ANIMAL

ORGAN SYSTEM
GROUP 1 - MAWD201
MEMBERS OF GROUP 1
Nathaniel Cayanan Princess Aleah Alejaga
Trisha Jay Santiago Jiro Umali
Alexis Althea Sison Emerald Pining
Mariella Delos Santos Lowell Zurita
Dwayne Marvie Garcia Johnberth Fernandez
Norel Jethro Aprecio MarkDaniel Tamsac
 OVERVIEW

D Digestive System M Muscular System

C Circulatory System E Endocrine System

E Excretory System S Skeletal System

I Integumentary System
 Introduction
To live and to survive is the ultimate goal of every living thing
on Earth. Different organisms have different ways to survive.
Animals and humans use various body parts and their
mechanisms to carry out life processes.
Body parts and organ systems work together in harmonious
relationships to achieve homeostasis in one's body. .
Digestive System
The digestive system breaks down food both mechanically and chemically in
order to extract nutrients for energy and growth. It is responsible for breaking
down food into smaller components, which can then be absorbed into the
bloodstream and used by the body.

Components and How?

The mouth is used for chewing, the stomach for acid
digestion, and the intestines for nutritional absorption.
Enzymes break down food into smaller molecules that may be
absorbed by the bloodstream and distributed to cells.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Functions of the Digestive System

• Digestion - turns food into molecules that the body
absorbs to create energy for its cells.

• Absorption - it causes molecules to enter the body's

inner area and move throughout the body.

• Elimination - it removes undesired foods that can't be

digested, leaving more space in our digestive system.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

PRINCIPAL PROCESSES INVOLVED IN DIGESTION

• Mechanical digestion involves biting, chopping, ripping, grinding,

and crushing large chunks of food into fine mixtures.

• Breaking down food into tiny pieces is insufficient for digestion.

Hence the requirement for chemical digestion.

• Chemical digestion is the transformation of food into a more

soluble form by the action of digestive enzymes.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

VERTEBRATE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Characteristics:

Vertebrates have a complete digestive system starting Complete digestive
from the mouth and ending at the rectum. The circulatory tract from mouth to
system is closed, with a heart located ventrally. rectum.
Positioned ventrally to
Vertebrates have evolved complex digestive systems to
the spinal cord.
adapt to their dietary needs, with some having a single
Mouth opens
stomach, while others have multi-chambered stomachs.
anteriorly, anus opens
posteriorly.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Variation of Vertebrates Digestive System

Monogastric: Single stomach, aided
by enzymes from liver, salivary
glands, and pancreas.
Avian: Beak, crop (food storage),
gizzard (breakdown), two-chambered
stomach (proventriculus and true
stomach).
Ruminants: Four stomachs, symbiotic
bacteria aid in cellulose digestion.
Pseudo-ruminants: Three-
chambered stomach, cellulose
digestion aided by bacteria in the
cecum.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Variation of Invertebrates Digestive System

Invertebrates, like all living things, require nutrients from their food to survive
and function properly. Digestion is the process of breaking down food into
smaller molecules that the body can absorb and utilize.

Invertebrate digestive systems are divided into two types based on how they
digest food: Intracellular digestion and Extracellular digestion.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Variation of Invertebrates Digestive System

Intracellular Digestion: Soft-
bodied organisms like
flatworms, comb jellies, coral,
jellyfish, and sea anemones use
the gastrovascular cavity.

Extracellular Digestion:
segmented worms, arthropods,
and arachnids use the
alimentary canal, removing
undigested material.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The Human Digestive System

The Human Digestive System is tube-like, having

specialized compartments such as the mouth,
pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine,
large intestine, and anus.

The mouth mechanically digests food, the

stomach chemically digests it, and the small
intestine absorbs it.

The liver, pancreas, and gall bladder

aid in chemical digestion by secreting enzymes
and bile.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The bloodstream circulates nutrients, hormones, vitamins, and minerals

throughout the body once they are absorbed by the digestive system. Blood
transports oxygen from the lungs to the cells while also eliminating metabolic
waste, such carbon dioxide, from the cells. The waste is subsequently carried
to organs, which remove it from the body.

The circulatory system is responsible for distributing materials to and from all
parts of the body. It also plays a crucial role in regulating body temperature and
removing waste products from the body, such as carbon dioxide and
nitrogenous compounds.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Major Parts of the Circulatory System in the

Human Body:

Blood:
Composition: Plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
Functions: Transporting oxygen and nutrients, forming blood clots, fighting
infection, regulating body temperature.
Components:
Plasma: Nutrients, waste, hormones, ions, proteins.
Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells): Lack nuclei, contain hemoglobin.
Leukocytes (White Blood Cells): Combat infection.
Platelets: Assist in blood clotting.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Major Parts of the Circulatory System in the

Human Body:

Blood Vessels:
Types: Arteries, veins, capillaries.
Functions: Transport blood throughout the body.
Characteristics:
Arteries: Thick-walled, muscular, carry oxygenated blood away from heart.
Veins: Thinner, less muscular, return deoxygenated blood to heart.
Capillaries: One-cell-thick, facilitate material exchange.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Major Parts of the Circulatory System in the

Human Body:
Heart:
Structure: Muscular pump with four chambers.
Functions:
Two-sided: Receives and pumps blood to different circulatory pathways.
Valves: Maintain blood flow direction.
Cardiac Muscle: Primary tissue composing the heart.
Variations in Species:
Different forms across species (chambered hearts, tubular hearts).
Human heart: Two-sided, four-chambered structure.
Functionality:
Pumping: Receives and pumps blood to various parts of the body.
Separation: Ensures oxygenated and deoxygenated blood remain separate.
Adaptation: Supports metabolic demands of warm-blooded animals.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Two Types of Circulatory System:

1. Open Circulatory System: 2. Closed Circulatory System:

Found in mollusks and arthropods. Found in vertebrates and some invertebrates.

Blood pumped into a hemocoel and diffuses back Blood always within vessels.
to the circulatory system. Pumped by heart through arteries, capillaries, and
Organs bathed in hemolymph. veins.
Common in arthropods and most mollusks. Efficient nutrient and gas exchange.
Examples include vertebrates, some mollusks, and
annelid worms.
 EXCRETORY SYSTEM
The regular metabolic processes create waste products that need to
be eliminated to maintain the balance of the body.

This process is known as excretion. The excretory systems help to

regulate the levels of salt and water in the body while also removing
harmful waste products.
Osmoregulation in Aquatic Invertebrates and Fish:
Osmoconformers: Many aquatic invertebrates in saltwater environments are
osmoconformers, meaning they maintain internal osmotic pressure similar to their
external environment.
Osmoregulators: Most fish, whether marine or freshwater, are osmoregulators,
actively controlling salt and water balance to adapt to different environments.

Water Balance in Terrestrial Animals:

Challenges: Animals living on land face the risk of water loss through
evaporation and must actively seek freshwater sources to prevent
dehydration.
Salt Loss: Mammals lose salts through sweat, essential for body
cooling. Electrolyte drinks are recommended to restore salt balance
during intense exercise.
Excretory Systems in Other Animals:
Vertebrates: Paired kidneys regulate body fluid levels and remove wastes as a
secondary function.
Invertebrates: Utilize various mechanisms for waste removal.
Sponges and Cnidarians: Metabolic wastes diffuse into surrounding water.
Flatworms: Flame cells filter interstitial fluid.
Annelids: mollusks, crustaceans: Filtration system with metanephridia.
Insects: Malpighian tubules for waste removal via secretion.

Kidney Function:
Nephrons: Functional filtering units within the kidneys, responsible for waste
removal and fluid balance.
Filtration Process: Blood pressure forces fluid (filtrate) from capillaries into
Bowman's capsule, where it passes through tubules. Materials needed by the
body are reabsorbed, and the remaining filtrate becomes urine.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Respiratory System
Oxygen is an essential ingredient for
metabolism. The respiratory system is
responsible for breathing, which is the
exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
between body cells, blood, and air in the
lungs. Respiration differs depending on the
type of animal.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Gas Exchange Organs and the

Animals that Utilize Them
1. Cell Membrane:
Description: Single-celled organisms exchange gases directly across their cell
membrane.
Efficiency: Simple animals with flattened or thin body plans utilize their body surface
efficiently for gas exchange.
2. Body Surface:
Flatworms and Annelids: Utilize outer surfaces as gas exchange surfaces.
Earthworms have thin-walled blood vessels (capillaries) for gas exchange.
Amphibians: Utilize their skin as a respiratory surface. Frogs and eels exchange
oxygen and carbon dioxide through their skin.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Gas Exchange Organs and the

Animals that Utilize Them
3. Gills:
Description: Found in various animal groups including arthropods (crustaceans), annelids, and
fish.
Structure: Convolute outgrowths containing blood vessels covered by thin epithelial layers.
Efficiency: Highly efficient at removing oxygen from water due to increased surface area.
4. Tracheal System:
Description: Found in many terrestrial animals, consists of tubes (tracheae) carrying air directly
to cells for gas exchange.
Structure: Spiracles are openings at the body surface leading to tracheae branching into
smaller tubes (tracheoles).
Efficiency: Relies on body movements to speed up gas diffusion into body cells.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Gas Exchange Organs and the

Animals that Utilize Them

5. Lungs:
Description: Ingrowths of the body wall connecting to the outside by a series of tubes
and small openings.
Evolution: Evolved around 400 million years ago, not exclusive to vertebrates.
Efficiency: Provides a vast surface area for gas exchange, vital for terrestrial animals.
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

Integumentary System
Derived from the Latin word
"integumentum," meaning "to cover," the
integumentary system serves as the body's
outer protective covering against water loss
and abrasions from the environment. It
includes the skin, which comprises the
epidermis, dermis, subcutaneous layer, and
accessory structures such as hair and nails.
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

Skin:
The largest organ in the human body, accounting for 12-15% of
body weight and covering a surface area of 1-2 square meters.
Functions: Protects against infection and injury, regulates body
temperature, removes waste products, shields against ultraviolet
radiation, and synthesizes vitamin D.
Consists of three layers: epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous
layer.
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

Epidermis:
Basal layer contains cells undergoing mitosis, gradually replaced by
keratinized cells rich in the fibrous protein keratin.
Melanocytes produce melanin, responsible for skin pigmentation.
Dermis:
Innermost layer comprising living cells, blood vessels, nerves, sense
receptors, hair follicles, and smooth muscle.
Blood vessels regulate body temperature, constricting to conserve heat or
dilating to dissipate heat. Muscle fibers attached to hair follicles cause
goosebumps when contracted.
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

Glands:
Sebaceous glands produce oily sebum, keeping the skin flexible and waterproof.
Sweat glands release watery sweat to regulate body temperature through evaporative cooling.
Subcutaneous Layer:
Located beneath the dermis, consists of connective tissue (mostly fat) providing insulation, energy
storage, and protection.
Hair:
Associated with sebaceous glands, capillary beds, nerve endings, and small muscles at each hair
follicle.
Nails:
Highly keratinized, modified epidermal cells growing from the nail matrix.
Arise from the nail bed, thickened to form the lunula.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Muscular System
An organ system greatly associated with the skeletal
system. It plays a crucial role in “movement, protection, heat
production, joint stability, and maintaining posture”.

It achieves these functions through its unique properties,

including contractility (ability to become shorter and
thicker), extensibility (ability to stretch), elasticity (ability to
return to original form), and excitability (response to
stimuli).

The basic unit of skeletal muscle tissue is called the

sarcomere, made up of actin and myosin filaments. Muscles
work by getting shorter, which means they need to work in
pairs to allow movement. The nervous system controls this
process, coordinating muscle contractions and responses.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Types of Muscles
1. Skeletal Muscle: Attached to bones via tendons, 2. Smooth Muscle: Found in the walls of hollow
skeletal muscles are responsible for voluntary organs like the stomach, intestines, arteries, and
movements controlled by nerve impulses from the veins, smooth muscle is made up of spindle-shaped
brain. These muscles are characterized by long, cells with a single nucleus. It has greater capacity
striated, multinucleated cells. than other muscle types to be stretched while
retaining the ability to contract It handles
Example: Hamstring muscle, Biceps, and
involuntary movements such as the propulsion of
Quadriceps
food through the digestive tract.
Examples: Stomach muscle, intestinal Muscles, and
Arterial muscle
MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Types of Muscles
3. Cardiac Muscle: Located only in the
heart walls, cardiac muscle has
striations like skeletal muscle but
operates involuntarily. It continuously
contracts to pump blood without
conscious effort.
Example: Heart muscle
MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Invertebrate Movement and Locomotion:

Movement is essential for animals to find food, escape

predators, and reproduce. While sessile animals rely
on moving water or air to capture food, most animals
engage in various forms of locomotion, such as
swimming, crawling, walking, and flying.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Invertebrate Movement and Locomotion:

Locomotion is vital for animals to find food, mates, and
escape predators. It includes swimming, crawling, walking,
flying, and unique movements like hopping. Vertebrates
use their musculoskeletal system, with muscles and joints,
to move. Skeletal muscles handle voluntary movements,
smooth muscles manage involuntary actions, and cardiac
muscle keeps the heart beating. This movement is
rhythmic and coordinated, making animal locomotion
efficient and agile compared to machines.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Skeletons and Support:

For muscles to translate contractions into movement, they
require a supportive structure, which can be an
endoskeleton, exoskeleton, or hydrostatic skeleton.

Hydrostatic skeletons, found in cnidarians and annelids,

use fluid-filled compartments for movement.

Example: Flatworms
MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Skeletons and Support:

Exoskeletons provide a hard outer layer for muscle
attachment and protection.

Example: Mollusk, arthropods

Endoskeletons, present in vertebrates and echinoderms,

consist of internal bones or cartilage that support and
protect internal organs and facilitate movement.

Example: Sponges
 Immune System
The Immune System is a complex network of cells, tissues, and organs that
collaborate to defend the body against germs and foreign substances,
preventing infections and maintaining health. White blood cells, or
leukocytes, play a central role in this defense, with two basic types
working together to identify andd eliminate harmful invaders.

These cells are produced or stored in various lymphoid organs such as the
thymus, spleen, and bone marrow, as well as lymph nodes scattered
throughout the body. Through circulation via lymphatic and blood vessels,
leukocytes continuously monitor the body for potential threats, allowing
the immune system to respond effectively to any detected dangers.
BASIC TYPES OF LEUKOCYTES

PHAGOCYTES
•These cells that chew up invading organisms.
•including the common neutrophil, are cells that engulf and destroy pathogens,
particularly bacteria. Increased neutrophil levels in a blood test may indicate a bacterial
infection. Different types of phagocytes have specific roles in responding to different
invaders.

LYMPHOCYTES
•cells that allow the body to remember and recognize previous invaders and help the
body destroy them.
•divided into B and T cells, originate in the bone marrow and mature into their respective
types in different locations: B cells in the bone marrow and T cells in the thymus gland. B
cells act as the body's intelligence system, identifying targets and coordinating defenses,
while T cells function as soldiers, directly destroying identified invaders.
ORGANS AND TISSUES OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

Lypmh Nodes

They are small,bean-shaped structures which

contains lymph (the clear fluid). They produce and
store cells that fight infection and disease.
Lymph carries those cells to different parts of the
body. When the body is fighting infection, lymph
nodes can become enlarged and feel sore.
 SPLEEN

It is on your left side, under your ribs and above

your stomach. The white blood cells contained by
spleen fights infection or disease. They also
helps control the amount of blood in the body
and disposes of old or damaged blood cells.was
sunnitalicals
 BONE MARROW
-The yellow tissue in center of the bones produces
white blood cells.This spongy tissueinside some
bones, such as the hip and thigh bones. contains
immature cells

Stem cells, especially embryonic stem cells, which

are derived from eggs fertilized in vitro.(outside of
the body), are prized for their flexibility in being able
to morph into any human cell.
 THYMUS
This small organ is where T-cells mature.
This is found beneath the breastbone (and is
shaped like a thyme leat, hence the name. It
can trigger or maintain the production of
antibodies.
 THE IMMUNE SYSTEM OF INVERTEBRATES

Invertebrates have several mechanisms to protect themselves from pathogens. They

use physical barriers like exoskeletons and mucous membranes to prevent pathogen
entry. Their immune cells, called hemocytes, attack and digest invaders. They produce
antimicrobial peptides that kill bacteria, viruses, and fungi. Enzymes help in wound
healing and defense against infections. Additionally, RNA interference degrades viral
RNA to stop virus replication. These combined strategies ensure an effective immune
response despite being simpler than vertebrate systems.
 MAINTAINING HOMEOSTASIS

Maintaining homeostasis means keeping the body's internal environment stable despite
external changes. Key processes include regulating body temperature through sweating and
shivering, controlling blood sugar with insulin, balancing water levels via the kidneys, and
maintaining proper pH levels in blood and tissues. These mechanisms ensure the body
functions properly under various conditions.
 EXAMPLES OF HOMOESTOASIS

• Temperature in house set to 20°C (NORMAL

CONDITION)
• Internal house temperature drops to 17°C (CHANGE)
•Thermo stat detects drop in temperature (SENSOR)
•Thermostat turns on furnace (COORDINATING CENTRE)
•Furnace starts and begins to warm house (EFFECTOR)
•Temperature returns to 20°C (NORMAL CONDITION)
 Nervous System
The nervous system, made up of the brain, spinal cord, and
nerves, controls body functions by processing information
and triggering responses. The brain and spinal cord form
the central nervous system (CNS), managing functions like
thinking and movement. Nerves spread throughout the
body as part of the peripheral nervous system (PNS),
transmitting signals to and from the CNS, enabling
sensations and muscle movements. Together, these
systems regulate bodily activities, maintain balance, and
allow us to interact with our surroundings.
Nervous System
• Neurons, also known as nerve cells, forms the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
They consist of the cell body, containing the nucleus, dendrites, and axon.
Dendrites, which expands from the cell body, goes through impulses passes on
to the cell body and out through an axon. Some neurons have a myelin sheath,
which interrupts at intervals, causing impulses to jump the crack (called Nodes
of Ranvier) to travel in one direction, which goes in the dendrites and out of the
axon. Bundles of neurons are called nerves.
• The interfacing space between neurons is known as a neurotransmitter.
Synapses at the neurotransmitter should be actuated for the motivation to
proceed to the following neuron.
Different Types of Neurons
1. Motor Neurons : relay impulses from the brain
and spinal cord to other parts of the body.

2. Sensory Neurons :Transmit impulses

toward the brain and spinal cord.

3. Interneurons : Relay impulses between

sensory and motor neurons.
Functions : It arranges the body's reaction to changes
in the inner and outside conditions. It is liable for get-
together, incorporating, deciphering, and answering
data about conditions all through the body.
 Nervous System of Invertebrates
• Invertebrates have played an important role in discoveries about how the nervous
system works. The squid, aplysia (sea hare), leech, horseshoe crab, lobster, and
cockroach have all provided scientists with models by which to study the nervous
system. Invertebrates are useful animals to study because their nervous systems
work the same way as that of vertebrates. Neurons in all animals work using an
electrochemical process. It is easier to study the function of the more simple nervous
systems of invertebrates.

• The sensory system of the starfish is extremely simple. There is no mind and there
are not even any ganglia to facilitate development. The sensory system is described
by a nerve ring that encompasses the mouth. A spiral nerve branches off of the
nerve ring and reaches out to each arm.
 Nervous System of Invertebrates
• Starfish have a fascinating approach to distinguishing light. They have "eyespots"
at the tip of each arm. The eyespot contains light delicate colors that permit the
starfish to distinguish shadows and changes in the splendor of light. The sensory
system is portrayed by six ganglia.
• A couple of snails have chemosensors called "osphradia" in the mantle hole.
These osphradia are used to recognize artificial materials in the air or water. The
crab has a consolidated focal sensory system comprising of a few ganglia.
• The lobster has a mind associated with a first ventral ganglion. This ganglion is
situated under its stomach. A twofold nerve string stretches out from the primary
ventral ganglion to a progression of matched segmental ganglia going through the
whole body on the ventral side of the creature.
 Nervous System of Invertebrates
• The grasshopper has a brain located between its eyes, just above the esophagus.
The brain is connected to the 1st ventral ganglion by a pair of ventral nerves that
surround the gut. The grasshopper can do many things, like walking and jumping,
unaccompanied by its brain. The brain is used to relay sensory information to other
parts of the body and to help with movement.

• Bugs have a compound eye containing a wide range of units called "ommatidia".
Every ommatidia resembles a singular focal point that examples a little piece of the
visual field. There can be large number of ommatidia in a solitary bug eye.
 Nervous System of Invertebrates
• The octopus has the most muddled mind of the multitude of spineless creatures.
The octopus sensory system has around 500,000,000 neurons, with 66% of these
neurons situated in the arms of the octopus.

Nonetheless, the octopus eye is unique in relation to that of vertebrates in that it

shines light by drawing the focal point nearer and further away from the retina.
 Endocrine System
EXOCRINE GLANDS
-Salivary glands,sweat glands,mammary glands. They have ducts where the
secretion pass through to the specific site where they take effect. They secrete
saliva,sweat, and milk,respectively.

ENDOCRINE GLANDS
-It is a group of cells or organ that produces secretion for use elsewhere in the body,
or in a body cavity. They secrete their products directly into the bloodstream.
They are small for the most part and has
no duct coming out from the glands.

ENDOCRINE GLAND
-Endocrine glands, which are ductless, produce hormones that regulate body functions. These
hormones are released directly into the bloodstream. Examples of endocrine glands include the
hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, and pancreas, among others.
 EXAMPLES ENDOCTRINE SYSTEM

Hypothalamus - coordinates activities of the nervous and endocrine systems and produces
hormones to regulate the pituitary gland.
Pituitary - produces hormones that direct the activities of other endocrine glands.
Pineal - releases melatonin, which is involved in rhythmic or cyclic activities (sleep
patterns)
Thyroid - produces hormones that regulate metabolism and development.
Parathyroid - helps maintain appropriate calcium levels.
Thymus - involved with immune development during childhood.
Adrenal - regulates the body's stress response (epinephrine, norepinephrine, cortisol,
aldosterone)
Ovary - secretes estrogen and progesterone to regulate reproduction.
Testes -produces testosterone to control formation of sperm and sexual behavior.
 HOW HORMONES GOVERN BODY ACTIVITIES

Hormone release is regulated by negative feedback systems, which

inhibit processes once they've been triggered. For instance, when
glucose levels rise, the pancreas releases insulin, promoting glucose
entry into cells and lowering blood glucose. As blood glucose levels
decrease, insulin secretion stops.
 INVERTEBRATE ENDOCRINE SYSTEMS

Invertebrates have a basic endocrine system that helps regulate

functions like growth, reproduction, and behavior. They produce
hormones through neurosecretory cells or specialized glands. These
hormones control processes such as molting and metamorphosis, vital
for their development and survival. While simpler than vertebrates,
the endocrine system ensures invertebrates adapt to their
environment and maintain balance within their bodies.
 SKELETAL SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS
1. It supports and give shape to the body.
2. It aids in movement by giving muscles something
to firm to work against.
3. It protect vital organs such as the brain, spinal
cord, heart, and lungs.
4. It stores vitamins and minerals (especially
calcium andphosphorus) and houses red bone
marrow, which produces blood cells.
 Because of diversity of
animal body structures,
zoologists commonly
recognize three types of
skeletal systems in
animals.

THREE (3) TYPES OF SKELETAL SYSTEMS

 HYDROSTATIC SKELETONS

Hydrostatic skeletons are fluid-filled chambers

within animals like sea anemones and worms.
Muscle contractions create movement and
maintain shape. When longitudinal muscles
contract, the body shortens and widens, while
contraction of circular muscles lengthens and thins
it.
 EXOSKELETONS

Exoskeletons are found in arthropods like crustaceans,

insects, and arachnids such as crabs and spiders. They
are hard segments covering muscles and organs,
restricting growth and requiring molting for expansion.
Muscles attach to the inner surface, while the
exoskeleton's weight limits animal size. Spiders combine
exoskeleton protection with fluid pressure for
movement.
 ENDOSKELETONS
Vertebrates possess an internal mineralized
endoskeleton made of bone and/or cartilage, providing
support. Muscles are external to the endoskeleton. The
skeleton's primary function is to support the body. The
axial skeleton includes the skull, ribs, sternum, and
vertebral column, while the appendicular skeleton
comprises limbs and associated structures. Joints
articulate bones, enabling flexibility and movement as
muscles contract and relax.
 THE HUMAN SKELETAL SYSTEM

The human skeleton consists of 206 bones and

associated tissues like cartilage, tendons, and ligaments.
Cartilage, made of collagenous substance called
chondrin, supports bone ends, nose, trachea, and ears.
Tendons connect muscle to bone, transmitting muscle
force. Ligaments connect bone to bone or cartilage,
supporting and strengthening joints.