identities, such as Chinese, Asian, European,
this attribute will provide a competitive advantage to Thai street food and Muslim tourists, can be conducted. This research considered street
vendors. foods in the general categories/types, such as street foods in the market/
The results of the second part of this research, which involved the hawker centers and mobile street foods. Further studies may focus on
potential value to the hospitality sector of providing appropriate ser specific categories/types of street foods. Lastly, this research was only

vices and creating tourist experiences that lead to high levels of satis applied to the framework of Thai street foods and tourist satisfaction,

faction, attitude, attachment, and loyalty, will be useful for Thai tourism attitude, attachment, and future intention. Further studies can develop
agencies or other tourism destinations in developing and promoting or add street food attributes to other proposed structural models or
street food production in a manner that ensures the long-term include other tourist decision-making contributors.
Appendix A
A1: The mobile Thai Street food vendor
A2: Thai street food open in a fixed location
653
PDFelement
A3: Thai street food occupied in front of the seller’s house
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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management

1. Introduction traditional values by using local resources, contributing to local econ

Fig. 1. The research methodology flow chart.

The previous literature and in-depth interviews of the 22

Factor 1 Cultural and local experience (SFCL) 32.964 .892

SV12. Experience with Thai street food provides the original of

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy = .928.

Fig. 2. The measurement model – the attributes of Thai street food.

SFCL → STSF .214 2.749** Supported

SFMA → STSF -.142 − 2.184* Supported

Indirect – impact assessment

*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.

Models X2 df Δχ2 Full-metric invariance

Coefficients t-values Coefficients t-values (freely estimated) (Constrained to be Equal)

Chi-square difference test:

a Δχ2 = (1) = 0.648, p > 0.001 (not supported)

*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.

Fig. 3. Structural model estimation (n = 475).

A1: The mobile Thai Street food vendor

A2: Thai street food open in a fixed location

A3: Thai street food occupied in front of the seller’s house

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p < 0.05, p < 0.01, p < 0.001.

p < 0.05, p < 0.01, p < 0.001.