CHAPTER 1

1.1 DEFINITION OF TERMS:

Microprocessor

A microprocessor is an integrated circuit (IC) which incorporates core functions of a computer's

central processing unit (CPU). It is a programmable multipurpose silicon chip, clock driven,
register based, accepts binary data as input and provides output after processing it as per the
instructions stored in the memory.

Microcontroller

A microcontroller is a compact integrated circuit designed to govern a specific operation in an

embedded system. A typical microcontroller includes a processor, memory and input/output
(I/O) peripherals on a single chip.

The general microcontroller consists of the processor, the memory (RAM, ROM, EPROM), Serial
ports, peripherals (timers, counters), etc.

Microcontroller Microprocessor

Microcontrollers are used to execute a single Microprocessors are used for big applications.
task within an application.

Its designing and hardware cost is low. Its designing and hardware cost is high.

Easy to replace. Not so easy to replace.

It is built with CMOS technology, which requires Its power consumption is high because it has to
less power to operate. control the entire system.
 It consists of CPU, RAM, ROM, I/O ports. It doesn’t consist of RAM, ROM, I/O ports. It uses
its pins to interface to peripheral devices

Microcomputer

A microcomputer is a small, relatively inexpensive computer with a microprocessor as its central

processing unit. It includes a microprocessor, memory and minimal input/output circuitry
mounted on a single printed circuit board. Common microcomputers include laptops and
desktops. Beyond standard PCs, microcomputers also include some calculators, mobile phones,
notebooks, workstations and embedded systems. Used by one user

Minicomputer

A minicomputer is also known as mini. It is a class of small computers that was introduced into
the world in the mid-1960s. A minicomputer is a computer which has all the features of a large
size computer, but its size is smaller than those. A minicomputer lies between the mainframe and
the microcomputer because its size is smaller than the former one and larger than the latter one.
A minicomputer is also called as a mid-range computer. Minicomputers are mainly multi-users
systems where more than one user can work simultaneously.

Supercomputer

A supercomputer is a type of computer that has the architecture, resources and components to
achieve massive computing power. A supercomputer is a computer that performs at or near the
currently highest operational rate for computers. Traditionally, supercomputers have been used
for scientific and engineering applications that must handle very large databases or do a great
amount of computation (or both).

Hardware

Computer hardware includes the physical, tangible parts or components of a system, specifically
includes all controllers, application processors, I/O modules, workstations, and communications
networks. PCs used for system configuration and real-time control are included in DCS scope, as
are computers used for supervisory control
Software

Software is a set of instructions, data or programs used to operate computers and execute
specific tasks.

Modem

a combined device for modulation and demodulation, for example, between the digital data of a
computer and the analogue signal of a telephone line.

SCADA

SCADA is an acronym for supervisory control and data acquisition, a computer system for
gathering and analyzing real time data. SCADA systems are used to monitor and control a plant
or equipment in industries such as telecommunications, water and waste control, energy, oil and
gas refining and transportation.

Transducer (Active and Passive)

A transducer is a device which converts signals from one form to another.

Active transducers are those which do not require any power source for their operation. They
work on the energy conversion principle. They produce an electrical signal proportional to the
input (physical quantity).

For example, a thermocouple is an active transducer.

Passive transducer

Is a device which converts the given non-electrical energy into electrical energy by external force.
Resistance strain gauge, Differential Transformer are the examples for the Passive transducers.

Programmable Logic Controller

A programmable logic controller (PLC) or programmable controller is an industrial digital

computer which has been ruggedized and adapted for the control of manufacturing processes,
such as assembly lines, or robotic devices, or any activity that requires high reliability control and
ease of programming and process fault diagnosis.
Open Loop Control System

A control system in which the control action is totally independent of output of the system then
it is called open loop control system. A manual control system is also an open loop control system.
The figure below shows a control system block diagram of an open loop control system in which
process output is totally independent of the controller action.

Closed Loop Control System

Control system in which the output has an effect on the input quantity in such a manner that the
input quantity will adjust itself based on the output generated is called closed loop control
system. Open loop control system can be converted in to closed loop control system by providing
a feedback. This feedback automatically makes the suitable changes in the output due to external
disturbance. In this way closed loop control system is called automatic control system. Figure
below shows the block diagram of closed loop control system in which feedback is taken from
output and fed in to input.
Direct Digital Control (DDC)

Direct digital control is the automated control of a condition or process by a digital device
(computer). Direct digital control takes a centralized network-oriented approach. All
instrumentation is gathered by various analog and digital converters which use the network to
transport these signals to the central controller. The centralized computer then follows all of its
production rules (which may incorporate sense points anywhere in the structure) and causes
actions to be sent via the same network to valves, actuators, and other heating, ventilating, and
air conditioning components that can be adjusted.

Cascade Control

Cascade control is a method of control combining two feedback loops, with the output of one
controller (the primary controller) adjusting the set-point of a second controller (the secondary
controller).

Ratio Control

A ratio controller is a special type of feed forward controller where disturbances are measured
and their ratio is held at a desired set point by controlling one of the streams. Ratio control is
used when two fluids must be mixed together in a specific ratio.

Feedforward Control

A feed forward, sometimes written feedforward, is an element or pathway within a control

system that passes a controlling signal from a source in its external environment to a load
elsewhere in its external environment. This is often a command signal from an external operator.
Actuator

Actuators are mechanical or electro-mechanical devices that provide controlled and sometimes
limited movements or positioning which are operated electrically, manually, or by various fluids
such as air, hydraulic, etc

An actuator is a component of a machine that is responsible for moving and controlling a

mechanism or system, for example by opening a valve. In simple terms, it is a "mover". An
actuator requires a control signal and a source of energy

Pulse width modulation

Pulse width modulation, or pulse-duration modulation, is a method of reducing the average

power delivered by an electrical signal, by effectively chopping it up into discrete parts. The
average value of voltage fed to the load is controlled by turning the switch between supply and
load on and off at a fast rate

Sensor

Sensor is defined as a device that converts a physical stimulus into a readable output

Protocols

Protocols are the accepted rules and standards that allow communication and data-sharing
between building automation equipment.

Distributed Control System (DCS) A distributed control system (DCS) is a computerized control
system for a process or plant usually with many control loops, in which autonomous controllers
are distributed throughout the system, but there is no central operator supervisory control.
 CHAPTER 2

2.1 SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

Piezoelectric Transducer

The main function of this transducer is toconvert mechanical energy into electrical energy. In the
same way, electrical energy can be transformed into mechanical energy.

Piezoelectric Transducer Applications

This transducer is mainly used :

 To detect the sticks drummer impact in electronic drum pads.
 To used to detect the movement of the muscle, which can be named as
acceleromyograph.

The load of the engine can be determined by calculating diverse absolute pressure, that can be
done by using these transducers as the MAP sensor in fuel injection systems.

 This sensor can be used as knock sensor in automotive engine management systems for
noticingknock of the engine.

Pressure Transducer
Pressure transducer is a special kind of sensor that alters the pressure forced into electrical
signals. These transducers are also called as pressure indicators, manometers, piezometers,
transmitters, and pressure sensors.

Application of Pressure Transducer

Pressure transducer is used :

 To measure the pressure of the specific quantity like gas or liquid bychanging the pressure
into electrical energy. The different kinds of these transducers like an amplified voltage
transducer, strain-gage base pressure transducer, mill volt (mv) pressuretransducer, 4-
20mA pressure transducer and pressure transducer.

The applications of pressure transducer mainly involve in altitude sensing, pressure sensing, level
or depth sensing, flow sensing and leak testing. These transducers can be used for generating an
electrical power under the speed breakers on the highways or roads where the force of the
vehicles can be converted into electrical energy

Temperature Transducer

Temperature transducer is an electrical device that is used to convert the temperature of a device
into another quantity like electrical energy or pressure or mechanical energy, then the quantity
will be sent to the control device for controlling the temperature of the device.

Application of Temperature Transducer

Temperature transducer is used:

To measure the temperature of the air such that to control the temperature of several control
systems like air-conditioning, heating, ventilation, and so on.

2.2 Classification of Sensors

1.In the first classification of the sensors, they are divided in to Active and Passive. Active Sensors
are those which require an external excitation signal or a power signal.
Passive Sensors, on the other hand, do not require any external power signal and directly
generates output response.

2.The other type of classification is based on the means of detection used in the sensor. Some
ofthe means of detection are

 Electric
 Biological
 Chemical
 Radioactive

3.The next classification is based on conversion phenomenon i.e. the input and the output.
Someof the common conversion phenomena are

 Photoelectric
 Thermoelectric
 Electrochemical
 Electromagnetic
 Thermooptic

4.The final classification of the sensors are

 Analog
 Digital Sensors.

Analog Sensors produce an analog output i.e. a continuous output signal with respect to the
quantity being measured.

Digital Sensors, in contrast to Analog Sensors, work with discrete or digital data. The data in digital
sensors, which is used for conversion and transmission, is digital in nature.

Different Types of Sensors

The following is a list of different types of sensors that are commonly used in various applications.
All these sensors are used for measuring one of the physical properties like Temperature,
Resistance, Capacitance, Conduction, Heat Transfer etc.

 Temperature Sensor
 Proximity Sensor
 Accelerometer
 IR Sensor (Infrared Sensor)
 Pressure Sensor
 Light Sensor
 Ultrasonic Sensor
 Smoke, Gas and Alcohol Sensor
 Touch Sensor
 Color Sensor
 Humidity Sensor
 Tilt Sensor
 Flow and Level Sensor

Temperature Sensor

One of the most common and most popular sensor is the Temperature sensor. A Temperature
Sensor, as the name suggests, senses the temperature i.e. it measures the changes in the
temperature.
In a Temperature Sensor, the changes in the Temperature correspond to change in its physical
property like resistance or voltage.

There are different types of Temperature Sensors like Temperature Sensor ICs (like LM35),
Thermistors, Thermocouples, RTD (Resistive Temperature Devices), etc.

Temperature Sensors are used everywhere like computers, mobile phones, automobiles, air
conditioning systems, industries etc.

A simple project using LM35 (Celsius Scale Temperature Sensor) is implemented in this project:

Proximity Sensors

A Proximity Sensor is a non-contact type sensor that detects the presence of an object. Proximity
Sensors can be implemented using different techniques like Optical (like Infrared or Laser),
Ultrasonic, Hall Effect, Capacitive, etc.
Some of the applications of Proximity Sensors are Mobile Phones, Cars (Parking Sensors),
industries (object alignment), Ground Proximity in Aircrafts, etc.

Infrared Sensor (IR Sensor)

IR Sensors or Infrared Sensor are light based sensor that are used in various applications like
Proximity and Object Detection. IR Sensors are used as proximity sensors in almost all mobile
phones.

There are two types of Infrared or IR Sensors: Transmissive Type and Reflective Type. In
Transmissive Type IR Sensor, the IR Transmitter (usually an IR LED) and the IR Detector (usually a
Photo Diode) are positioned facing each other so that when an object passes between them, the
sensor detects the object.
The other type of IR Sensor is a Reflective Type IR Sensor. In this, the transmitter and the detector
are positioned adjacent to each other facing the object. When an object comes in front of the
sensor, the sensor detects the object.

Different applications where IR Sensor is implemented are Mobile Phones, Robots, Industrial
assembly, automobiles etc.

Ultrasonic Sensor

An Ultrasonic Sensor is a non-contact type device that can be used to measure distance as well
as velocity of an object. An Ultrasonic Sensor works based on the properties of the sound waves
with frequency greater than that of the human audible range.

Using the time of flight of the sound wave, an Ultrasonic Sensor can measure the distance of the
object (similar to SONAR). The Doppler Shift property of the sound wave is used to measure the
velocity of an object.

Proximity sensor

A device that detects the presence or absence of a nearby object, or properties of that object,
and converts it into signal which can be easily read by user or a simple electronic instrument
without getting in contact with them.

Proximity sensors are largely used in the retail industry, as they can detect motion and the
correlation between the customer and product they might be interested in. A user is immediately
notified of discounts and special offers of nearby products.
Another big and quite an old use-case is vehicles. You are reversing your car and are alarmed
about an obstacle while taking reverse, that’s the work of proximity sensor.

They are also used for parking availability in places such as malls, stadiums or airports

Following are some of the Proximity Sensors sub-categorised:

Inductive Sensors: Inductive proximity sensors are used for non-contact detection to find out the
presence of metallic objects using electromagnetic field or a beam of electromagnetic radiation.
It can operate at higher speeds than mechanical switches and also seems more reliable because
of its robustness.

Capacitive Sensors: Capacitive proximity sensors can detect both metallic as well as non-metallic
targets. Nearly all other materials are dielectric different from air. It can be used to sense very
small objects through a large portion of target. So, generally used in difficult and complicated
applications.

Motion position detection

• Detection of rotating motion

• Zero-speed indication

• Speed regulation

Motion control

• Shaft travel limiting

• Movement indication

• Valve open/closed

Conveyer system control

• Transfer lines

• Assembly line control

• Packaging machine control

Process control

• Product complete

• Automatic filling

• Product selection

Photoelectric Sensors: Photoelectric sensor is made up of light-sensitive parts and uses a beam
of light to detect the presence or absence of an object. It is an ideal alternative of inductive
sensors. And used for long distance sensing or to sense non-metal object.

Ultrasonic Sensors: Ultrasonic sensors are also used to detect the presence or to measure the
distance of targets similar to radar or sonar. This makes a reliable solution for harsh and
demanding conditions.

Pressure sensor

A pressure sensor is a device that senses pressure and converts it into an electric signal. Here,
the amount depends upon the level of pressure applied.

There are plenty of devices that rely on liquid or other forms of pressure. These sensors make it
possible to create IoT systems that monitor systems and devices that are pressure propelled.
With any deviation from standard pressure range, the device notifies the system administrator
about any problems that should be fixed.

Deployment of these sensors is not only very useful in manufacturing, but also in the
maintenance of whole water systems and heating systems, as it is easy to detect any fluctuation
or drops in pressure.

Water quality sensor

Water quality sensors are used to detect the water quality and Ion monitoring primarily in water
distribution systems.
Water is practically used everywhere. These sensors play an important role as they monitor the
quality of water for different purposes. They are used in a variety of industries.

Following is a list of the most common kind of water sensors in use:

Chlorine Residual Sensor: It measures chlorine residual (i.e. free chlorine, monochloramine &
total chlorine) in water and most widely used as disinfectant because of its efficiency.

Total Organic Carbon Sensor: TOC sensor is used to measure organic element in water.

Turbidity Sensor: Turbidity sensors measure suspended solids in water, typically it is used in river
and stream gaging, wastewater and effluent measurement.

Conductivity Sensor: Conductivity measurements are carried out in industrial processes primarily
to obtain information on total ionic concentrations (i.e. dissolved compounds) in water solutions.

pH Sensor: It is used to measure the pH level in the dissolved water, which indicates how acidic
or basic (alkaline) it is.

Oxygen-Reduction Potential Sensor: The ORP measurement provides insights into the level of
oxidation/reduction reactions occurring in the solution.

Chemical sensor

Chemical sensors are applied in a number of different industries. Their goal is to indicate changes
in liquid or to find out air chemical changes. They play an important role in bigger cities, where it
is necessary to track changes and protect the population.

Main use cases of chemical sensors can be found in Industrial environmental monitoring and
process control, intentionally or accidentally released harmful chemical detection, explosive and
radioactive detection, recycling processes on Space Station, pharma industries and laboratory
etc.

Following are most common kind of chemical sensors in use:

 Chemical field-effect transistor

 Chemiresistor
  Electrochemical gas sensor
 Fluorescent chloride sensor
 Hydrogen sulfide sensor
 Nondispersive infrared sensor
 pH glass electrode
 Potentiometric sensor
 Zinc oxide nanorod sensor

Gas sensor

Gas sensors are similar to the chemical ones, but are specifically used to monitor changes of the
air quality and detect the presence of various gases. Like chemical sensors, they are used in
numerous industries such as manufacturing, agriculture and health and used for air quality
monitoring, detection of toxic or combustible gas, hazardous gas monitoring in coal mines, oil &
gas industries, chemical laboratory research, manufacturing – paints, plastics, rubber,
pharmaceutical & petrochemical etc.

Following are some common Gas sensors:

 Carbon dioxide sensor

 Breathalyzer
 Carbon monoxide detector
 Catalytic bead sensor
 Hydrogen sensor
 Air pollution sensor
 Nitrogen oxide sensor
 Oxygen sensor
 Ozone monitor
 Electrochemical gas sensor
 Gas detector
 Hygrometer
Smoke sensor

A smoke sensor is a device that senses smoke (airborne particulates & gases), and it’s level.

They have been in use for a long period of time. However, with the development of IoT, they are
now even more effective, as they are plugged into a system that immediately notifies the user
about any problem that occurs in different industries.

Smoke sensors are extensively used by manufacturing industry, HVAC, buildings and
accommodation infra to detect fire and gas incidences. This serves to protect people working in
dangerous environments, as the whole system is much more effective in comparison to the older
ones.

Common Type of Smoke Sensors

Smoke sensors detect the presence of Smoke, Gases and Flame surrounding their field. It can be
detected either optically or by the physical process or by the use of both the methods.

Optical smoke sensor (Photoelectric): Optical smoke sensor used the light scatter principle trigger
to occupants.

Ionization smoke sensor: Ionization smoke sensor works on the principle of ionization, kind of
chemistry to detect molecules causing a trigger alarm.

IR sensors

An infrared sensor is a sensor which is used to sense certain characteristics of its surroundings by
either emitting or detecting infrared radiation. It is also capable of measuring the heat being
emitted by the objects.

They are now used in a variety of IoT projects, especially in Healthcare as they make monitoring
of blood flow and blood pressure simple. They are even used in a wide array of regular smart
devices such as smartwatches and smartphones as well.

Other common use includes home appliances & remote control, breath analysis, Infrared vision
(i.e. visualize heat leaks in electronics, monitor blood flow, art historians to see under layers of
paint), wearable electronics, optical communication, non-contact based temperature
measurements, automotive blind-angle detection.

Their usage does not end there, they are also a great tool for ensuring high-level security in your
home. Also, their application includes environment checks, as they can detect a variety of
chemicals and heat leaks. They are going to play an important role in the smart home industry,
as they have a wide-range of applications.

Level sensors

A sensor which is used to determine the level or amount of fluids, liquids or other substances
that flow in an open or closed system is called Level sensor.

Like IR sensors, level sensors are present in a wide array of industries. They are primarily known
for measuring fuel levels, but they are also used in businesses that work with liquid materials. For
example, the recycling industry, as well as the juice and alcohol industry rely on these sensors to
measure the number of liquid assets in their possession

Best use cases of level sensor is, fuel gauging & liquid levels in open or closed containers, sea
level monitoring & Tsunami warning, water reservoirs, medical equipment, compressors,
hydraulic reservoirs, machine tools, beverage and pharmaceutical processing, high or low-level
detection etc.

This helps better streamline their businesses, as sensors collect all the important data at all times.
With the use of these sensors, any product manager can precisely see how much liquid is ready
to be distributed and whether the manufacturing should be stepped up.

There are two basic level measurement types:

Point level sensors: Point level sensors usually detect the particular specific level and respond to
the user if the sensing object is above or below that level. It is integrated into single device to get
an alarm or trigger
Continuous level Sensor: Continuous level sensors measure liquid or dry material levels within a
specified range and provide outputs which continuously indicate the level. The best example of
it is fuel level display in the vehicle.

Image sensors

Image sensors are instruments which are used to convert optical images into electronic signals
for displaying or storing files electronically.

The major use of image sensor is found in digital camera & modules, medical imaging and night
vision equipment, thermal imaging devices, radar, sonar, media house, Biometric & IRIS devices.

They are also implemented in improved security systems, where images help capture details
about the perpetrator.

Motion detection sensors

A motion detector is an electronic device which is used to detect the physical movement (motion)
in a given area and it transforms motion into an electric signal; motion of any object or motion
of human beings

Motion detection plays an important role in the security industry. Businesses utilize these sensors
in areas where no movement should be detected at all times, and it is easy to notice anybody’s
presence with these sensors installed.

These are primarily used for intrusion detection systems, automatics door control, boom barrier,
smart camera (i.e motion based capture/video recording),toll plaza, automatic parking systems,
automated sinks/toilet flusher, hand dryers, energy management systems(i.e. Automated
Lighting, AC, Fan, Appliances Control) etc.

Following are key motion sensor types widely used:

Passive Infrared (PIR): It Detects body heat (infrared energy) and the most widely used motion
sensor in home security systems.
Ultrasonic: Sends out pulses of ultrasonic waves and measures the reflection off a moving object
by tracking the speed of sound waves.

Microwave: Sends out radio wave pulses and measures the reflection off a moving object. They
cover a larger area than infrared & ultrasonic sensors, but they are vulnerable to electrical
interference and more expensive.

Microwave sensing technology can be classified into five categories:

Motion sensing. Sensing a moving object in a defined domain—for example, detecting an

intruder in a prohibited area.

Presence sensing. Sensing that an object exists in a defined domain at a given time. This concept
is vital in industrial control systems where the arrival of an object may not be noticed.

Velocity sensing. Sensing the linear speed of an object in a specified direction. This concept is
used by police to detect speeding cars.

Direction-of-motion sensing. Determining whether a target is moving away from or toward the
microwave sensor device. This concept is particularly important for manufacturers of automated
guided vehicle systems for obstacle avoidance. It is also used to detect whether objects or
personnel are approaching or departing from automatic doors.

Range sensing. Measuring the distance from the sensor to an object of interest. Applications
include sensing the level of oil or chemical solutions in tanks and containers.

Accelerometer sensors

Accelerometer is a transducer that is used to measure the physical or measurable acceleration

experienced by an object due to inertial forces and converts the mechanical motion into an
electrical output. It is defined as rate of change of velocity with respect to time.

These sensors are now present in millions of devices, such as smartphones. Their uses involve
detection of vibrations, tilting and acceleration in general. This is great for monitoring your
driving fleet, or using a smart pedometer.
In some instances, it is used as a form of anti-theft protection, as the sensor can send an alert
through the system if an object that should remain stationary is moved.

They are widely used in cellular & media devices, vibration measurement, automotive control
and detection, free fall detection, aircraft and aviation industries, movement detection, sports
academy/athlete’s behavior monitoring, consumer electronics, industrial & construction sites
etc.

Gyroscope sensors

A sensor or device which is used to measure the angular rate or angular velocity is known as Gyro
sensors, Angular velocity is simply defined as a measurement of speed of rotation around an axis.
It is a device used primarily for navigation and measurement of angular and rotational velocity in
3-axis directions. The most important application is monitoring the orientation of an object.

Their main applications are in car navigation systems, game controllers, cellular & camera
devices, consumer electronics, robotics control, drone & RC control helicopter or UAV control,
vehicle control/ADAS and many more.

Humidity sensors

Humidity is defined as the amount of water vapour in an atmosphere of air or other gases. The
most commonly used terms are “Relative Humidity (RH)

These sensors usually follow the use of temperature sensors, as many manufacturing processes
require perfect working conditions. Through measuring humidity, you can ensure that the whole
process runs smoothly, and when there is any sudden change, action can be taken immediately,
as sensors detect the change almost instantaneously.

Optical sensors

A sensor which measures the physical quantity of light rays and convert it into electrical signal
which can be easily readable by user or an electronic instrument/device is called optical sensor.
Optical sensors are loved by IoT experts, as they are practical for measuring different things
simultaneously. The technology behind this sensor allows it to monitor electromagnetic energy,
which includes, electricity, light and so on.

Following are key type of optical sensors:

Photodetector: It uses light sensitive semiconductor materials like photocells, photodiodes or

phototransistors to work as photodetector

Fiber Optics: Fibers optics carry no current, so its immune to electrical & electromagnetic
interference and even in damaged condition no sparking or shock hazard happens.

Pyrometer: It estimates the temperature of an object by sensing the color of the light and Objects
radiate light according to their temperature and produce same colors at same temperature.

Proximity & Infrared: Proximity use light to sense objects nearby and Infrared are used where
visible light would be inconvenient.
 CHAPTER 3

3.1 DATA INTERFACING

Peripheral

It means various components or devices those are connected to CPU. Actually, these are input
output devices. Thus, it sometimes calls as I/O devices.

Interface

An interface is a concept that refers to a point of interaction between objects or components and
is applicable at the level of both hardware and software. Thus, PHERIPHERAL INTERFACING is a
kind of interaction between processor and external or peripheral devices.

To interface physically, a component or mediator between I/O device and processor is used
which is called I/O module.

I/O devices are most of case usually electrical/ mechanical/ electronic devices where processor
is an electronic device. Also, the data transfer rates of I/O are often slower than the processor
and memory. So, it is significant that the speed and electrical characteristics of I/O are different
from CPU.

There are a variety of peripherals that exist and may need to be connected to the same system
bus. But it may be difficult to incorporate all the peripheral device logic into CPU. This reduces
flexibility and creates hinderance in new developments.

Peripheral often use different data formats and word lengths that used by the CPU Incorporation
of I/O module helps to overcome these problems.

Serial Interface

A serial interface is a communication interface between two digital systems that transmits data
as a series of voltage pulses down a wire. A "1" is represented by a high logical voltage and a "0"
is represented by a low logical voltage
Parallel Interface

A parallel port is a type of interface found on computers for connecting peripherals. The name
refers to the way the data is sent; parallel ports send multiple bits of data at once, as opposed to
serial interfaces that send bits one at a time

3.1.1 Interfacing - Input/output Module

An I/O module is a mediator between the processor and an I/O device/device.

It controls the data exchange between the external devices and main memory; or external
devices and CPU registers.

An I/O module provide an interface internal to the computer which connects it to CPU and main
memory and an interface external to the computer connecting it to external device or peripheral.

The I/O module should not only communicate the information from CPU to I/O device, but it
should also coordinate these two.

In addition, since there are speed differences between CPU and I/O devices, the I/O module
should have facilities like buffer (storage area) and error detection mechanism.
3.1.2 OPTO-COUPLING

An Opto-coupler, is an electronic component that interconnects two separate electrical circuits

by means of a light sensitive optical interface

When to Use

There are many situations where signals and data need to be transferred from one subsystem to
another within a piece of electronics equipment, or from one piece of equipment to another,
without making a direct electrical connection.

Often this is because the source and destination are at very different voltage levels, like a
microprocessor which is operating from 5V DC but being used to control a triac which is switching
240V AC.

In such situations the link between the two must be an isolated one, to protect the
microprocessor from overvoltage damage.

Opto-couplers are available in four general types, each one having an infrared LED source but
with different photo-sensitive devices.

The four opto-couplers are called the:

Photo-transistor

A phototransistor is similar to a regular BJT except that the base current is produced and
controlled by light instead of a voltage source. The phototransistor effectively converts light
energy to an electrical signal.

In a phototransistor the base current is produced when light strikes the photosensitive
semiconductor base region. The collector-base PN junction is exposed to incident light through a
lens opening in the transistor package. When there is no incident light, there is only a small
thermally generated collector-to-emitter leakage current; this dark current is typically in the mA
range. When light strikes the collector-base PN junction, a base current, I, is produced that is
directly proportional to the light intensity. This action produces a collector current that increases
with I. Except for the way base current is generated, the phototransistor behaves as a
conventional BJT. In many cases, there is no electrical connection to the base.

Photo-Darlington

In the photodarlington transistor configuration, the first transistor acts as the photodetector, and
its emitter is coupled into the base of the second transistor. This gives a very much higher level
of gain, but it is very much slower than the ordinary phototransistor, having a maximum
frequency of around 20 kHz.

The photodarlington symbol is a combination of the standard phototransistor symbol and the
Darlington transistor symbol.

Photo-SCR

SCR stand for Silicon controlled rectifier, SCR also referred as Thyristor. In the upper image a
Photo-SCR based opto-coupler’s internal construction is shown. Same as like other opto-coupler
the LED emit Infrared. The SCR is controlled by the intensity of the LED. Photo-SCR based Opto-
coupler used in AC related circuitry.

Photo-TRIAC.

TRIAC is mainly used where AC based control or switching is needed. The led can be controlled
using DC, and the TRIAC used to control AC. Opto-coupler provide excellent isolation in this case
too.

Common applications for opto-couplers include:

a) microprocessor input/output switching,

b) DC and AC power control

c) PC communications

d) signal isolation

e) power supply regulation which suffer from current ground loops, etc.

3.1.3 LINE DRIVER

Driver Interface

Drivers or buffers are also used in microprocessor interface design. However, they are usually
only needed when the loading on the microprocessor data, address or control lines is too high.
And that is usually because the microprocessor address, data or control lines are connected in
parallel to large number of external electronic components. Another situation that requires
drivers is when the microprocessor is connected to long cables.

Drivers are needed in both cases so that delay times, rise and fall times and noise levels do not
adversely affect the reliability of the microprocessor’s data and calculations.

A key element of the analog front end of such systems is the line driver which interfaces with the
transmission medium such as co-axial cable or twisted pair. The line driver is an amplifier that
provides the necessary output current to drive the low impedance of the line.
3.2 THE CONTROL ROOM

An operations center staffed by personnel charged with the responsibility for remotely
monitoring and controlling a pipeline facility.

Control rooms are areas of high performance with unique characteristic elements, where
operators perform tracking, monitoring, control, analysis and critical decision making, 24 hours
a day, 7 days a week and during all the year. These particular control room design features make
necessary to design it according to some key requirements.
3.2.1 Layout specifications

 Lighting
 Temperature
 Is it easy to view all the panels of displays?
 Can all controls be reached easily?
 Is it easy to link each display with its control?
 Layout Can you see quickly whether the reading is within normal limits?

Concept: each control room and command center is unique recording not only to the technical
needs, but also to the design of the control room for maximum operator performance, optimizing
efficiency and creating a perfect environment for decision making

Human-centered design: people must be at the center of the design when planning a control
room. Comfort and functionality must always be present to facilitate daily work to help the
operator to develop their responsibilities more efficiently.

Ergonomics: from the layout of the room, lighting, colors, the design of the control console,
materials, display systems, HVAC. Everything must be designed according to the people, adapting
all the elements to operators without these having to adapt to the environment.

Customization: the design of a control room requires a careful study of a large number of
variables that directly depend on the specific needs of the room itself and on the operators that
will develop their work in that technological environment. From the initial layout to distribution
of elements, choice of control console, integration with technological elements, distribution of
spaces, lighting, interior design, everything should be fully adapted to the specific work to be
developed.

FIRE PREVENTION

 Evacuation plan
 Evacuation procedures discussed regularly?
 Extinguishers in place/ Type
  Adequate direction notices for fire exits?
 Exits should be clear of obstruction

BUILDING SAFETY

 Floor surfaces even and uncluttered

 Work area and equipment clear of debris and materials

ELECTRICAL HAZARDS

 Adequate lighting for working conditions.

 Electrical panels protected.
 Equipment earthed properly

PERSONNEL AND PHYSICAL SECURITY

 Authorized Personnel Access List

 Biometric Access
 Physical Security

CONSIDERATIONS AND PROVISIONS FOR EXPANSION

 Space
 Accessibility
 Mimic diagram

A line diagram of a pipe system or items of equipment which includes miniature alarm lights or
operating buttons for the relevant point or item in the system.
MIMIC DIGRAMS SPECIFICATION

 Phase: Single phase / Three Phase

 Voltage :110V/220
 Construction: Type Wall Mount etc
 Enclosure:Degree of Protection
 Frequency
 Type