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Cost assessment for healthy diet in the state of Penang, Malaysia
Article · August 2016

DOI: 10.5530/jppcm.2016.4.5
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Journal of Pharmacy Practice and Community Medicine.2016, 2(4):130-136 • http://dx.doi.org/10.5530/jppcm.2016.4.5 e-ISSN: 2455-3255
RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS
Cost assessment for healthy diet in the state of Penang, Malaysia
Fahad Saleem1, Mohamed Azmi Hassali2, Omar Thanoon2, Akram Ahmad3,

Muhammad Umair Khan*3
1
Faculty of Pharmacy and Health Sciences University of Baluchistan, Quetta, PAKISTAN.
2
School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang-11800, MALAYSIA.
3
Department of Clinical Pharmacy, UCSI University, Kuala Lumpur-56000, MALAYSIA.
Received: 11 April 2016;

Abstract
Accepted: 31 May 2016
Background: Despite the critical peril of deteriorating well-being of the Malaysian population,
*Correspondence to:
there remains lack of information related to the cost assessment of eating a healthy diet. Within
Muhammad Umair Khan, MS, MPhil,
Department of Clinical Pharmacy, this context, the current study addresses the issue of affordability of healthy eating in Malaysia
Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, by calculating the direct cost of healthy eating options provided by the Malaysian Dietary
UCSI University, Kuala Lumpur-56000, Guidelines. Methods: The study was designed as a once-only, time-based walk-in survey. Three
MALAYSIA.
Email: [email protected] hypermarkets located in the center of the Penang city were targeted for data collection. The
Copyright: © the author(s),publisher and licensee
examples provided by the Malaysian Dietary Guidelines for a one-day menu for 1500, 2000 and
Indian Academy of Pharmacists. This is an open- 2500 kcal were used for cost calculation. Worksheets were used for data collection and the
access article distributed under the terms of the data was later transferred to SPSS v 18 for analysis. Based on the objectives of the study, the
Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial
data was described descriptively and average spending for a month was calculated. Results:
License, which permits unrestricted non-commercial
use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, Healthy eating was reported ‘unaffordable’ as on average, an individual following a 1500 kcal
provided the original work is properly cited. menu needed RM 845.50 (US $191.50) each month in order to stay healthy. Furthermore, those
following 2000 and 2500 kcal menu plan had to spend RM 1062.30 (US $240.75) and RM 1437.60
(US $325.80) to consume healthy diet respectively. Conclusions: Affordability shaped as a major
barrier towards healthy eating in the state of Penang, Malaysia especially for households having
low and middle income. The findings are of particular importance because the immediate and
long-term consequences of unhealthy diet are comprehensive and can influence lifelong practices.
Key words: Cost, Assessment, Healthy diet, Malaysia, Affordibility, Nutrition.
INTRODUCTION
The past two decades witnessed a transition in nutrition selection, whereby a strident
shift among dietary patterns was observed.[1] This nutritional transition in addition with
sedentary lifestyles resulted in an increased prevalence of obesity worldwide.[2] Since
then, obesity became a serious health concern resulting in the development of multiple
chronic diseases.[3-5] Among numerous interventions to control increasing obesity rates,
healthy diet and lifestyle modification are frequently highlighted in the literature.[6,7]
Consequently, healthy eating is becoming a growing concern and intake and practice
of healthy diet is identified as a precedence for reducing diet-related chronic diseases
and weight–related disorders.[8]
Within the context of increased obesity and pervasiveness of diet-related chronic

diseases, Malaysia is not an exception. Malaysia being a rapidly growing nation is affected
Publishing Partner : EManuscript [www.emanuscript.in]
130 Journal of Pharmacy Practice and Community Medicine Vol. 2 ● Issue 4 ● Oct-Dec 2016 ● www.jppcm.org
Saleem et al.:Evaluation of cost assessment for healthy diet
by westernization of eating habits.[9] Modern lifestyle, the based walk-in survey. Three hypermarkets located in the
tendency of outdoor food consumption and irregular centre of the Penang city were targeted for data collection.
meal habits are comprehended as a general norm among Population’ favorable choice of shopping, ease of vicinity
Malaysians. From local restaurants to international chains, and availability of lower price option were kept in mind
the fast food sector was reported as a preferred choice of while selecting the study settings.
Malaysians with 67% growth in 5 years.[1] The popularity
and availability of junk food, sedentary lifestyle and dietary Study variables
transference resulted in a rapid increase of obesity in the The examples provided by the Malaysian Dietary Guidelines
Malaysian population. In 2010, Malaysia was ranked sixth for a one-day menu for 1500, 2000 and 2500 kcal were
in the Asia-Pacific region for obesity and was at the top in used for cost calculation.[13] The items in the one-day menu
South-East Asia for both obesity and diabetes.[10] In line require some preparation; therefore, it was assumed that
with what being reported earlier, the National Health and those purchasing the food items have basic cooking skills
Morbidity Survey in 2011 reported 33.3% of the Malaysian and a location to cook and store food. In addition, the cost
as pre-obese and 27.2% as obese. Furthermore, 35.1% of the of travelling to the hypermarkets was not included in the
adults had hypercholesterolemia, 32.7% were hypertensive calculations and only direct cost of the healthy food was
and 15.2% were diagnosed with diabetes.[11] Accordingly, procured.
the alarming upsurge of chronic diseases and obesity rates
resulted in the implementation of various interventions Data collection and analysis
through Ministry of Health, Malaysia. Among such
Fifteen undergraduate students enrolled at School of
interventions, a National Plan of Action for Nutrition of
Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia were
Malaysia was developed to confront the issues of obesity in
trained for data collection. The undergraduates were divided
Malaysia.[12] Additionally, Malaysian Dietary Guidelines were
into three groups visit the hypermarkets for data collection.
introduced in 2010 promoting the rational of health eating
Worksheets were used for data collection and the data was
in Malaysia.[13] The guidelines came up with 14 key messages
later transferred to SPSS v 18 for analysis. Based on the
including the example of one-day menu for 1500 kcal (for
objectives of the study, the data was described descriptively
diabetic patient, sedentary women and older adults), 2000
and average spending for a month was calculated.
kcal (for children, teenage girls, moderately active women
and sedentary men) and 2500 kcal (for teenage boys, active Ethical consideration
men, very active women and underweight men/women).[13]
The departmental research review committee of Discipline
Although a growing concern towards the importance of of Social and Administrative Pharmacy, School of
healthy eating among Malaysian population is observed, Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia approved
the apprehension is not habitually translated into practice. the study.
Despite the proliferation of healthy eating campaigns,
achieving the desired ‘healthy’ behaviour among the RESULTS
Malaysian population is not eminent.[1] Multiple factors
pose obstacles to the promotion of healthy diets, The example of one-day menu is presented in Figure 1.
however, a thought in societies prevail that healthy food Because of nature of items presented in the menu and
is more expensive than less healthy options. Hence, it the bulk availability at the hypermarkets, standard unit
is hypothesized that cost incurred for healthy eating is a conversion method was used to calculate the price of
major barrier towards healthy eating practices in Malaysia. required amount stated in the guidelines. The following
[8]
Therefore, to address the issue of affordability of healthy parameters were recorded after obtaining the price and
eating, the current study was undertaken. The study aimed to unit conversion.
calculate the direct cost of healthy eating options provided
by the Malaysian Dietary Guidelines. 1. The total price per meal for each category (kcal) in one
day,
METHODS 2. The daily summation of healthy eating per category
(kcal),
Study design and settings 3. The average price per meal among three supermarkets
In order to minimize the effect of price fluctuations in one day,
over time, the study was designed as a once-only, time- 4. The cost of healthy eating per week for each category
Journal of Pharmacy Practice and Community Medicine Vol. 2 ● Issue 4 ● Oct-Dec 2016 ● www.jppcm.org 131
Saleem et al.: Evaluation of cost assessment for healthy diet
Figure 1: Example of a one-day menu (Malaysian Dietary Gui delines, 2010).
(kcal) and This is because that the decision of adapting to a healthy diet
5. The cost of healthy eating per month for each category is not simply a matter of individual choice. Socio-economic
(kcal) factors, availability, and affordability, environmental and
working conditions impinge on a person’s ability to make
Table 1, 2 and 3 presents the comparative prices of healthy healthy food choices.[17] Within this context, affordability
food at the three targeted hypermarkets. For the 1500 kcal is often rated as a major barrier towards healthy eating. A
menu, cost per day varied from Malaysian Ringgit (RM) recently conducted meta-analysis revealed that on average,
27.22 to 29.37. Cost per day for the 2000 kcal menu ranged healthier food-based diet patterns are more expensive
from RM 33.70 to 37.20. Lastly, for the 2500 kcal menu, than less healthy patterns with a price difference of about
cost per day ranged from RM 45.10 to 52.77. $1.50/day.[8] Moreover, yet again, studies of the same nature
reported price as a major barrier towards healthy eating
The average monthly cost of healthy eating in Penang, around the globe.[18-21]
Malaysia is presented in Table 4. On average, an individual
following a 1500 kcal menu needed RM 845.50 each month Inline to what was hypothesised earlier, affordability
in order to stay healthy. Furthermore, those following 2000 shaped as a major barrier towards healthy eating in the
and 2500 kcal menu plan had to spend RM 1062.30 and RM state of Penang, Malaysia. Our assumption is supported
1437.60 to consume healthy diet respectively. by comparative statistics of the current study with the
state of households in Malaysia.[22] Although the economic
DISCUSSION transformation of Malaysia during the past two decades is
worth mentioning, high Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
Access to nutritious food is a basic human right. A healthy per person is never an indicator of high household income.
diet has four distinct characteristics; adequate, balanced, Essentially, such high average income is deformed by the
moderate and varied that provide a proper combination of proceeds of the affluent classes and hence disguises the fact
energy and nutrients.[13] However, dietary practices around that median income is actually much lower.[22] Nevertheless,
the globe are reported to be irregular and unbalanced.[14-16] with a median household income of RM 3626 in Malaysia,
Table 1: Cost of one-day menu for 1500, 2000 and 2500 kcal (Hypermarket A)
Meal Type Items Price in Malaysian Ringgit (RM)*
1500 kcal 2000 kcal 2500 kcal
Breakfast Fried rice 1 cup = 1.30 1.1/2 cup = 1.95 1.1/2 cup = 1.95
Carrots 1/4 cup = 0.03 1/4 cup = 0.03 1/4 cup = 0.03
French beans 1/4 cup = 0.24 1/4 cup = 0.24 1/4 cup = 0.24
Coffee 1 cup = 0.35 1 cup = 0.35 1 cup = 0.35
Low fat milk 1/4 cup = 0.42 1/4 cup = 0.42 1/4 cup = 0.42
Soya bean curd - 1/2 piece = 0.23 1/2 piece = 0.23
Chicken - 1/2 piece = 2.83 1/2 piece = 2.83
Fried egg - - 1 = 0.80
Net cost RM = 2.34 RM = 6.05 RM = 6.85
Brunch Tea w/o sugar 1 cup= 0.35 - -
Apam kukus - 4 pc = 2.00 -
Tea with Low fat milk - 1 cup = 0.97 1 cup = 0.97
Doughnut - - 1 pc = 0.38
Pisangemas - - 2 whole = 2.29
Net cost RM = 0.35 RM = 2.97 RM = 3.64
Lunch Bihun sup 1 cup= 2.00 1.1/2 cup= 3.00 1.1/2 cup= 3.00
Small prawn 10 pc= 4.90 10 pc = 4.90 10 pc = 4.90
Sawi + tomato + carrot + baby corn 1 serving = 1.56 1 serving = 1.56 1 serving = 1.56
Watermelon 1 slice= 1.49 - -
Ice lemon tea with 1 tbsp sugar 1 glass= 0.73 1 glass= 0.73 1 glass= 0.73
Ice cream cup - - 1 small= 2.00
Mango - - 1 whole= 5.99
Papaya - 1 slice = 1.89 -
Net cost RM = 10.68 RM = 12.08 RM = 18.18
Tea Time Popiabasah 2 pieces = 1.00 3 pc = 1.50 -
Low fat chocolate drink - 1 glass = 2.07 1 glass = 2.07
Tea w/o sugar + low fat milk 1 cup = 0.77 - -
Rojakpasembur - - 1.1/2 cup = 7.00
Net cost RM = 1.77 RM = 3.57 RM = 9.07
Dinner White rice 1 cup= 1.00 1.1/2 cup= 1.50 2 cups= 2.00
Sup sayurcampur 1/2 cup= 4.30 1/2 cup= 4.30 1/2 cup= 4.30
Pisangemas 2 whole= 2.29 - -
Ikankembungbakarberlada 1 medium = 5.00 1 medium = 5.00 1 medium = 5.00
Plain water 1 glass = 0.24 1 glass = 0.24 1 glass = 0.24
Red apple - 1 pc = 1.49 -
Guava - - 1/2 whole= 3.49
Net cost RM = 12.83 RM = 12.53 RM = 15.03
TOTAL COST PER DAY RM = 27.97 RM = 37.20 RM = 52.77
*1 RM = 0.24 US$
it is noteworthy to remember that 23% of households government spent a huge amount on subsidies in previous
earn less than RM 2,000 per month. Furthermore, 55% years but such incentives were actually enjoyed by the high
of the Malaysian population earn less than RM 4,000 per income group.[22] Lastly, it is to be noticed that the prices for
month.[22] At the personage level, the median monthly the current study were taken from hypermarkets where the
salaries and wages in Malaysia were RM 1700.[23] Therefore, offered prices are much lower than ordinary grocery stores.
for individuals following the 2000 and 2500 kcal plan,[13] [24]
Hence, with a low-income status and high debts to be
the calculated healthy diet corresponds to a minimum paid, healthy eating plans for at least half of the Malaysian
of 62.50 and 84.50% of the median salary respectively. population are not actually practicable.
Additionally, households in Malaysia have to make loan
installment payments, which are approximately 18% of From the Malaysian perspective, this study is the first to use
their income with the current interest rate.[22] Consequently, actual prices to examine the affordability of healthy diet in
to compensate the population’ financial issues, Malaysian the country. Our results are in line with the general trend
Table 2: Cost of one-day menu for 1500, 2000 and 2500 kcal (Hypermarket B)
Fried egg - - 1 = 0.70
Net cost RM = 3.25 RM = 4.50 RM = 5.30
Tea with low fat milk - 1 cup = 1.66 1 cup = 1.66
Pisangemas - - 2 whole = 2.00
Net cost RM = 1.20 RM = 3.66 RM = 5.15
Net cost RM = 10.36 RM = 11.46 RM = 15.16
Net cost RM = 2.66 RM = 2.94 RM =8.44
Net cost RM = 11.87 RM = 11.14 RM =11.84
*1 RM = 0.24 US$
where healthy foods had increased prices than foods that Dietary Guidelines.[13] The rebate amount will be added to
were less healthy.[25,26] In the coming future, it is unlikely the respective purchase cards of the buyers and to be used
that cost of healthy meal plans will reduce and affordability for the following month. In a very manner, items of the
will be of no concern especially for those living in poverty. healthy menu plan can be ranked based on the purchasing
Hence, efforts are required to increase the perceived value pattern. For example, fresh vegetables and fruits would have
of healthy eating among the Malaysian population. One a higher rebate ranking as compared to another foodstuff.
possible option is to introduce a healthy-food inducement Additionally, the rebate amounts should be significant
program for the population; a program that encourages enough to incentivize the people in purchasing healthy food
people to purchase healthy foods items by providing them and to quit junk or non-healthy options available in the
with a rebate for purchasing those items. The enticement markets. Due to time and financial constraints, data were
program shall offer a rebate based on total spending in one reported from three hypermarkets and grocery stores were
month on healthy food items as mentioned in the Malaysian excluded from the study. Furthermore, the analysis was
Table 3: Cost of one-day menu for 1500, 2000 and 2500 kcal (Hypermarket C)
Fried egg - - 1 = 1.00
Net cost RM = 1.62 RM = 3.68 RM = 4.68
Tea with Low fat milk - 1 cup = 1.20 1 cup = 1.20
Pisangemas - 2 whole = 1.23
Net cost RM = 0.50 RM = 3.20 RM = 4.23
Net cost RM = 6.28 RM = 7.50 RM = 10.30
Net cost RM = 1.80 RM = 2.70 RM = 8.20
Net cost RM = 17.02 RM = 18.23 RM =17.69
*1 RM = 0.24 US$
Table 4: Average monthly cost of healthy eating in Penang, Malaysia

Average Average Average Average Average Average Average Average Average
Meal Cost Cost
Cost Cost Cost Cost Cost Cost Cost
1 day* 1 week* 1 month* 1 day* 1 week* 1 month* 1 day* 1 week* 1 month*
Breakfast 2.40 16.80 72.00 4.74 33.20 142.20 5.61 39.27 168.30
Brunch 0.68 4.76 20.40 3.28 22.96 98.40 4.34 30.38 130.20
Lunch 9.11 63.77 273.30 10.35 72.45 310.50 14.55 101.85 436.50
Teatime 2.08 14.56 62.40 3.07 21.49 92.10 8.57 59.99 257.10
Dinner 13.91 97.37 417.30 13.97 97.79 419.10 14.85 103.95 445.50
Total Average Cost 28.18 197.26 845.40 35.41 247.89 1062.30 47.92 335.44 1437.60
Average monthly spending
RM 845.50 RM 1062.30 RM 1437.60
on healthy eating
*Price in Malaysian Ringgit (1 RM = 0.23 US$)
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Cite this article as: Saleem F, Hassali MA, Thanoon O, Ahmad A, Khan MU. Cost assessment for healthy diet in the state of
Penang, Malaysia. J Pharm Prac Community Med. 2016;2(4):127-133.
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Cost assessment for healthy diet in the state of Penang, Malaysia

Article · August 2016

Omar Thanoon Dawood Akram Ahmad

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Advances in Medical, Dental and Health Sciences (www.amdhs.org) View project

Health-related quality of life among TB patients View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS

Cost assessment for healthy diet in the state of Penang, Malaysia

Fahad Saleem1, Mohamed Azmi Hassali2, Omar Thanoon2, Akram Ahmad3,

Received: 11 April 2016;

Within the context of increased obesity and pervasiveness of diet-related chronic

Publishing Partner : EManuscript [www.emanuscript.in]

Figure 1: Example of a one-day menu (Malaysian Dietary Gui delines, 2010).

Table 4: Average monthly cost of healthy eating in Penang, Malaysia

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