TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

Md. Ajedul Sarker

Assistant Engineer
Payra Port Authority
3.1 Primary Elements of Traffic Flow:
The primary elements of traffic flow are flow, density, and speed.
Flow:
Flow (q) is the equivalent hourly rate at which vehicles pass a point on a highway
during a time period less than 1 hour. It can be determined by:
𝒏
q=
𝒕
Where,
q = traffic flow in vehicles per unit time,
n = number of vehicles passing some designated roadway point during time t, and
t = duration of time interval.

Density:
Density (k), sometimes referred to as concentration, is the number of vehicles traveling
over a unit length of highway at an instant in time. The unit length is usually 1 mile (mi)
thereby making vehicles per mile (veh/mi) the unit of density.
Traffic density is defined as:
𝒏
k=
𝒍
Where
k = traffic density in vehicles per unit distance,
n = number of vehicles occupying some length of roadway at some specified time, and
l = length of roadway.

Speed:
Speed (space-mean speed)(v) is the distance traveled by a vehicle during a unit of time. It
can be expressed
in miles per hour (mi/h), kilometers per hour (km/h), or feet per second (ft /sec).
𝒍
Speed, vs =
𝒕

Flow-Density-Speed Relationship:
Flow (q) is the rate at which the number of vehicles, n passing some designated roadway
point during time, t. Traffic flow is defined as:
𝒏 𝒏 𝒍
q= = ×𝒕 --------------(1)
𝒕 𝒍
Density (k) is the number of vehicles traveling over a unit length of highway at an instant
in time. Traffic density is defined as:
 𝒏
k= --------------(2)
𝒍
Speed (v) is the distance traveled by a vehicle during a unit of time.
𝒍
Speed, vs = -------------------(3)
𝒕
Now, from equation (1) we get,
𝒏 𝒍
q= × 𝒕 = k vs
𝒍
∴ Flow = Density × Space mean speed

Fundamental Diagram of Traffic Flow:

Formula:
𝟏
Now, k= ̅ where d̅ = avg. space headway
𝐝

𝟏
q=̅ where h̅ = avg. time headway
ℎ
𝟏 𝟏 ̅ v̅s
Now, q = kv̅s  ̅ = ̅ × v̅s  d̅ = ℎ
ℎ 𝐝

∴ Avg. space headway = Avg. time headway × Space mean speed

For maximum flow, k = kj/2 and v̅s = vf/2

 𝒌𝒋×𝐯𝐟
∴ q = kv̅s =
𝟒

Problem-11: Vehicle time headways and spacings were measured at a point along a
highway, from a single lane, over the course of an hour. The average values were
calculated as 2.5 s/veh for headway and 200 ft/veh (61 m/veh) for spacing. Calculate the
average speed of the traffic.
̅
d 200 𝑓𝑡/𝑣𝑒ℎ
̅ v̅s  v̅s = ̅ =
Solution: We know, d̅ = ℎ = 80 ft/sec
ℎ 2.5 𝑠𝑒𝑐/𝑣𝑒ℎ

Problem-12: Traffic in a congested multilane highway lane is observed to have an avg.

spacing of 200 ft and an avg. headway of 3.8 sec. Estimate the rate of flow, density and
speed of traffic in this lane.
1 1×3600 𝑠𝑒𝑐/ℎ𝑟
Solution: We know, Flow, q = ̅ = = 947 veh/hr/lane.
ℎ 3.8 𝑠𝑒𝑐
1 1×5280 𝑓𝑡/𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒
Now, Density, k= = = 26.4 veh/mile/lane.
̅
d 200 𝑓𝑡

𝑞 947 veh/hr
∴ q = kv̅s  v̅s = = = 35.8 mile/hr
𝑘 26.4 veh/mile

Problem-13: Traffic in a congested multilane highway lane is observed to have an avg.

flow of 10000 veh/hr and an avg. density of 175 veh/mile. Estimate speed of traffic in
this lane. [EGCB-20]
𝑞 10,000 veh/hr
Solution: We know, q = kv̅s  v̅s = = = 57.14 mile/hr
𝑘 175 veh/mile

Problem-14: The free mean speed on a roadway is found to be 80 kmph. Under stopped
condition the average spacing between vehicles is 6.9 m. Determine the capacity flow?
 1 1×1000 𝑚/𝑘𝑚
Solution: We know, Jam density, kj= = = 145 veh/km.
̅
d 6.9 𝑚
veh 𝑘𝑚
𝑘𝑗×vf 145 ×80
km ℎ𝑟
∴ Maximum flow, q = kv̅s = = = 2900 veh/hr
4 4

Time Mean Speed (TMS): Time mean speed is the arithmetic mean of the speeds of
vehicles passing a point on a highway during an interval of time. The time mean speed is
found by:
∑ 𝑽𝒕 𝑽𝟏+𝑽𝟐+𝑽𝟑+𝑽𝟒+⋯+𝑽𝒏
v̅t = =
𝒏 𝒏
where
n = number of vehicles passing a point on the highway
Vt = speed of the nth vehicle.

Space Mean Speed (SMS): is the harmonic mean of the speeds of vehicles passing a
point on a highway during an interval of time. It is obtained by dividing the total distance
traveled by two or more vehicles on a section of highway by the total time required by
these vehicles to travel that distance. This is the speed that is involved in flow-density
relationships. The space mean speed is found by:
𝒏 𝒏𝑳 𝑳𝟏+𝑳𝟐+𝑳𝟑+𝑳𝟒+⋯ 𝑳𝟏+𝑳𝟐+𝑳𝟑+𝑳𝟒+⋯
v̅s = 𝟏 = 𝑻
=
𝑻𝟏+𝑻𝟐+𝑻𝟑+𝑻𝟒+⋯
= 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑳𝟑 𝑳𝟒
∑ + + + +⋯
𝑽𝒕 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟑 𝑽𝟒

Where,
v̅s = space mean speed
n = number of vehicles
T = time at which these vehicles to travel the distance
L length of section of highway (ft)

Problem-15: The speeds of five vehicles were measured (with radar) at the midpoint of a
0.5-mile section of roadway. The speeds for vehicles 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 were 44, 42, 51, 49,
and 46 mi/h, respectively. Assuming all vehicles were traveling at constant speed over
this roadway section, calculate the time-mean and space-mean speeds.
 ∑ 𝑉𝑡 𝑉1+𝑉2+𝑉3+𝑉4+𝑉5
Solution: We know, Time mean speed, v̅t = =
𝑛 𝑛

44+42+51+49+46
 v̅t = = 46.4 mile/hr
5

𝑛𝐿 𝐿1+𝐿2+𝐿3+𝐿4+𝐿5 𝐿1+𝐿2+𝐿3+𝐿4+𝐿5
Now, Space mean speed, v̅s = = = 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3 𝐿4 𝐿5
𝑇 𝑇1+𝑇2+𝑇3+𝑇4+𝑇5 + + + +
𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉3 𝑉4 𝑉5

0.5+0.5+0.5+0.5+0.5
 v̅s = 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 = 46.17 mile/hr
+ + + +
44 42 51 49 46

Problem-16: It was observed for 4 vehicles traversing a 1 mile segment of highway at

travel times were 1.6 min, 1.2 min, 1.5 min and 1.7 min. Calculate the time-mean and
space-mean speeds.
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3 𝐿4
∑ 𝑉𝑡 𝑉1+𝑉2+𝑉3+𝑉4 + + +
Solution: We know, Time mean speed, v̅t = = = 𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑇3 𝑇4
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
1 1 1 1
+ + +
 v̅t = 1.6 1.2 1.5 1.7
= 0.68 mile/min = 0.68×60 = 40.8 mph
4
𝑛𝐿 𝐿1+𝐿2+𝐿3+𝐿4 1+1+1+1
Now, Space mean speed, v̅s = = =
𝑇 𝑇1+𝑇2+𝑇3+𝑇4 1.6+1.2+1.5+1.7

 v̅s = 0.67 mile/min = 0.67 mile/min ×60 min/hr = 40 mph

Problem-17: Four vehicles traveling at constant speeds on a two-lane highway

between sections X and Y (280 m apart) with their positions and speeds obtained at an
instant of time by photography. An observer located at point X observes the four vehicles
passing point X during a period of 15 sec. The velocities of the vehicles are measured
as 88, 80, 90, and 72 km/hr, respectively. Calculate the flow, density, time mean speed,
and space mean speed. [PGCL-17, DESCO-16]
𝑛 4 𝑣𝑒ℎ×3600 𝑠𝑒𝑐/ℎ𝑟
Solution: We know, Flow, q = = = 960 veh/hr.
𝑡 15 𝑠𝑒𝑐
 𝑛 4 𝑣𝑒ℎ×1000 𝑚/𝑘𝑚
Density, k = = = 14.2 veh/km.
𝐿 280 𝑚
∑ 𝑉𝑡 𝑉1+𝑉2+𝑉3+𝑉4 88+80+90+72
Time mean speed, v̅t = = = = 82.5 kmph.
𝑛 𝑛 4

𝒏 4
Space mean speed, v̅s = 𝟏 = 1 1 1 1 = 81.86 kmph.
∑ + + +
𝑽𝒕 88 80 90 72

Problem-18: The velocities of the vehicles are measured as 55, 60, 45, 95 and 60
mile/hr, respectively at a point of highway. Calculate the time mean speed and space
mean speed. [TGTDCL-18]
∑ 𝑉𝑡 𝑉1+𝑉2+𝑉3+𝑉4+𝑉5
Solution: We know, Time mean speed, v̅t = =
𝑛 𝑛

55+60+45+95+60
 v̅t = = 63 mile/hr
5

𝒏 4
Space mean speed, v̅s = 𝟏 = 1 1 1 1 1 = 59.34 mile/hr.
∑ + + + +
𝑽𝒕 55 60 45 95 60

BASIC TRAFFIC STREAM MODELS:

𝐤
Speed-Density Model: v = vf (1− 𝐤𝐣)
𝐤𝟐
Flow-Density Model: q = vf (k − )
𝐤𝐣
𝐯𝟐
Speed-Flow Model: q = kj (v − )
𝐯𝐟
 k
Problem-19: Traffic flow equation for a section of road is v = 65 (1− ) where V in
110
mile/hr and k in veh/mile. Calculate (a) Free flow speed, jam density and capacity flow.
(b) Speed-flow relationship and flow-density relationship. [DESCO-16]
k
Solution: (a) Given that, v = 65 (1− ) ----(1)
110
k
Speed-density model, v = vf (1− ) ------ (2)
kj
From equation (1) & (2) we get, Vf = 65 mile/hr & kj = 110 veh/mile.
veh 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒
𝑘𝑗×vf 110 ×65
mile ℎ𝑟
∴ Maximum flow, q = = = 1788 veh/hr
4 4
𝑞
(b) We know, q = kv  k =
𝑣
𝑞
k 𝑣 110
Now, v = 65 (1− ) = 65 (1− )  q = 110 V − 𝑣2
110 110 65

k 65k2
Again, q = kv = k×65 (1− ) = 65k −
110 110

Theoretical Maximum Capacity:

An estimate of theoretical maximum capacity of a single lane may be made from the
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐕
relation: C=
𝐒

Where,
C = capacity of a single lane, veh/hr
V = Speed
S = avg. center to center spacing of vehicle.

Problem-20: Determine the theoretical capacity of road if design speed is 100 kmph with
reaction distance of 2 m and avg. length of vehicle is 6 m.

Solution: S = avg. center to center spacing of vehicle = reaction distance + avg. length of
 vehicle = (2+6) m = 8m
1000 V 1000×100
∴Theoretical maximum capacity, C = = = 12,500 veh/hr/lane
S 8

3.2 SPOT SPEED STUDIES

Sample Size for Spot Speed Studies:

1. Average Speed which is the arithmetic mean of all observed vehicle speeds
(which is the sum of all spot speeds divided by the number of recorded speeds). It
is given as:

∑𝐮
u̅ =
𝑵
Where,
ui = speed of the ith vehicle
N = number of observed values

2. Standard Deviation of Speeds which is a measure of the spread of the individual

speeds. It is estimated as:
̅ )𝟐
∑(𝐮−𝐮
Sd = √
𝑵−𝟏
Where,
Sd = standard deviation
u̅ = arithmetic mean
uj = jth observation
N = number of observations

3. Sample Size: The properties of the normal distribution have been used to develop an
equation relating the sample size to the number of standard variations corresponding to a
particular confidence level, the limits of tolerable error, and the standard deviation.
𝒁 𝑺𝒅 2
The formula is: N = ( )
𝒅
Where,
N = minimum sample size
Z = number of standard deviations corresponding to the required confidence
level 1.96 for 95 percent confidence level
Sd = standard deviation (mi/h)
d = limit of acceptable error in the average speed estimate (mi/h)

Table: Constant Corresponding to Level of Confidence

Confidence Level (%) Constant Z
68.3 1.00
86.6 1.50
90.0 1.64
95.0 1.96
95.5 2.00
98.8 2.50
99.0 2.58
99.7 3.00

Problem-21: As part of a class project, a group of students collected a total of 120 spot
speed samples at a location and determined from this data that the standard variation of
the speeds was 6 mi/h. If the project required that the confidence level be 95% and the
limit of acceptable error was 1.5 mi/h, determine whether these students satisfied the
project requirement.

Solution: For confidence level 95% constant Z = 1.96

We know, sample size to satisfy the project requirements is:

𝑍 𝑆𝑑 2 1.96×6 2
N=( ) =( ) = 61.45 ≈ 62
𝑑 1.5
 Therefore, the minimum number of spot speeds collected to satisfy the project
requirement is 62. Since the students collected 120 samples, they satisfied the
project requirements.

Comparison of Mean Speeds:

The standard deviation of the difference in means is given as:

𝐒𝟏𝟐 𝐒𝟐𝟐
Sd = √ +𝐧
𝐧𝟏 𝟐

Where,
n1 = sample size for study 1
n2 = sample size for study 2
Sd = square root of the variance of the difference in means
S12 = variance about the mean for study 1
S22 = variance about the mean for study 2

If u̅1 = mean speed of study 1, u̅2 = mean speed of study 2, and |u ̅1 − u̅ 2 | > Z Sd where
|u
̅1 − u ̅ 2 | is the absolute value of the difference in means, it can be concluded
that the mean speeds are significantly different at the confidence level corresponding
to Z.

Problem-22: Speed data were collected at a section of highway during and after utility
maintenance work. The speed characteristics are given as, and as shown below.
Determine whether there was any significant difference between the average speed at the
95% confidence level.
n1 = 250 n2 = 280
S1 = 7.5 mi/hr S2 = 7.4 mi/hr
u̅1 = 35.5 mi/h u̅2 = 38.7 mi/h
 S21 S22 7.52 7.42
Solution: We know, Sd = √ +n =√ + 280 = 0.65
n1 2 250

Now, For confidence level 95% constant Z = 1.96

∴ Z Sd = 0.65×1.96 = 1.3 mile/hr

Now, the difference in mean speed = |u

̅2 − u
̅ 1 | = |38.7 − 35.5| = 3.2 mile/hr
which is greater than Z Sd.

It can be concluded that the difference in mean speeds is significant at the 95%
confidence level.

3.3 VOLUME STUDIES:

1. Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT) is the average of 24-hour counts collected
every day of the year.
2. Average Daily Traffic (ADT) is the average of 24-hour counts collected over a
number of days greater than one but less than a year.
Service flow rate (SFR) = ∑[𝑫𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒚 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒍𝒚 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 (𝑫𝑯𝑽) × 𝑷𝑪𝑼]
ADT = SFR × Hourly expansion factors (HEF)

3. Peak Hour Volume (PHV) is the maximum number of vehicles that pass a point
on a highway during a period of 60 consecutive minutes.

Expansion Factors from Continuous Count Stations: Hourly, daily, and monthly
expansion factors can be determined using data obtained at continuous count stations.
Hourly expansion factors (HEFs) are determined by the formula:

𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝟐𝟒−𝐡𝐫 𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐨𝐝

HEF =
𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐡𝐨𝐮𝐫

Daily expansion factors (DEFs) are computed as:

𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐰𝐞𝐞𝐤

DEF =
𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐝𝐚𝐲
Monthly expansion factors (MEFs) are computed as:

𝐀𝐀𝐃𝐓
MEF =
𝐀𝐃𝐓 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐦𝐨𝐧𝐭𝐡

Problem-23: From the following data find the ADT in terms of PCU when Hourly
expansion factor (HEF) = 42.

Vehicle Veh/hr PCU

Car 100 1.0
Bus 10 2.5
Truck 5 3.0
Motor Cycle 20 0.15
Rickshaw 50 0.5

(100×1×42)+(10×2.5×42)+(5×3×42)+(20×0.15×42)+(50×0.5×42)
Solution: ADT =
5
= 1411.2

DESIGN HOURLY VOLUME (DHV):

Design Hourly Volume (DHV) = ADT × k

Directional Design Hourly Volume (DHV) = AADT × k × D
Where,
D = Directional distribution factor = usually 55% to 80% = for urban, 55%
k = factor = 8 to 12% for urban
= 12 to 18% for rural

Problem-24: ADT = 20000. Find design hourly volume where k = 0.1. [BWDB-13]
Solution: We know, Design Hourly Volume (DHV) = ADT × k = 20000×0.1 = 2000

DIRECT COMPARISON OF CRASH RATES:

These rates are determined on the basis of exposure data, such as traffic volume and
the length of road section being considered. Commonly used rates are rate per million
of entering vehicles (RMEVs) and rate per 100 million vehicle-miles (RMVM).
The rate per million of entering vehicles (RMEVs) is the number of crashes per
million vehicles entering the study location during the study period. It is expressed as:
𝑨 ×𝟏𝟎𝟔
RMEV =
𝑽
Where,
RMEV = crash rate per million entering vehicles
A = number of crashes, total or by type occurring in a single year at the location
V = average daily traffic (ADT) × 365

The rate per 100 million vehicle miles (RMVM) is the number of crashes per 100
million vehicle miles of travel. It is obtained from the expression:
𝑨 ×𝟏𝟎𝟎×𝟏𝟎𝟔
RMVM =
𝑽𝑴𝑻
Where,
A = number of crashes, total or by type at the study location, during a given period
VMT = vehicle miles of travel during the given period
= ADT × (number of days in study period) × (length of road)

Problem-25: The number of all crashes recorded at an intersection in a year was 23, and
the average 24-hr volume entering from all approaches was 6500. Determine the crash
rate per million entering vehicles (RMEV).
𝐴 ×106 23 ×106
Solution: We know, RMEV = = 6500×365 = 9.69 crashes/million entering
𝑉
vehicles

Problem-26: It is observed that 40 traffic crashes occurred on a 17.5-mile long section of

highway in one year. The ADT on the section was 5000 vehicles.
(a) Determine the rate of total crashes per 100 million vehicle-miles
(b) Determine the rate of fatal crashes per 100 million vehicle-miles, if 5% of the crashes
involved fatalities
40 ×100×106
Solution: (a) RMVMT = = 125.24 crashes/100 million veh–mi
5000×365×17.5

(b) RMVMF = 125.24 × 0.05 = 6.26 crashes/100 million veh–mi

Crash Reduction Capabilities of Countermeasures:
Crash reduction capabilities usually are expressed as crash reduction factors (CRFs). A
CRF gives an estimate of the percent reduction in the number of crashes due to the
implementation of a countermeasure.
In using the CRF to determine the reduction in crashes due to the implementation of a
specific countermeasure, the following equation is used.
ADTafterimprovement
Crashes prevented = N × CRF×
ADTbeforeimprovement
Where,
N = expected number of crashes if countermeasure is not implemented and if the traffic
volume remains the same
CRF = crash reduction factor for a specific countermeasure (some states use the term AR
for accident reduction)
ADT = average daily traffic

It is sometimes also necessary to consider multiple countermeasures at a particular site. In

such cases, the overall CRF is obtained from the individual CRFs which was proposed by
Roy Jorgensen and Associates.

CRF = CR1 + (1 – CR1) CR2 + (1 − CR1)(1−CR2) CR3 . . .

Problem-27: The CRF for a specific type of countermeasure is 30 percent; the ADT
before improvement is 7850 (average over three-year period), and the ADT after
improvement 9000. Over the three-year period before the improvement period, The
number of specific types of crashes occurring per year are 12, 14, and 13. Determine the
expected reduction in number of crashes occurring after the implementation of the
countermeasure.
Solution: Average number of crashes/year = 13
ADTafterimprovement 9000
Crashes prevented = N × CRF× = 13×0.30× = 4.47
ADTbeforeimprovement 7850

Problem-28: At a single location, three countermeasures with CRs of 40%, 28%, and
20% are proposed. Determine the overall CRF if all countermeasures are used.
Solution: CR1 = 0.40
CR2 = 0.28
CR3 = 0.20
Now, CRF = CR1 + (1 – CR1) CR2 + (1 − CR1)(1−CR2) CR3
 = 0.40 + (1–0.40)×0.28 + (1–0.40)(1−0.28)×0.20
= 0.66

Note: if only two countermeasures are used, then CR 0.57.

3.4 TRAFFIC OPERATIONS:

PEAK-HOUR FACTOR (PHF): A measure of the variability of demand during the

peak hour. It is the ratio of the volume during the peak hour to the maximum rate of
flow during a given time period within the peak hour. For intersections, the time
period used is 15 min, and the PHF is given as:

𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐝𝐮𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐩𝐞𝐚𝐤 𝐡𝐨𝐮𝐫

PHF =
𝟒 × 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐝𝐮𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐩𝐞𝐚𝐤 𝟏𝟓 𝐦𝐢𝐧 𝐰𝐢𝐭𝐡𝐢𝐧 𝐩𝐞𝐚𝐤 𝐡𝐨𝐮𝐫

The PHF may be used in signal timing design to compensate for the possibility that peak
arrival rates for short periods during the peak hour may be much higher than the average
for the full hour. Design hourly volume (DHV) can then be obtained as:

𝐏𝐞𝐚𝐤 𝐡𝐨𝐮𝐫 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞

DHV =
𝐏𝐇𝐅

Problem-29: The table below shows 15-minute volume counts during the peak hour on
an approach of an intersection. Determine the PHF and the design hourly volume of the
approach.

Time Volume
6:00 – 6:15 p.m. 375
6:15– 6:30 p.m. 380
6:30 – 6:45 p.m. 412
6:45–7:00 p.m. 390

Solution: Total volume during peak hour = (375+380+412+390) = 1557

Volume during peak 15 min = 412
Volume during peak hour
Now, PHF =
4 × volume during peak 15 min within peak hour
 1557
= = 0.945
4×412

Peak hour volume 1557

∴ DHV = = = 1648
PHF 0.945

Signal Timing at Isolated Intersections:

Yellow Interval:

𝑾+𝑳 𝐮
tmin = T + 𝐮 + 𝟐𝒂𝐨
𝐨
If the effect of grade is added,
𝑾+𝑳 𝐮𝐨
tmin = T + 𝐮 + 𝟐(𝒂+𝐠𝐧)
𝐨

Where,
tmin = yellow interval
T = perception-reaction time (sec)
W = Width of intersection
L = Length of vehicle
a = constant rate of braking deceleration
G = grade of the approach
g = acceleration due to gravity
Problem-30: Determine the minimum yellow interval at an intersection whose width is
40 ft if the maximum allowable speed on the approach roads is 30 mi/h. Assume average
length of vehicle is 20 ft.
Solution: AASHTO recommends a deceleration rate of 11.2 ft /sec2. Assuming this value
for a and taking T as 1.0 sec, we obtain
mi 5280 ft/mi
𝑊+𝐿 u (40+20)𝑓𝑡 30 hr ×3600 sec/hr
tmin = T + u + 2𝑎o = 1 sec + mi 5280 ft/mi + = 4.3 sec
o 30 × 2×11.2 ft/ sec2
hr 3600 sec/hr
In this case, a yellow period of 4.5 sec will be needed.

TRAFFIC FLOW FUNDAMENTALS FOR SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS:

Saturation Flow Rate
The saturation flow rate is the maximum hourly volume that can pass through an
intersection, from a given lane or group of lanes, if that lane (or lanes) were allocated
constant green over the course of an hour. Saturation flow rate is given by:
𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎
S=
𝒉
Where,
s = saturation flow rate in veh/h,
h = saturation headway in s/veh, and
3600 = number of seconds per hour.

Lost Time
Start-up and clearance lost times are summed to arrive at a total lost time for the
phase, given as:
tL= tsl + tcl
Where,
tL = total lost time for a movement during a cycle in seconds,
tsl = start-up lost time in seconds, and
tcl = clearance lost time in seconds.

Effective Green and Red Times

The effective green time is the time during which a traffic movement is effectively
utilizing the intersection. The effective green time for a given movement or phase is
calculated as
 g = G + Y + AR − tL
Where,
g = effective green time for a traffic movement in seconds,
G = displayed green time for a traffic movement in seconds,
Y = displayed yellow time for a traffic movement in seconds,
AR = displayed all-red time in seconds, and
tL = total lost time for a movement during a cycle in seconds
The effective red time is the time during which a traffic movement is not effectively
utilizing the intersection. The effective red time for a given movement or phase is
calculated as
r =R + tL
Where,
r = effective red time for a traffic movement in seconds,
R = displayed red time for a traffic movement in seconds, and
tL= total lost time for a movement during a cycle in seconds.
Alternatively, the effective red time can be calculated as follows, assuming the cycle
length and effective green time have already been determined:
r=C−g
Where,
C = cycle length in seconds,

The green time required to clear N vehicle can be found out from:
T = tsl + hN

Lane Capacity:
The maximum hourly volume that can pass through an intersection from a lane or group
of lanes under prevailing roadway, traffic, and control conditions is called the capacity of
the lane.
The Lane Capacity for a given lane is calculated as:

𝒈
CL = S ×
𝑪
Where
CL = capacity in veh/h,
s = saturation flow rate in veh/h, and
g/C = ratio of effective green time to cycle length.
 Problem-31: Let the cycle time of an intersection is 60 sec, the green time for a phase is
27 sec, and the yellow time is 4 secs. If the saturation headway is 2.4 sec/veh and the
Start-up and clearance lost times are 2 sec/phase and 1 sec/phase. Find out the lane
capacity. [NHA-19, BWDB-18]
Solution; Total lost time, tL= tsl + tcl = (2+1) = 3 sec/phase
Now, The effective green time, g = G + Y − tL = (27+4−3) = 28 sec
3600 3600
Saturation flow rate, S = = = 1500 veh/hr
ℎ 2.4
𝑔 28
∴ The Lane Capacity, CL = S × = 1500× 60 = 700 veh/hr/lane
𝐶

Directional Sign Design:

𝒗𝟐 −𝒖𝟐
Distance, S = 1.47vt +
𝟑𝟎𝒇
Where,
v = speed of vehicle (mph)
u = design turn speed (mph)
t = reaction time
f = breaking rate

Problem-32: A directional sign is need to be designed. Highway turnoff 85 th percentile

speed of 50 mph, vehicle turn at design speed of 25mph, car travel at 50 mph during
perception reaction time, using a perception reaction time of 2.5 sec to read and
understand the sign and decelerate (or braking) rate 0.3. What is the minimum distance
the direction sign should be placed in advance of the turn off? [NPCBL-19, BWDB-16]
𝑣 2 −𝑢2 502 −252
Solution: Minimum Distance, S = 1.47vt + =1.47× 50 ×2.5 + = 392.1 ft
30𝑓 30×0.3

3.5 TRAVEL DEMAND AND TRAFFIC FORECASTING

MODE CHOICE: Logit Models:

If two modes, auto (A) and transit (T), are being considered, the probability of selecting
the auto mode A can be written as:
 𝒆𝑼𝑨
P(A) =
𝒆𝑼𝑨 + 𝒆𝑼𝑻
This form is called the logit model and provides a convenient way to compute mode
choice.

Problem-33: The utility value for Bus, Car and Walk are 2.3, 2.1, −3.4. Using Logit
model find the mode shear percentage. [DMTCL-19, DNCC-16]
𝑒 𝑈𝐵 𝑒 2.3
Solution: P (B) = 𝑈𝐵 𝑈𝐶 𝑈𝑊 = 2.3 2.1 = 0.5488×100 = 54.88%
𝑒 +𝑒 + 𝑒 𝑒 +𝑒 + 𝑒 −3.4
𝑒 𝑈𝐶 𝑒 2.1
P (C) = 𝑈𝐵 𝑈𝐶 𝑈𝑊 = 2.3 2.1 = 0.4493×100 = 44.93%
𝑒 +𝑒 + 𝑒 𝑒 +𝑒 + 𝑒 −3.4
𝑒 𝑈𝑊 𝑒 −3.4
P (W) = 𝑈𝐵 𝑈𝐶 𝑈𝑊 = 2.3 2.1 = 0.0018×100 = 0.18%
𝑒 +𝑒 + 𝑒 𝑒 +𝑒 + 𝑒 −3.4

FLEET SIZE:

𝑪𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝑻)

Fleet size, F =
𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒘𝒂𝒚 (𝒉)
Cycle time, T = (2×ts) + turn around time
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝒅)
Time to complete a single trip, ts =
𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝒗)

Problem-34: The distance between the two campus is 5km with an approximate
operation speed of 20 kmph on the connecting road, for a returns journey of 10 min of
total turn around time is needed for shuttle bus. In order to maintain 10 min headway
what no. of shuttle bus required.
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑑) 5
Solution: Time to complete a single trip, ts = = = 0.25 hr = 15 min
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑣) 20
Cycle time, T = (2×ts) + turn around time = (2×15) + 10 = 40 min
𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑇) 40
Fleet size, F = = =4
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑤𝑎𝑦 (ℎ) 10
SIDE WALK DESIGN:

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒆𝒅𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒏 (𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒐𝒏)

Flow at peak period =
𝑷𝒆𝒂𝒌 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 (𝒎𝒊𝒏)×𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒍𝒌 (𝒇𝒕)

Total pedestrian = normal pedestrian + peak time extra pedestrian

Effective side walk = Side walk – (lamp+obstacle)

Problem-35: A new office building is expected to add 800 pedestrians to a 15 ft side

walk during the peak 10 min period. The sidewalk has already a flow of 1400 pedestrians
during the peak period. Around 3 ft of the width of the sidewalk is used for light posts
and other obstruction. Determine the new flow rate and mention the unit measured.
Solution: Total pedestrians at peak hour = 800 + 1400 = 2200
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛 (𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛)
Flow at peak period =
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 (𝑚𝑖𝑛)×𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑘 (𝑓𝑡)
2200
=
(15−3)×10
= 18.33 ≈ 19 pedestrian/min/ft

Level of service Flow(ped/min/ft)

A ------------------------------ 7 or less
B ------------------------------ 7-10
C ------------------------------ 10-15
D ------------------------------ 15-20
E ------------------------------- 20-25
F ------------------------------- above