Introduction to Computer Network

Introduction:

 A network is a set of devices (nodes) connected by a communication link.

 A node can be a computer, printer or any devices capable of sending or
receiving data generated by other nodes on the network.
 Computer network is a large number of separate computers that are
interconnected to exchange data and information.
 In computer network, users directly interact with the actual machine to
invoke the data exchange and the system do not attempt to make the
computers or machines to act coherently.

Uses of Computer Network:

1. Marketing and sales

Used to collect, exchange and analyze data relating to costumers needs

and product development cycles. Eg. Teleshopping, online services, e-
commerce etc.

2. Financial Services

Financial services like electronic fund transfer, foreign currency

exchange etc.

3. Manufacturing

Multiple users/ workers can work on a project simultaneously which

leads faster production of materials.

4. Electronic Messaging

Email, Messenger, Hangout etc

5. Tele-Conferencing

Video call, audio call etc. this could be helpful in distant learning and
telemedicine.

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

 6. Resource Sharing

It allows all programs, equipment and data available to anyone on the

network irrespective of the physical location of the resources and the
user.

7. Availability of Data

It provides high reliability by having alternative sources of data, so that

the data is always available. Mechanism such as replication of data and
backup are used.

Networking Models:
Client/Server Model:

- Data are stored in powerful computers known as server.

- Server is managed by a system administrator.

- Users have simple computers called clients.

- Client and server computers are connected by a network.

- Communication occurs as follows:-

1. Client sends request to server over the network.

2. Client waits for a reply.

3. Server gets the request, performs the requested tasks and sends back a
reply.

- It is a centralized communication model.

- A single server can have multiple clients associated to it.

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

Two types of clients:

1. Thin Client: It is network computer with no local storage. It processes

information independently but relies on servers for applications, storage
and administration. For eg. Web browser
2. Thick Client: More powerful computers capable of handling independent
applications. They have their own local storage. E.g. gaming apps, video
editing apps.

Fig: Client-Server Model

Peer-to-Peer Model:

In peer to peer model, computers simply connect with each other in a workgroup
to share files, printers and internet access. Instead of internet information being
held in a few central locations, peer-to-peer computing makes it theoretically
possible to access the files and data residing on every personal computer
connected to the internet.

All computers and users have equal authority and rights. A peer in P2P network
acts as both a client and a server in traditional client/server architecture.

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

 fig: peer-to-peer model

The main two application of this model are:

Distributed Computing: these applications typically require the decomposition of

larger problem into smaller parallel problems (e.g. SETI@home)

File Sharing applications: require efficient search across wide area networks (e.g.
Napster, Freenet, torrent)

Active Networks:

Active network is a type of network architecture that allows packets traveling

through the network to dynamically modify the operation of network. That is, it is
a network in which the nodes are programmed to perform custom operations on
the messages that pass though the node. The packets in active network are called
active packets. These active packets have a small piece of code along with data.

Active network consists of active hardware, capable of routing or switching as

well as executing code within active packets. The idea is to send code along with
packets of information allowing the data to change its form to match the channel
characteristics.

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS:

In Order to make communication successful between devices , some rules and

procedures should be agreed upon at the sending and receiving ends of the
system. Such rules and procedures are called as Protocols . Different types of
protocols are used for different types of communication.

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

Standards are the set of rules for data communication that are needed
for exchange of information among devices. It is important to follow Standards
which are created by various Standard Organization like IEEE , ISO , ANSI etc.

OSI Reference Model:

This model is based on a proposal developed by the International Standards

Organization (ISO). The model is called the ISO OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) Reference Model because it deals with connecting open
systems—that is, systems that are open for communication with other systems.

The OSI model has seven layers. The principles that were applied to arrive at the
seven layers can be briefly summarized as follows:

1. A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.

2. Each layer should perform a well-defined function.

3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining
internationally standardized protocols.

4.The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across
the interfaces.

The Physical Layer:

Functions:

 To activate, maintain and deactivate the physical connection.

 To define voltages and data rates needed for transmission.
 To convert the digital bits into electrical signals.

The physical layer does not perform the detection and correction of errors.
Below the physical layer lies the transmission medium.

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

 FIG: OSI REFERENCE MODEL

Data link layer:

 Framing: The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the
network layer into manageable data units called frames.
 Physical addressing: Data link layer adds a header to the frames to define
the sender and receiver of the frame. i.e. it adds up MAC address.
 Flow control: if the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is
less than the rate at which data are produced in the sender or vice-versa,
the data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to avoid
overwhelming the receiver.

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

  Error control: it has mechanism to detect and retransmit damaged or lost
frames.
 Access control: when two or more devices are connected to the same link,
data link layer protocols are necessary to determine which device has
control over the link at any given time.

Network Layer:

 To route the signals through various channels to the other end.

 To act as network controller by deciding which route data should take.
 It works in logical address. i.e. IP addresses are added with the data
segment received from higher layer and form a packet.
 To divide the outgoing messages into packets and to assemble incoming
packets into messages for the higher levels.

Transport layer:

 It accepts data from above it, splits it up into smaller units called
segments and passes them to network layer.
 It ensures that the pieces all arrive correctly at the other end.
 It guarantees the transmission of data from one end to the another.
 It also provides the facility of broadcasting the messages to multiple
destinations.

The session layer:

 This layer manages and synchronizes the conversation between two

different applications. This is the level at which the user will establish
system to system connection.
 It include dialog control i.e. keeping track of whose turn it is to transmit
data
 The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints or synchronization
points to a stream of data, so that it can pick up from where they left off in
the event of a crash and subsequent recovery.

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

The Presentation Layer:

 The presentation layer receives the data from the application layer. It
makes sure that the information is delivered in such a form that the
receiving system will understand and use it. i.e. it converts the data into
machine format( binary format).
 It also performs the compression and encryption of the data so that there is
integrity in data.

Application Layer:

The application layer contains a variety of protocols that are commonly

needed by the users. One widely used application protocol is HTTP (HyperText
Transfer Protocol), which is the basis for the World Wide Web. When a browser
wants a Web page, it sends the name of the page it wants to the server hosting
the page using HTTP. The server then sends the page back. Other application
protocols are used for file transfer, electronic mail, and network news.

Fig: Summary Of OSI Reference Model

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

TCP/IP Model:

TCP/IP is a result of protocol research and development conducted on the

experimental packet-switched network, ARPANET, funded by the Defense
Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), and is generally referred to as the
TCP/IP protocol suite. This protocol suite consists of a large collection of protocols
that have been issued as Internet standards by the Internet Activities Board (IAB).

FIG: TCP/IP Reference Model

Host-to-network/Network Access Layer:

 It contains all the details in the OSI physical and data link layer.
 It deals with the issues that an ip packet requires to actually make the
physical link.
 It deals with the physical transmission of the data along with the signal
encoding techniques, data rate, bandwidth and physical connector.
 Framing, synchronization, flow control and error control.
 Protocols such as Ethernet, Token Ring, Frame Relay etc are used

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

The Internet Layer:

 It defines packet format called IP Packet and protocol called internet

protocol.
 It is concerned with packet addressing
o Send source packets from any network and have them arrive at the
destination independent of the path and networks they took to get
there.
o May arrive in different order to destination
o Job of higher layer to arrange them.
 Other protocols used by internet layer are ARP(Address Resolution
Protocol), RARP(Reverse Address Resolution Protocol), ICMP(Internet
control message protocol) etc.
 Congestion control while routing.

The Transport Layer:

 The transport layer deals with the quality-of-service (QoS) issues of

reliability, flow control, and error correction.
 Connection Oriented and Connectionless services
o Transmission control Protocol (TCP)
 Connection oriented
 Reliable
 Transmission of byte stream without any errors
o User datagram protocol (UDP)
 Connectionless
 Fast but unreliable
 May contain minute errors in byte stream.
 Connection Establishment, error control, flow control.

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

The Application Layer:

 Provides access to the TCP/IP environment for users and also provides
distributed information services.
 Handles higher layer protocols
o FTP, HTTP, SMTP, DNS

Comparison between OSI and TCP/IP

 OSI models centralizes in three concepts namely services, interfaces and

protocols. TCP/IP does not have clear distinction between these.
o Services tell what the layer does, not how the layer works
o Interface tells the process above it, how to access it
o Protocols: can use any protocol as long as the job is done
 OSI model is a generic model that is based upon functionalities of each
layer. TCP/IP model is a protocol-oriented standard.
 In OSI, the model was developed first and then the protocols in each layer
were developed. In the TCP/IP suite, the protocols were developed first and
then the model was developed.
 The OSI has seven layers while the TCP/IP has four layers.
 The OSI model supports both connection oriented and connectionless
communication in the network layer but only connection oriented
communication in transport layer. The TCP/IP model has only
connectionless mode in the network layer but supports both modes in the
transport layer.
 The physical layer and the data link layer of the OSI model correspond to
the network access layer of the TCP/IP model. The network layer of OSI
corresponds to the internet layer while transport layer on the both are
same. The session layer, the presentation layer and the application layer of
the OSI model together form the application layer of the TCP/IP Model.

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

X.25

 X.25 is the first popular packet switched network deployed by ITU-T in 1976.
 It defines how a packet-mode terminal (DTE) can be interfaced to a packet network (DCE)
used for data communication.
 Allowed for the setup of data connections at speeds between 300bps to about 56kbps.
 Data packets are simple consisting of 3 byte header and up to 128 bytes of data.
 Subscribers were charged based on their use of the network.
 It is a 3 layer network architecture
o Physical layer: it deals with the physical interface between station and packet
switching node. It specifies a protocol called x.21.
o Frame layer: it is responsible for reliable transfer of data across the physical layer
by transmitting it as a sequence of frames. It adds header and trailer to the
packet.
o Packet layer: it facilitates end-to-end connection between two DTEs. The data is
integrated with a header to form a packet. It is also responsible for creating
virtual circuits.
 X.25 network devices fall into 3 categories:
o Data terminal equipment (DTE)
 Terminals, personal computers and network hosts
o Data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE) and
 Modems
o Packet switching exchange (PSE)
 Switches that make up the carrier network

Fig: X.25 Operation

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

Frame Relay:

 As like X.25, frame relay is also based on packet-switched technology. However differs
significantly in its functionality and format.
 Frame relay is a high-performance WAN protocol that operates at the physical and data
link layers of the OSI reference model.
 Frame Relay has the variable data rate while the X.25 has the fixed data rate.
 Frame Relay sends information in packets called frames through a shared Frame Relay
network. Each frame contains all the information necessary to route it to the correct
destination.
 Devices attached to a Frame Relay WAN fall into two general categories:
o Data Terminal Equipment (DTE)
o Data Circuit-terminating equipment (DCE)
 Examples of DTE devices are mainly personal computers or Routers.
 DCEs are carrier-owned internetworking devices. The purpose of DCE equipment is to
provide clocking and switching services in a network, which are the devices that actually
transmit data through the WAN. In most cases, these are packet switches.
 Frame Relay provides connection-Oriented data link layer communication.
 This service is implemented by using a frame relay virtual circuit, which is a logical
connection created between two data terminal equipment (DTE) devices across a frame
relay packet switched network.
 Frame Relay Virtual Circuits fall into two categories:
o Switched virtual circuits (SVCs)
o Permanent Virtual Circuits (PVCs)
 Switched virtual circuits are temporary connections used in situation requiring data
transfer in irregular time interval between DTE devices across the frame relay network.
 Permanent virtual circuits are permanently established connections that are used for
frequent and consistent data transfer between DTE devices.
 A data link connection identifier (DLCI) is a Frame Relay 10-bit-wide link-local virtual
circuit identifier used to assign frames to a specific PVC or SVC.

Fig: Frame Relay Network

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

VOIP (Voice Over Internet Protocol):
In essence, VoIP is the transmission of speech across IP-based network. VoIP works by encoding
voice information into a digital format, which can be carried across IP networks in discrete
packets. VoIP has two main advantages over traditional telephony.

 A VoIP system is usually cheaper to operate than an equivalent telephone system with a
PBX (Private Branch Exchange) and conventional telephone network service. There are
several reasons for this. Whereas traditional telephone networks allocate dedicated
circuits for voice communications using circuit switching, VoIP uses packet switching,
allowing the sharing of transmission capacity. Further, packetized voice transmission fits
well in the framework of the TCP/IP protocol suite, enabling the use of application- and
transport-level protocols to support communications.
 VoIP readily integrates with other services, such as combining Web access with
telephone features through a single PC or terminal.

With VoIP, the calling user (program or individual) supplies the phone number of a URI
(Universal Resource Indicator, a form of URL), which then triggers a set of protocol
interactions resulting in the placement of the call. The heart of the call placement process
for VoIP is the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP). The Session Initiation Protocol (SIP), defined
in RFC 3261, is an application level control protocol for setting up, modifying, and
terminating real-time sessions between participants over an IP data network.

VOIP Processing:

Once a called party responds, a logical connection is established between the two parties
(or more for a conference call), and voice data may be exchanged in both directions. Figure
below illustrates the basic flow of voice data in one direction in a VoIP system. On the
sending side, the analog voice signal is first converted into a digital bit stream and then
segmented into packets. The packetization is performed, typically, by RTP (Real-time
Transport Protocol ). This protocol includes mechanisms for labeling the packets so that
they can be reassembled in the proper order at the receiving end, plus a buffering function
to smooth out reception and deliver the voice data in a continuous flow. The RTP packets
are then transmitted across the Internet or a private internet using the User Datagram
Protocol and IP protocols.

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

 Fig: VOIP Processing:

Ethernet:
IEEE 802.3 standard and commonly known as Ethernet is a dominant scheme for wired local
area network. The first commercially available Ethernet and the first version of IEEE 802.3 were
bus-based systems operating at 10 Mbps. As technology has advanced, Ethernet has moved
from bus-based to switch-based, and the data rate has periodically increased by an order of
magnitude. Currently, Ethernet systems are available at speeds up to 100 Gbps.

Two kinds of Ethernet exist: classic Ethernet, which solves the multiple access problem using
the techniques we have studied in this chapter; and switched Ethernet, in which devices called
switches are used to connect different computers. It is important to note that, while they are
both referred to as Ethernet, they are quite different. Classic Ethernet is the original form and
ran at rates from 3 to 10 Mbps. Switched Ethernet is what Ethernet has become and runs at
100, 1000, and 10,000 Mbps, in forms called fast Ethernet, gigabit Ethernet, and 10 gigabit
Ethernet. In practice, only switched Ethernet is used nowadays.

 For classic Ethernet, as the frame of data needs to be sent through same medium,
medium access control (MAC) protocol such as CSMA/CD algorithm is used so that there
is no collision between two data frames. In this method, the station senses the medium

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

 when they have frame to send and send the frame as soon as the medium become idle.
They monitor the channel for collisions as they send. If there is a collision, they abort the
transmission with a short jam signal and retransmit after a random interval.
 Switched Ethernet uses more advanced technology called switches. Switches consists of
multiple ports where each station can be connected with a standard RJ-45 connector.
When the switch port receives an Ethernet frame from a station, the switch checks the
Ethernet addresses to see which port the frame is destined for and forwards the frame
over its high-speed backplane to the destination port. Collisions are now impossible
and CSMA/CD is not needed.

Fig: Classic Ethernet Connection

Fig: Switched Ethernet Connection

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

NGN (Next Generation Network):
NGN a packet-based network able to provide telecommunication services and able to
make use of multiple broadband, QoS-enabled transport technologies and in which service-
related functions are independent from underlying transport-related technologies. It offers
unrestricted access by users to different service providers. It supports generalized mobility
which will allow consistent and ubiquitous provision of services to users. NGN has capabilities
to support managed features of IP based network, especially QoS, Security and Mobility

Characteristics:
 Unified global networking platform
 Packet-based network
 Provides Telecommunication services to users
 Quality of service enabled transport technologies (Delay, Throughput, and
reliability)
 Services are independent of transport technologies
 Unfettered access for users to network and services

Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS):

MPLS is an efficient technique for forwarding and routing packets. MPLS was designed with IP
networks in mind, but the technology can be used without IP to construct a network with any
link-level protocol, including ATM and frame relay. In an ordinary packet-switching network,
packet switches must examine various fields within the packet header to determine
destination, route, quality of service, and any traffic management functions (such as discard or
delay) that may be supported. In an MPLS network, a fixedlength label encapsulates an IP
packet or a data link frame. The MPLS label contains all the information needed by an MPLS-
enabled router to perform routing, delivery, QoS, and traffic management functions. Unlike IP,
MPLS is connection oriented.

This is a layer 2.5 networking protocol that provides additional features for the transport of
data across the network. MPLS is a mechanisms is high- performance telecommunications
networks that directs data from one network node to the next based on short path labels
rather than long network addresses, avoiding complex lookups in a routing table. MPLS
supports a range of access technologies, including T1/E1, ATM, Fame Relay and DSL.

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

Working:
An MPLS network or internet consists of a set of nodes, called label switching routers (LSRs),
capable of switching and routing packets on the basis of a label appended to each packet. For
each distinct flow, called a forwarding equivalence class (FEC) a specific path through the
network of LSRs is defined, called a label switched path (LSP). In essence, an FEC represents a
group of packets that share the same transport requirements. All packets in an FEC follow the
same path and receive the same QoS treatment at each hop. The LSRs need not examine or
process the IP header but rather simply forward each packet based on its label value. Each LSR
builds a table, called a label information base (LIB), to specify how a packet must be treated
and forwarded. Thus, the forwarding process is simpler than with an IP router.

Fig: MPLS Operation

 A packet enters an MPLS domain through an ingress edge LSR, where it is processed to
determine which network-layer services it requires, defining its QoS. The LSR assigns this
packet to a particular FEC, and therefore a particular LSP; appends the appropriate label
to the packet; and forwards the packet. If no LSP yet exists for this FEC, the edge LSR
must cooperate with the other LSRs in defining a new LSP.
 Within the MPLS domain, as each LSR receives a labeled packet, it
a. removes the incoming label and attaches the appropriate outgoing label to the
packet
b. forwards the packet to the next LSR along the LSP
 The egress edge LSR strips the label, reads the IP packet header, and forwards the packet
to its final destination.

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU

xDSL
DSL stands for Digital Subscriber Line, and the ‘x’ in xDSL means there are many different
varieties of DSL (HDSL, ADSL, etc.). Digital Subscriber Lines are nothing more than high-speed
digital communications lines. This is a circuit oriented. Each subscriber has an independent
connection. DSL provides dedicated, point to point, public network access. xDSL’s greatest
advantages is that it uses the existing telephone lines for the transmission of the data.

DSL offers several key advantages over other high speed communication solutions :

 The foremost of these is price.

 The greatest savings come from the fact that DSL runs on existing copper lines.
 Most DSL systems allow voice transmission simultaneously with data traffic.

By: Er. Saurav Raj Pant, IOE - TU