Top Tensioned Risers (TTRs)

Karan Kakar and Peter Padelopoulos

2H Offshore Inc., Houston, TX, USA

descriptions, design criteria, and fabrication and installation

1 Introduction 1 considerations.
2 Historical Background 1
3 System Description; Typical TTRs 1
4 Tensioner Types 5
2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
5 Design Considerations 8 TTRs have an established track record for deepwater applica-
6 Fabrication Considerations 10 tions in the Gulf of Mexico (GoM), West Africa, and offshore
7 Installation And Commissioning Indonesia. TTRs have been in service on floating produc-
Considerations 11 tion systems from as early as 1984 when the Hutton tension
Glossary 12 leg platform (TLP) was installed in the UK North Sea, in
Related Articles 13 486 ft water depth. Since then, more than 30 dry tree produc-
tion facilities have been installed using TTRs, with either a
Further Reading 13
TLP or spar as the host vessel. The first TLP installation in
the GoM was Shell Auger in 1994. While this development
was in a water depth of only 2,860 ft, the technology has
now been successfully extended into water depths exceeding
1 INTRODUCTION 5,000 ft. The first spar installation in the GoM was Neptune
in 1986 in 1,930 ft water depth. The deepest spar installed
Top tensioned risers (TTRs) are dry tree riser solutions typi- to date is the Shell Perdido Spar in 8,000 ft water depth in
cally suited for a closely clustered well reservoir, wherein the GoM.
they provide surface access to subsea wells, thus allowing
workover and reentry drilling from the host vessel during
life of field. TTRs are challenging due to their complex 3 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION; TYPICAL
and highly iterative design, weight control, and multiple TTRS
complex interfaces between numerous equipment packages.
The key design issues of TTRs are focused around the param- TTRs can be utilized for either production or drilling activi-
eters that influence the riser strength, fatigue, and clear- ties, and the key system components for the production and
ance response as well as their configuration through the host drilling TTR are described in following sections.
vessel wellbay. This article provides a description of TTRs
and includes details of typical configurations, equipment
3.1 Production TTR

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
A production TTR consists of a section of vertical pipe
This article is © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. supported at the vessel by individual tensioner systems and
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe493
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition)
connected to the subsea wellhead via a tieback connector
ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2 (Figure 1).
2 Offshore

Surface wellhead Outer riser

and tree
Inner riser
Tubing

Control umbilical Splash zone joint

and ESP cables cross section
Surface
jumber

Outer riser
Inner riser
Riser tensioner Tubing

Standard joint
Tension joint cross section

Splashzone joint Standard joint

MWL

Outer riser joint

Inner riser joint

Stress joint

Tieback
connector

Conductor
and wellhead Mudline

Figure 1. Typical production top tensioned riser schematic. (© 2H Offshore Inc. Reproduced with permission.)

The tensioner system provides global stability, controls One option to tension the TTR is using a hydro-pneumatic
the motion response of the riser, and ensures that positive tensioner. Such a tensioner system may have either four (4)
effective tension is maintained at the base of the riser under or six (6) cylinders/rods that are mounted into the TLP deck
all loading conditions. structure via various interfaces. The cylinder rod slides up

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe493
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
 Top Tensioned Risers (TTRs) 3

and down relative to the cylinder barrel and provides the The functional components of the control umbilical may
stroke for the tensioner system and maintains near constant be routed from the hang-off receptacles to electrical enclo-
tension. The cylinders and rods interface with the riser sures and hose/tube bulkhead plates located on the surface
string via a tension ring that typically incorporates a concen- tree work platform and topsides. Similar to the flexible
tric large pitch thread profile that is complementary to the jumper, the control umbilical must accommodate movement
threads machined onto the tension joint. The threaded section of the surface tree in the vertical and lateral directions while
is incorporated to provide space out capability to accom- meeting the MBR requirements. The MBR is dictated by the
modate riser installation stack-up tolerances. The tension control umbilical cross section, which is sensitive to pres-
joint interfaces with the tension ring and centralizer guide sure, temperature, and compatibility with production and
roller system. The centralizer guide roller at the tree deck chemical injection fluids.
elevation acts as the riser centralization point and provides Production TTRs are typically dual casing risers that have
lateral support. The roller guides are designed to accommo- outer and inner riser strings. Production tubing is run through
date lateral loads imparted by the riser in all environmental the inner riser to transfer production fluids to the production
conditions. vessel. The production tubing is entirely supported from the
Top tension may also be provided by air or nitrogen-filled surface tree body, with no hanger at the mudline.
buoyancy cans attached to the upper section of the TTR. The inner production riser is supported from the surface
In contrast to the hydro-pneumatic tensioners, buoyancy wellhead with a casing hanger and connects in the subsea
cans provide tension passively and minimize the interaction wellhead with an internal tieback connector (ITBC). The
between the host vessel and TTRs. ITBC provides the interface between the inner riser and the
A surface tree is installed on top of a surface wellhead, subsea wellhead assembly or the external tieback connector
which functions as the suspension point for the inner riser (ETBC). The ITBC must resist the tension overpull/preload
and drill casing. Typically, surface wellheads and trees utilize that will be applied to the inner riser prior to setting the
radial bolt connectors (RBCs) for connection to the tension adjustable casing hanger in the surface wellhead. The ITBC
joint to minimize installation time and provide flexibility in contains a lockdown sub, which when rotated by a running
the surface tree orientation. The risers use surface trees to tool, locks into the subsea wellhead housing or ETBC. The
control the fluid flow of the well. A surface production flex- ITBC interface with the production inner riser joints is via a
ible jumper provides the flow path from the surface tree to the premium casing thread. The annulus between the inner riser
topsides piping. In addition, the surface tree provides addi- and outer casing may be filled with a thermal barrier gel
tional functions including chemical injection points, pressure to maintain production fluid temperatures during operation
relief systems, and connection points for devices such as while the annulus between the inner casing and tubing is
downhole pressure and temperature transducers. The surface filled with brine for most operations.
tree is controlled by a control umbilical. Work platforms Outer riser joints for the production risers extend from
allow operations personnel access to operate manual valves, the tension joint to the stress joint assembly above the
monitor pressure, and perform maintenance and well diag- subsea wellhead. Outer riser pipe can be straked to suppress
nostics activities. vortex-induced vibration (VIV) motion under current loads.
Flexible jumpers transfer fluid between the surface tree and The lower stress joint connects the riser to the subsea
the topsides manifold piping system. The interface of the casing system at the subsea wellhead via the ETBC. The
flexible jumpers may be either directly to the wing valve ETBC provides the interface between the outer riser and
of the surface tree or to a hang off receptacle located on the subsea wellhead and must accommodate the tension and
the tree work platform. On the topside, the flexible jumper high bending loads imposed by the riser. The ETBC may
can interface directly with topside piping or to a hang off be integral or flanged to the lower stress joint. The stress
receptacle. The flexible jumper must accommodate move- joint is used to manage the high bending stresses and fatigue
ment of the surface tree in the vertical and lateral direc- loading at this localized section adjacent to the point of fixity
tions, while not compromising the manufacturer specified at the seabed.
minimum bend radius (MBR). The MBR is dictated by the On a TLP, a guide wire system may be utilized during
flexible pipe cross section, which is sensitive to pressure, riser installation to direct the production TTR to the target
temperature, and compatibility with production, injection, wellhead and ensure no interference with adjacent structures.
and completion fluids.
A control umbilical is used to convey power cables; instru- 3.2 Drilling TTR
ment cables; hydraulic, pneumatic, chemical injection fluids;
and minute amounts of production fluid and gas, water, Drilling risers (Figure 2) deployed from host vessels include
and other fluids between the surface tree and the topsides. a surface blowout preventer (BOP) stack to contain the

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe493
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
4 Offshore

Outer riser
Drill string
Inner riser
Splash zone joint
cross section

Telescopic joint Fairing

Outer riser
Drill string
BOP
Inner riser
Standard joint
cross section
Buoyancy
Outer riser
Drill string
Inner riser
BOP spool
Surface wellhead Buoyant joint
cross section

Tension joint Standard joint

Buoyant joint

Riser tensioner

Splashzone joint

MWL
Outer joint
Inner joint
Drill string

Stress joint

Tieback
connector

Conductor
and wellhead
Mudline

Figure 2. Typical drilling top tensioned riser schematic. (© 2H Offshore Inc. Reproduced with permission.)

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe493
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
 Top Tensioned Risers (TTRs) 5

pressure in the wellbore. Therefore, the riser pipe needs to is to set casing past the shallow water flow zones, before
be designed to accommodate the incidental wellbore pres- temporarily abandoning the wells. Once the host produc-
sure. Drilling operations may be conducted through a single tion vessel is installed, the drilling rig on the host vessel
casing outer riser or through a drilling inner riser for dual finishes the well drilling and completion operations. Wells
casing configurations. are drilled using a drilling outer and possibly an inner riser
Similar to the production TTRs, the drilling TTR is to handle the higher pressure zones of the well. After the
supported on the host vessel by a tensioner system, which production liner is run, the well is temporarily abandoned,
may be standardized to be identical to the production the drilling and inner risers are retrieved, and the production
tensioner or customized to accommodate the higher tension riser and production casing tieback is installed. The well is
requirements for the drilling TTR. Non-standardized then completed and subsequently starts producing.
tensioner systems may include additional tensioner cylin- The combo riser eliminates the need to purchase outer
ders at the tensioner deck or a supplementary tensioning and inner drilling risers and a high capacity riser tensioning
system at a separate deck level to meet the top tension system for a significant cost saving. In addition, using one
requirements for the drilling TTR. riser for the combined operations saves a substantial amount
Outer riser joints may be seam-welded pipe sections with of time since it eliminates running and pulling the drilling
connectors welded at either end to form a continuous riser riser and temporarily abandoning the well, reducing time
joint. The exterior of the outer riser joints is coated with to first oil. These features make the combo riser an attrac-
thermal sprayed aluminum (TSA) for corrosion protection. tive enabling technology for developing marginal deepwater
Thick-wall outer riser joints that are neoprene coated may be fields, wherein an operator may prefer to use a smaller
used in the splash zone to provide extra corrosion and impact platform. Significant savings to topside and rig weight are
protection. Buoyancy modules may be attached to a section offered by the smaller combo riser (compared to a typical
of the drilling outer riser, below the high current region, to large diameter drilling riser) allowing a smaller host vessel
reduce the loads on the tensioner system. and smaller drilling rig. However, the savings may be offset
Similar to production TTRs, precision machined forgings, as multiple larger than typical production risers need to be
with profiles optimized to accommodate the high strength accommodated to eliminate one drilling riser.
and fatigue loads at TTR interfaces with the vessel and the The hardware for the combo riser is not significantly
mudline, are located at the upper and lower ends of the different from the separate production and drilling risers. The
drilling riser in the form of the tension joint and stress joint outer casing diameter of the combo riser is larger compared
assemblies, respectively. The stress joint assembly connects to typical production TTR outer casings. The tensioning
and seals to the high pressure housing on the subsea wellhead system needs to be upgraded to handle the larger diameter
via the ETBC. Similar to production TTRs, fairings and combination risers. The combo riser equipment needs to be
strakes may be utilized as VIV suppression devices to reduce specifically designed to prevent wear and fatigue encoun-
fatigue damage caused by riser VIV. tered in the drilling process.
The drilling inner riser, if used, is installed inside the An extensive risk-based evaluation of the operator’s
drilling outer riser and is suspended with a casing hanger that approach to the drilling and well-control processes is
lands inside the drilling surface wellhead. At the base of the required to use the same riser for all the three activities.
drilling inner riser is an ITBC that latches inside the subsea
wellhead housing. The drilling inner riser is made concentric
to the drilling outer riser by the use of centralizers. 4 TENSIONER TYPES
The tensioner system provides the required top tension
3.3 Combo TTR to the risers depending on the various functions during
the life of the riser system, including functioning during
A typical dry tree field development program has a dedicated production, water injection, completions/workover, and
drilling riser, and the production riser is installed on a well wireline operations. There are a number of tensioner types
after drilling is completed. Combo risers offer an alternate to available such as “fixed” tensioners, hydro-pneumatic, and
the typical field development described above, allowing the buoyancy cans.
operator to drill, complete, and produce the wells through a The tensioner system design is based on the service life
single riser. of the TTRs and the need to account for intact load cases
Typical dry tree field development programs involve batch for operating, extreme, and survival conditions. In addition,
drilling by a mobile offshore drilling unit (MODU) before the the design should account for a failed cylinder scenario with
host vessel is brought on site. The goal of the batch drilling an associated environmental condition. The failed cylinder

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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6 Offshore

load cases are classified as extreme and survival. The key host vessel structure, and as such, the vessel motions are not
parameter that defines the tensioner system is the stiffness of isolated from the TTRs.
the system and is dictated by the nominal tension and stroke A “fixed” tensioner system is currently in service on the
range (i.e., maximum upstroke and downstroke) required. production TTRs on the West Seno TLP-A platform, in
Further inputs are the number of cylinders, maximum pres- 3,300 ft water depth, Makassar Strait, Indonesia.
sure, and rod diameter. A high stiffness tensioner system
may result in high interface loads imparted into the vessel 4.2 Hydro-pneumatic tensioners
structure.
In the design of the tensioner system, moving compo- Hydropneumatic tensioner systems have hydraulic cylinders
nents such as wear pads, seals, and roller assemblies need and accumulators. The fundamental mechanism is similar to
to account for the design life but may be considered as a cylinder/piston system such that the tension/compression
replaceable components. To improve the design life of the force of the piston rod is provided by the pressure difference
cylinder assembly and minimize the need to replace compo- in the cylinder between the two sides of the piston. Each
nents while in service, the main rod and barrel assemblies side is connected directly or indirectly with pressurized air
are highly machined components with tight tolerances and or nitrogen bottles.
polished/coated surfaces. These highly machined compo- There are two primary configurations of hydro-pneumatic
nents minimize friction between wear bands and seals of tensioners, (a) pull-up (Figure 3a) and (b) push-up or ram
moving components as excessive seal wear due to cyclic style (Figure 3b).
loading can lead to cylinder failure (and loss of tension on
riser).
4.2.1 Pull-up system
4.1 Fixed tensioners Most commonly utilized are the pull-up tensioners that have
multiple direct acting cylinders in a tension configuration
A “fixed” tensioner is a nonstroking tensioner system, and where the tension loads are moderate to high with stroke
tension is applied to the top of the TTR after which its ranges 4–30 ft. The cylinder rod will slide up and down
position is fixed relative to the host vessel structure. The riser relative to the cylinder barrel and provide the stroke for the
tension varies with tide level and host vessel offset (lateral tensioner system. The rods face downward and interface with
position), and hence, this type of system may be utilized in the riser string via a tension ring at the bottom end. The top
mild oceanographic and meteorological environments where ends of the cylinders are mounted to a structural cassette
relative motion can be accommodated by stretch of the riser. frame. The interface with the cassette frame or host vessel
Theoretically, a “fixed” tensioner should not be classified structure and tension ring is via bow shackles that provide
as a “tensioner system” per se, as it is fixed directly to the articulation and compliance to the system. A large quantity

Centralizer rollers

High pressure accumulators

Cylinder barrel
Cylinder rod

Tension ring

(a)

Figure 3. (a) Pull-up tensioner system; (b) push-up tensioner system. (Source Unknown.)

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe493
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
 Top Tensioned Risers (TTRs) 7

Tension ring

Cylinder barrel/rod
Centralizer rollers

(b)

Figure 3. (Continued)

of high pressure accumulator cylinders is required for the passive method and minimizes the interaction between the
pull-up tensioner system to achieve desired low spring rate. host vessel and TTRs while the TTR weight is not transferred
to the host vessel. The buoyancy can tensioning configuration
4.2.2 Push-up or ram style system allows relative vertical movement with respect to the host
vessel, while lateral loads are transferred to the host vessel
The push-up or ram style tensioner system consists of via several contact locations. The buoyancy can system typi-
multiple cylinders that are mounted in a compression config- cally has three main components; the upper and lower stems
uration and utilized for high tension loads with stroke ranges and the buoyancy can.
from 8 to 40 ft. The cylinders are integrated directly with The upper stem transfers the generated buoyancy can
the host vessel structure. The cylinder rod will slide up and tension to the TTR. The upper end of the stem provides
down relative to the cylinder barrel and provide the stroke the interface with the surface equipment, that is, wellhead,
for the tensioner system. The rods face upward and interface tree, and so on. It also includes up and down stops that
with the riser string via a tension ring. The push-up tensioner contact the upper deck stopper to limit the stroke range. The
system is typically a compact design that requires no external lower stem interfaces with the lower end of the buoyancy can
accumulators or high pressure accumulators because the rod and extends through the host vessel heave plates at the keel
bore is utilized to contain the high pressure nitrogen. location.
Both configurations incorporate centralizer rollers that The buoyancy can structure provides the riser tension by
allow the riser to stroke through its entire range relative to the filling the required number of individual chambers with
vessel while constraining the system from lateral and rota- nitrogen gas or air. Typically, the design of the buoyancy can
tional loads. includes redundancy such that the failure of one chamber
will not compromise riser integrity under all operating
4.3 Buoyancy cans conditions.
On spars and mini-TLP risers, a keel joint assembly is used
Buoyancy cans have been utilized on spars to provide the to accommodate point loading at the spar keel location. On
top tension for TTRs such as on Mad Dog and Horn Moun- a conventional spar, the keel joint assembly can consist of
tain in the GoM (Figure 4). The use of buoyancy cans is a a keel joint (∼60 ft length) and two tapered transition joints

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe493
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8 Offshore

of back-to-back taper stress joints to provide the lateral load

transfer from the riser to the lower stem joint.

Surface production tree

Surface wellhead
5 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Surface joint
TTR design considerations drive the feasibility of the riser
system and determine the influence it has on the vessel
interfaces. The water depth, reservoir pressure, and the pipe
Sea level
material grade have a significant effect on the riser weight.
Typically, the riser is supported with a top tension higher
than the overall submerged riser weight in order to prevent
compressive buckling near the wellhead. Increase in riser
Air can joint tension requirements implies increased tensioner capacity
requirements. The riser tensioning requirement has a direct
effect on the vessel payload and the hull dimensions.

5.1 Single casing and dual casing

TTRs for dry tree developments may be either single or

dual casing systems, depending on a range of considerations
Riser pipe including regulatory requirements, functional requirements,
payload limitations, intervention and workover require-
Upper transition joint ments, reservoir pressure, water depth, economics, and,
most importantly, safety and reliability considerations.
Keel joint The single casing production riser consists of a single
casing string and internal production tubing. This arrange-
Lower transition joint
ment has the smallest diameter and offers the lightest solution
with lowest capital cost. A critical phase is during workover
operations when the production tubing is removed leaving
Riser joints only a single mechanical pressure barrier plus the completion
fluid.
Tapered stress joint
Provision of gas lift is also a challenge due to the quantity
of gas in the annulus or the impact of including a dedicated
gas lift line in the annulus. As a result of the above mentioned
Tieback connector
issues, a dual casing riser, where two concentric casings are
used, may be adopted.
Subsea wellhead The number of pressure barriers to the reservoir varies
through the course of the drilling and completion activities
from multiple (i.e., isolated), to a few (i.e., exposed), to
only the hydrostatic head of fluid contained in the riser (i.e.,
Figure 4. Typical spar and buoyancy can tensioner system. (© 2H
live). The pressure change as a consequence of replacing
Offshore Inc. Reproduced with permission.) completion fluid in the riser with seawater is termed riser
margin. In the event of a riser failure a well control event may
occur, potentially leading to a blowout, if the riser margin
(∼30 ft length), which include a flange connection to allow is not enough to control the well. This scenario is a key
positioning above and below the keel joint. This type of consideration when selecting between single and dual casing
configuration was used on the Hoover project. For a truss risers in that the dual casing risers have a redundant barrier
spar, a lower stem is used, which extends from the bottom of preventing the loss of riser margin.
the buoyancy can to below the keel guide for interfacing with During workover or drilling operations, the impact to
the keel guide. There is a ball joint assembled at the center personnel as well as the cost of a blowout is the primary

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe493
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
 Top Tensioned Risers (TTRs) 9

risk. During workover operations, the tubing is pulled and the riser systems based on API STD 2RD. Limits are set
mud is introduced into the riser to provide overpressure in the in combined axial, pressure, and bending loads for service,
well relative to the formation pressure. The dual pipe cross ultimate, and accidental limit states. The API STD 2RD
section (i.e., two concentric casings) ensures that, in the event sets four methods of combined load criteria, and any one of
of failure of the inner casing, the outer casing retains the the methods may be used for the design. The appropriate
completion/workover fluid and hence maintains the hydro- method for implementation can be selected based on the
static head and riser margin in the well. Furthermore, if a loading condition, materials, and fabrication and installation
leak occurs in the primary barrier (inner casing), it can be considerations.
detected by a pressure build up in the outer annulus. A loading condition matrix is constructed consisting of
various loading condition scenarios such as normal oper-
5.2 Pressure containment ating, pressure test, workover, shut-in, shut-in tubing leak,
and other expected situational, incidental, and environmental
The production tubing is the primary pressure containing conditions. The riser design is established as acceptable
conduit for the production TTR. In the event of a tubing based on satisfying all the design loading conditions in the
leak, the next environmental barrier (inner casing for the dual matrix.
casing TTR and outer casing for the single casing TTR) must
be designed to accommodate the full shut in tubing pressure. 5.5 Fatigue and keel joint interaction
Similarly, the drilling riser is designed to address pressure
control while drilling and to maintain the hydrostatic force A keel joint is used for TTRs on a spar to accommodate
of the drilling mud. the interaction between the riser and the spar hull. The keel
High reservoir pressures may result in wall thickness at joint is a dual-tapered section with a keel ball in the middle
the limits of manufacturability. Casing wall thickness greater connecting the upper and lower tapered sections, as shown in
than 1.25 in. is limited by the thickness of the coupling mate- Figure 5. The keel ball in the center reacts the lateral loads on
rial and the ability to achieve the adequate through thickness the hull and is the location of largest bending moment along
material properties. In addition, the increased wall thickness the TTR. The keel ball consists of steel contact surfaces,
of the inner casing drives the outer diameter (OD) of the which adds an additional complexity of friction between
casing to increase to achieve the minimum drift requirement moving steel surfaces. The high friction coefficient between
and to accommodate standard tooling to pass through for steel surfaces introduces tension cycles in the riser system.
downhole operations. The larger inner casing diameter may The reaction loads at the keel ball location are high for
result in a large coupling OD, resulting in a larger outer riser. deepwater TTRs, and the friction effects introduce additional
The thicker casing wall and the larger outer riser increase the stress utilization at the keel joint.
riser weight.
5.6 ECA and fracture mechanics
5.3 Hoop collapse
An engineering criticality assessment (ECA) is typically
The outer casing must resist the hydrostatic collapse pressure conducted for TTR casing pipe-to-pipe welds to define
at the full water depth, with the annulus partially or fully acceptable geometric tolerances, nondestructive examina-
evacuated. tion criteria during joint fabrication, and requirements for
post-installation inspection techniques and criteria.
5.4 Combined loading (API STD 2RD methods)
5.7 Interference
Riser design is done considering riser loads during installa-
tion and life of field operations. These loads include environ- Interference between TTRs due to current loading is a
mental, accidental, and temporary loading conditions. Load key design challenge. For spars, this is typically mitigated
resistance factor design (LRFD) is used for the design of by having a large spacing between the subsea wellheads,

Figure 5. Typical keel joint arrangement. (© 2H Offshore Inc. Reproduced with permission.)

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe493
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
10 Offshore

thus increasing the distance between risers through the equipment within the wellbay, the flexible jumper layout
water column. However, due to lower tensioner stroke limits needs to be carefully developed within the wellbay dimen-
combined with larger vessel offsets, the feasibility of spacing sional constraints in order to prevent equipment clashing
out the wellheads for TTRs on a TLP is limited. The result and damage due to impact. The flexible jumper is designed
is TTRs that are closer together through depth and there- to meet the static and dynamic MBR requirements during
fore more likely to contact each other in extreme current storage, normal operating, and survival conditions.
conditions.
Riser interference between adjacent risers is evaluated
5.10 TTR VIV and VIM response
accounting for the effects of wake interference, wave effects,
and drag amplification due to VIV. Riser top tension opti-
In the absence of suppression measures, VIV of TTRs may
mization is required to ensure that all the risers in the array,
be a significant contributor to fatigue damage and may dictate
with their respective drag characteristics, have similar lateral
the design of such risers. Suppression devices such as strakes
deflections, thereby ensuring that the nominal riser spacing
and fairings are used in high current environments to mitigate
is maintained. Under currents with return periods of 1,000
VIV. Fairings offer the additional benefit of reducing drag on
years or 10,000 years, adjacent risers may be allowed to
the TTR.
clash provided the structural integrity of the system is not
The fatigue response of the TTR to vortex-induced motions
compromised.
(VIMs) of the hull also needs to be considered during
design. The hull VIM response is independent of water depth
5.8 Thermal effect and insulation and may be more onerous for TTRs deployed in shallow
water depths (the large ratio of the VIM amplitude to water
In deepwater wells, the reservoir temperature is often much depth results in higher cyclic bending loads at the base of
higher than the temperature at the surface. Consequently, the the TTR).
temperature of the produced fluid is much higher than that of
the surrounding seawater. Due to the temperature differen-
tial, heat is lost through and across the annular space between 6 FABRICATION CONSIDERATIONS
the production tubing and casing(s) along the length of the
riser. Without insulation, the fluid temperature may drop 6.1 Material selection
below the hydrate formation or wax deposition temperatures.
Flow assurance for TTRs may be achieved by external Standard riser joints comprise the majority of the TTR. The
insulation (high density thermal plastics such as polypropy- conventional construction method uses “weld-on” threaded
lene) applied to the outer casing surface or by the use of connections on the end of each riser joint, which may limit
insulating gels in the annulus. External insulation offers the maximum material yield strength to 80 ksi for joint
the additional benefit of increasing the buoyant force and welding fabrication. This approach results in a comparatively
lowering the riser payload. However, cost and technology heavy riser due to thicker wall and the introduction of heavy
limitations may restrict the feasibility of using external insu- couplings. An alternative construction approach is the use of
lation for ultradeepwater developments. higher yield strength threaded and coupled (T&C) connec-
For single casing risers, the use of gels in the annulus tions that do not require welding and associated qualifica-
between the tubing and casing entails recovery and redeploy- tion programs. In addition, issues relating to compatibility
ment of the gel during major workover operations when the between riser pipe and coupling forgings is eliminated with
tubing needs to be retrieved. Dual barrier systems, with gels T&C connections. This allows material yield strengths up to
in the annulus between the outer and inner casings, offer 125 ksi to be utilized for the outer and inner casings. This
improved thermal performance over single barrier systems in turn results in thinner riser walls, allowing significant
and do not require gel removal during workover.
cost reduction to be achieved via lower total steel volume,
vessel payloads, and the elimination of welding qualification
5.9 Dry tree jumper design and analysis programs (although connector qualification programs may be
required) and production welding.
Flexible surface jumpers transfer production and injection Splash zone joints, utilizing the same material grade as the
fluid between the surface tree and the topsides manifold standard joints, are often installed above the standard riser
piping. Therefore, the flexible jumper dynamic response is joints in the splash zone region. The design philosophy in
driven by relative motions between the hull and riser during the splash zone area varies from project to project as there
extreme storm conditions. Due to the close proximity of are no specific requirements or guidelines in API STD 2RD.

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe493
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
 Top Tensioned Risers (TTRs) 11

A standard that may be used is Norsok Standard M-001, calibration, the Impander® technique produces a constant
which has been utilized in North Sea projects and recom- circumferential pressure, plasticizing the base material and
mends an increase in wall thickness depending on sea water thus making the pipe the optimum circular shape required.
temperature and the addition of a 0.5-in.-thick neoprene Furthermore, residual stress in the pipe is reduced by the
layer. Impander® technique.
The specialty components such as the lower stress joint,
cross-over joints, or tension/keel joints are typically manu- 6.3 Welding onshore
factured from a single piece forging. These specialty joints
typically consist of a steel construction. Typical grades All welding required for fabricating TTR joints is conducted
utilized are A707 and F22 as an example with 80-ksi onshore in controlled shop environments, and therefore, a
minimum yield strength. The length of the specialty joints high quality fatigue detail can be achieved. To fabricate joints
is dictated by the required taper section to manage the longer than 40 ft, two shorter pipe sections are welded end to
high bending loads due to vessel offset. However, lower end, and a connector is welded on each end of the joined pipe.
stress joints lengths in excess of 50 ft provide limitations on All welding on riser joints is performed in accordance with
forging suppliers due to weight, forging process, and final supplier’s approved weld procedure specification (WPS).
machine suppliers. Qualification of the WPS may involve extensive qualification
Titanium has been used in the manufacture of tapered programs, which may need to be conducted in parallel with
stress joints due to its flexibility, strength, and fatigue perfor- the production welding to meet project schedules. This intro-
mance, especially when steel versions cannot achieve the duces a risk to the production schedule if there are delays in
desired fatigue life at the mudline region. There are primarily the weld qualification program.
two grades of titanium suitable for riser applications: (i)
Ti-Grade 23 and (ii) Ti-Grade 29. The titanium tapered
stress joints need to have a flange connection to interface 6.4 Coatings
with the steel riser joints in order to isolate the dissimilar
materials. The flange interface requires special components Unless external insulation is applied to the pipe surface, the
to isolate the flange such as multibarrier polymeric protec- standard outer riser joints are usually coated with TSA for
tion around the flange studs and GRP inserts (i.e., top hats). corrosion protection. External insulation such as high density
The external surface of the titanium sections needs to be polypropylene may be applied to the outer casing surface as
protected from the galvanic currents if there is electrical a flow assurance measure.
Splash zone joints are coated with neoprene for impact and
continuity between titanium and the carbon steel riser, host
corrosion protection. Special consideration is required for the
vessel, and subsea system. This is required as sacrificial
transition between the neoprene and TSA coatings.
anode cathodic protection (CP) systems can cause hydrogen
The inner casing joints are typically uncoated and rely on
absorption and embrittlement when connected to titanium.
treated annular fluid to control corrosion.
A number of options are available: (i) use of nonconduc-
tive barrier coating, that is, 0.20–0.28-in. (5–7 mm)-thick
fusion-bonded epoxy/thermoplastic and (ii) electrical
isolation. 7 INSTALLATION AND
COMMISSIONING CONSIDERATIONS
6.2 Tolerances The first consideration in any TTR installation campaign
is the evaluation of environmental conditions to determine
Pipe end tolerances (ovality and wall thickness) can be whether weather conditions are acceptable to complete the
enhanced to be better than standard API tolerances to TTR installation. There are many tools available to aid this
provide improvements in fatigue performance for weld-on evaluation and equipment to monitor real-time conditions for
connectors for production TTR joints or flanged drilling riser this assessment.
joints. This is achieved by minimizing the hi–lo mismatch To land the riser on the subsea wellhead, a method of
between components to be welded, while additional post guiding the riser is required, which varies based on the vessel
weld techniques [such as OD and inner diameter (ID) type. For dynamically controlled semisubmersible vessels,
grinding] allow for “C” class weld detail to be achieved. For the riser can be guided by adjusting the position of the vessel
double submerged arc welded (DSAW) pipe used for 21′′ using the dynamic positioning (DP) thruster system. This
drilling risers, the enhanced pipe end tolerances are achieved provides for large adjustment and good accuracy. A spar
by the Impander® process. In contrast to standard pipe platform can guide the riser using the vessel mooring system;

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe493
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
12 Offshore

for TLPs, there is no means of controlling the vessel position required top tension for engagement of the tensioner system.
so a dedicated guide wire system is utilized to guide the riser Once engaged, the riser tension can be handed from the rig
base to the desired subsea wellhead. A guide wire system to the tensioner system by increasing the tension through the
generally has a winch or multiple winches on the vessel with tensioner system and decreasing the hook load.
wire rope connected to a structure on the subsea wellhead. With the outer riser fully supported on the tensioners, the
A guide arm structure clamped to the riser base connects riser is ready to begin surface equipment installation. For a
the riser to the guide wire. The riser is guided to the subsea single casing drilling riser, typically a wellhead spool and
wellhead using increased tension in the guide wire as the riser BOP system are attached to the top of the tension joint and
approaches the wellhead. tested to confirm surface equipment and riser integrity before
A TTR can be installed from different offshore platform drilling operations commence.
types, but a drilling rig is always required to perform the For dual riser systems, a surface wellhead spool is attached
installation work. to the top of the tension joint prior to running inner riser
The drilling rig uses many tools to install a TTR, and joints. Inner riser joints are installed using the same method
consideration of the tool interfaces with the riser equip- as outer joints, the first inner joint is capable of latching and
ment must be evaluated to ensure that the equipment can sealing into a profile within the subsea wellhead to isolate the
perform the job as intended. Riser equipment will be staged inner riser from the outer annulus. Once all inner riser joints
on an available deck or stacked up vertically in a pipe rack are run and spaced out correctly to match the outer riser
depending on riser pipe size or vessel design/duty. Riser pipe length, the inner riser can be tensioned to the required value
is typically lifted to the drill rig floor using the platform crane and latched and sealed into a profile within the surface well-
and presented to a joint handling device in the horizontal head. Some adjustment of tension through the tensioners
position, the joint is then lifted to the vertical position using may be required to support the additional load of the
an elevator type design to hold the joint and position it over inner riser.
the rotary opening. For a drilling riser, a BOP system can be attached to the top
The joint is then lowered through the drill rig floor and of the wellhead and tested to confirm riser integrity before
landed in a securing system in the rotary with the upper drilling operations commence. For production risers with
connection of the joint presented upward for the connection surface equipment, a surface tree is installed on top of the
of the next joint. The riser connections will be either a casing wellhead and a BOP system connected to the top of the tree.
type design that requires the use of make-up power tongs With the BOP system in place, the riser has well control
to torque the threaded connections to the required value barriers to begin running tubing downhole and perform well
or a flange type design that requires tensioning of studded completion operations to bring the well online.
connections on the flange to achieve a required preload. Additional installation activities required before full
These operations are performed at the rig floor when the next production are the installation of control lines to the riser
joint is presented to the rotary, and subsequent joints are run system through a control umbilical system supported
repeating the same steps. between topsides and the top of the riser. A flexible jumper
The taper stress joint with ETBC is designed to connect is also required to convey fluid between tree and topside
to the subsea wellhead or subsea equipment stacked on the production manifold.
wellhead. Standard outer riser joints make up the majority of
the riser length. Once all standard outer joints are connected,
provision can be made to perform a space out exercise either GLOSSARY
by running more joints or by lowering the riser on drill pipe
to the subsea wellhead; this operation confirms the length
between the vessel and subsea wellhead for comparison to Dual casing Riser pipe consisting of a dual pipe
calculated values. Once elevations are confirmed, the riser cross-section (i.e., two concentric
installation is completed by running a selected number of pup casings).
joints to correctly space out the riser followed by the tension Riser A conduit to convey fluid from subsea
joint. equipment to the surface platform.
With the tension joint connected and the full riser string Tensioner system Permits relative movement between
hanging from the drill rig, the riser can be lowered and the riser and surface platform while
connected to the subsea wellhead. Typically, connection is maintaining adequate top tension
made using an ROV for visual monitoring and hydraulic in the riser.
actuation of the connection system. With the riser connected Top tensioned A vertically orientated riser supported
to the subsea wellhead, the riser can be tensioned to the risers (TTR) in position via a top tension.

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe493
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
 Top Tensioned Risers (TTRs) 13

RELATED ARTICLES FURTHER READING

Riser Technology API STD 2RD (2013) Dynamic Risers for Floating Produc-
SPAR tion Systems, 2nd edn, American Petroleum Institute, Standards
Tension Leg Platform (TLP) Department, Washington, DC.
Risers Introduction Doreen Chin, Y. and Wang, X., OTC 16501 (2004) Mechanics of
Steel Catenary Riser (SCR) Heat Loss in Dry Tree Top-Tensioned Risers, Offshore Technology
Riser Design Conference, Houston, TX.
Hybrids Karayaka, M., OTC 15103 (2003) Fundamentals of Buoyancy
Flexible Pipes Can Riser Tensioner Systems: Performance Characterization
and Redundancy Philosophy Development, Offshore Technology
Umbilicals Conference, Houston, TX.
Drilling Risers and Well Intervention
Padelopoulos, P. and Thethi, R., DOT T1S1O3 (2012) Top Tensioned
Riser Vortex-Induced Vibrations Riser (TTR) Engineering Integrator Supply Model, Deep Offshore
Riser Fatigue Technology International, Perth, Australia.
Riser General Analysis and Riser Interference (Clashing & Utt, M.E., Emerson, E., and Yu, J., OTC 16526 (2004) West Seno
Wake Effect) Drilling and Production Riser Systems, Offshore Technology
Riser Integrity Conference, Houston, TX.
Riser Construction Walters, D., Thomas, D., and Hatton, S. (2004) Design and Opti-
mization of Top Tension Risers for Ultra Deep Water. Floating
Production Systems Conference, London, UK.

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe493
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2