Networking concepts

A network or computer network is an inter connection of two or more computers

that are able to exchange information.
Networking goals
Resource sharing: several machines can share printers, tape drivers etc.
Reliability : If a machine goes down, another can take over because a file can
have copies on two or three different machines.
Cost factor: Personal computers have better price/performance.
Communication medium: The required information can be retrieved from
different sources through network.
Need of networking
 File sharing provides sharing and grouping of data files over the network.
 Print sharing of computers resources such as hard disk and printers etc.
 Email tools for communication with the e-mail address.
 Remote access able to access data and information, around the globe.
 Sharing database to multiple users at the same time by ensuring the
integrity.

ARPANET(Advanced research project agency network)

 In 1969 U.S. Department of Defense sponsored a project named ARPANET.
 The goal of the project was to connect various universities and US Defense.
 In mid 80’s National Science Foundation created a new high capacity
network called NSFnet, which was more powerful than ARPANET.
 In 1990 the Internet came into picture.

OSI (open system interconnection) reference model

OSI is a reference tool for understanding
data communication between any two
networked systems.
It divides the communication process into
seven layers, each layer performs specific
functions.
The Physical Layer
The physical layer is concerned with
transmitting raw bits over a
communication channel.
The Data Link Layer
This layer allows a device to access the
network to send and receive messages.
The Network Layer
It determines how packets are routed from
source to destination.

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The Transport Layer
It accept data from above layer and split it up into smaller units if needed and
pass these to the network layer and ensure that the smaller units are arrive
correctly at the other end.
The Session Layer
The session layer allows users on different machines to establish conversation
between them.
The Presentation Layer
It concerned that the information is delivered in a form that the receiving system
can understand and use.
The Application Layer
It contains a variety of protocols that are commonly needed by the user.
Example: HTTP

Network protocols
Protocol: A set of rules and procedures that determines how a computer system
receives and transmits data.

TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)

 It is the basic communication language or protocol of the Internet.
 It can be used as communications protocol in a private network.
 It is a layered set of protocols and it is responsible for making sure that the
commands get through to the other end.
 It keeps track of what is sent, and transmits anything that did not get
through.

TCP/IP Model:
The TCP/IP model uses four layers to perform
the functions of the seven-layer OSI model.
1. Layer 1 – Network Access Layer:
 The lowest layer of the TCP/IP protocol
hierarchy.
 It defines how to use the network to
transmit an IP data.
 It encompasses the functions of physical
and data link layer of OSI reference model.

2. Layer 2 – Internet Layer:

 Provides services that equivalent to OSI network layer.
 The primary concern of the protocol at this layer is to manage the
connections across network as information is passed from source to
destination.
 The internet Protocol (IP) is the primary protocol at this layer.
3. Layer 3 – Transport Layer:
 It is designed to allow peer entities on the source and destination hosts to
carry on a conversation.
 Two end-to-end transport protocols have defined here TCP and UDP.
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4. Layer 4 – Application Layer:
 It includes the OSI session, presentation and application layers.
 An application is any process that occurs above the transport layer.
 This includes all of the processes that involve user interaction.
 The application determines the presentation of the data and controls the
session.

HTTP(Hypertext Transfer Protocol)

 It is a set of rules that allow users of the World Wide Web to exchange
information found on web pages.
 It specifies what messages clients may send to server and what responses
they get back in return.
 It is an application level protocol for distributed ,collaborative, hypermedia
information systems.
 It builds on the discipline of reference provided by the URI(uniform
resource identifier).
 Messages are passed to HTTP in a format similar to that used by internet
mail and Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME).
 It has various built-in request methods which allow users to read
a web page, or to read a web page’s header, or to store a web page, or to
append to a named resource or to remove the web page or to connect two
existing resources or to break an existing connection between two
resources.

FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

 It is a standard Internet Protocol for transmitting files between computers
on the internet.
 FTP is an application protocol that uses the Internet’s TCP/IP protocols.
 It is also commonly used to download programs and other files to your
computer from other servers.
Advantages of FTP
 It is very useful to transfer the files from one network to another.
 It is popular way to share information over the internet. FTP works as a
client/server process.

SLIP(Serial line internet protocols):

 It is used for communication between two computers that are previously
configured for communication with each other.
 It was the first protocol for relaying the IP packets over dial-up lines.
 It is an encapsulation of the internet protocol designed to work over serial
ports and modem connectionls.

PPP(Point to Point Protocol)

 Point to Point Protocol is the standard for transmission of IP packets over
serial lines.
 The PPP is currently the best solution for dial-up internet connections,
including ISDN.

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  PPP is a layered protocol, starting with a link control protocol (LCP) for link
establishment, configuration and testing.
 PPP supports both synchronized and unsynchronized lines.

THE INTERNET
It is an interconnection of large and small networks around the globe.
It was evolved from the first network ARPANET.

INTERSPACE:
Interspace is a client/server software program that allows multiple users to
communicate online with real-time audio, video and text chat in dynamic 3D
environments.
Interspace provides the most advanced form of communication available on the
Internet today.

Elementary Terminology of Networks

1. Nodes 2.Server

Nodes (Workstations)
The term nodes refer to the computer that are attached to a network and are
seeking to share the resources of the network.

Server
It is a high speed computer system controls all the computers connected to the
network.
There are two types of server.
1.Non-dedicated server 2. Dedicated server

Non-dedicated Server
 It is used in small networks
 It acts as a server and client
 Slower and need more memory
 Networks using non dedicated server are called as peer to peer networks
Example : windows NT, advanced 2000 servers etc

Dedicated Server
 It is used in large networks and it works as a server only.
 It helps the workstations to access data, software and hardware resources
 Networks using dedicated server are called as master slave networks.
Example : File server , printer server etc

Types of network:
A computer network means a group of networked components, i.e., computers
are linked by means of a communication system.
There are three types of network.
 Local Area Network (LAN)
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

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Local Area Network:
 It operates within a small area such as a single building like a home, an
office, a college or a factory.
 The main purpose of a LAN is to sharing the hardware and software
resources.
 LAN users can share data, information, programs, pointers,hard disks,
modems etc
Note: Computers connected to file server are called workstations.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

 It spread over a city.
 The purpose of a MAN is also the sharing of hardware and software
resources among its users.
 For example, cable TV networks that are spread over a city can be termed
as metropolitan area networks.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

 The networks spreads across countries are known as WANs.
 A wide Area Network (WAN) is a group of computers that are separated by
large distances and tied together.
 It can even be a group of LANs that are spread across several locations and
connected and together to look like one big LAN.
 The WANs link computers to facilitate fast and efficient exchange of
information at lesser costs and higher speeds.

Difference between LAN and WAN

LAN WAN

Distance isnot more than a few Span entire countries.

kilometers.
A total data rate of at least Data rate less than one mbps.
several mbps.
Complete ownership by a single Owned by multiple organizations.
organization.
Very low error rates. Comparatively higher error rates.

Network Topologies: It refers to the actual appearance or layout of network.

Network topologies can be classified as follows:
1. Bus or Linear Topology
2. Star Topology
3. Ring or circular Topology
4. Tree topology
5. Mesh Topology
6. Graph Topology

The Bus or Linear Topology

 This consists of a single length of the transmission medium (normally
coaxial cable) onto which the various nodes are attached.

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  The topology is used in traditional data communication network where the
host at one end of the bus communicates with several terminals attached
along its length.
Advantages
 Short cable length and simple wiring layout
 Flexible architecture
 Easy to extend network
Disadvantages
 Difficult to diagnose the fault
 Repeater configuration

The Star Topology

 In this topology, each computer is connected directly to the central
computer.
 All communications between computers have to pass through the central
computer.
 This topology used in most existing information networks involving data
processing or voice communications.
Advantages
 If one cable or a node is
damaged, it does not affect
the network
 Easy access for service
because of centralized control
Disadvantages
 Each node is directly
connected to the center,it
requires long cable
 Difficult to expand
 Central node dependency

The Ring or Circular topology

 In this topology, each node is connected to two and only two neighbouring
nodes. Data is accepted from one of the neighbouring nodes and is
transmitted onwards to another.
 Thus data travels in one direction only, from node to node around the ring.
 After passing through each node, it
returns to the sending node, which
removes it.
Advantages
 Short cable length
 Suitable optical fibers
Disadvantages
 Node failure causes network failure
 Difficult to diagnose faults
 Network reconfiguration is difficult

The Tree topology

 It combines the features of linear bus and star topology.

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  It consists of many star configured
workstations connected to a linear bus
backbone cable.
Advantages
 The network can be easily extended
 Eliminates network jamming
Disadvantages
 Use large cable length.
 If the backbone line breaks, the entire
segment goes down.

Mesh Topology
 In this topology, each node is connected with all
other computers.
 The mesh topology is excellent for long distance
networking because Communication is possible
between any two nodes on the network either
directly or by passing through.

Graph Topology
 In this topology, nodes are connected together in an arbitrary fashion.
 A link may or may not connect two or more nodes, there may be multiple
links also and It is not necessary that all the nodes are connected.

Transmission medium
 It is a path way that carries the information from sender to receiver.
 We use different types of cables to transmit data.
 Data is transmitted normally through electrical or electromagnetic signals.
 Transmission media is also called communication channel.

Transmission media is broadly classified into two groups

1. Wired or Guided or Bound transmission media
2. Wireless or Unguided or Unbound transmission media
Wired or Guided or Bound transmission media
 This media use cables that are tangible or have physical existence and are
limited by the physical geography.
 Popular guided media in use are twisted pair cable, co-axial cable and fiber
optical cable.
 Each of them has its own characteristics like transmission speed, effect of
noise, physical appearance, cost etc
Twisted pair cables
 It is the most common form of wiring in data communication application.
 It consists of two identical wires twisted/wrapped together with a plastic
coating.
 Voice grade medium (VGM) –It used in internal office telephone wiring.
 Data grade medium-It is a higher quality cable used in LAN application to
avoid the differences in the electrical characteristics between the
pair(length, resistance and capacitance)
Advantages
 It can be easily connected
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  It is easy to install and maintain
 It has a low weight
 It is very inexpensive
Disadvantages
 Its low bandwidth capabilities make it unsuitable for broadband
applications
 It supports maximum data rates of 1 Mbps to 10 Mbps
Types of Twisted Pair Cables
There are two types of twisted pair cables.
1.Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable: It is used for variety of electronic
communications. UTP has four pair of wires inside which are twisted with each
others. The UTP cables can have maximum segment length of 100 meters.
It is available in the following five categories:
Type Description
CAT1 Voice-grade communications only; No data transmission
CAT2 Data-grade transmission up to 4 Mbps
CAT3 Data-grade transmission up to 10 Mbps
CAT4 Data-grade transmission up to 16 Mbps
CAT5 Data-grade transmission up to 1000 Mbps

2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable: This type of

cables comes with shielding of the individual pairs of
wires, which further protects it from external
interference. Like UTP, can have maximum segment
length of 100 meters.
It gives greater protection from interference due to
shielding, but it is heavier and costlier than UTP and
requires proper grounding at both the ends.

Coaxial Cables
It transmits high-frequency electrical signals through conductors without
interference. Used for cable television, LANs etc
The two most commonly used types of coaxial cables are Thicknet and Thinnet.
(i) Thicknet: This is thicker and the length is upto 500 meters long.
(ii) Thinnet: This is thinner and the length is185 meters.

Optical Fibers
Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core
surrounded by several layers of protective materials.
It transmits light rather than electric signals.

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Advantages
 No electrical and magnetic interference since the signals in the form of light
 It is highly suitable for harsh industrial environments.
 It has a very high transmission capacity
Disadvantages
 Installation problem
 Connection loses are common problem
 They are the most expensive of all the cables

Radio Wave
The transmission making use of radio frequencies is termed as radio-wave
transmission. Any radio setup has two parts:
 The transmitter
 The receiver
The transmitter takes some sort of message, encodes it onto a sine wave and
transmits it with radio waves. The receiver receives the radio waves and
decodes the message from the sine wave it receives. Both the transmitter and
receiver use antennas to radiate and capture the radio signal.

Advantages
 Provide mobility
 Inexpensive.
 It proves cheaper than digging trenches for laying cables.
 Free from land acquisition rights.
Disadvantages
 It is an insecure communication.
 Susceptible to weather effects like rains, thunder storms etc

Satellite (Satellite Microwave)

Radio wave can be classified by frequency and wave length. When the frequency
is higher than 3 GHz, it is named microwave .
Transponders: Most communication satellites have multiple, independent
reception and transmission devices known as transponders.

Unguided media
Infrared
 This type of transmission uses infrared light to send the data.
 The infrared light transmits data through the air and can propagate
throughout a room (bouncing off surfaces), but will not penetrate walls.
 The infrared transmission has become common in PDAs (Personal digital
assistants) e.g., hand held devices like palm pilots etc.
 The infrared transmission is considered to be a secure one.

Laser
 It is unidirectional like microwave, but has much higher speed than
microwaves.
 The laser transmission requires the use of a laser transmitter and a photo-
sensitive receiver at each end.

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Switching techniques:
Switching techniques are used for transmitting data across networks.
There are three types of switching:
1. Circuit Switching
2. Message Switching
3. Packet Switching
Circuit Switching
 It is a connection technique that directly connects the sender and the
receiver in an unbroken path.
 With this type technique, once a connection is established a dedicated path
exits between both ends until the connection is terminated.
Example: Telephone switching equipment.
Message Switching
 Here, no need of dedicated path between two stations.
 When a station sends a message, it appends a destination address to the
message.
 The message is then transmitted through the network from node to node.
 Each node receives the entire message, store it briefly and then transmits
the message to the next node.
 It is also store and forward network.

Packet Switching
 Here a message is broken into small parts called packets.
 Each packet is tagged with appropriate source and destination addresses.
 A sequences number is added to fragmented packets and when it reaches
the destination the packets are de-fragmented by sequence number.

Communication Modes
It means transferring of data between two devices. These modes direct the
direction of flow of information.
There are 3 types of communication mode. They are
1. Simplex
2. Half –duplex
3. Full-duplex
Simplex:
 In simplex mode the communication can take place in one direction.
 The receiver receives the signal from the transmitting device.
 In this mode the flow of information is uni-directional.
 Ex: Radio, TV etc
Half –duplex:
 In half-duplex mode the communication channel id used in both
directions, but only in one direction at a time.
 Thus a half-duplex line can alternately send and receive data.
 Ex: walkie-talkies, sub marine, aviation etc

Full-duplex
 In full duplex the communication channel is used in both directions at the
same time.
 Ex: Telephone line

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NETWORK DEVICES
In functioning of networks, many devices play import roles. Many devises are

1.Modem (Modulator and Demodulator)

 Modulation: converts digital data to analog form and analog signals are
carried through telephone lines.
 DeModulation: converts analog data to digital form and receiving node gets
the data.
 Ex: sending faxes, internet connection etc uses modulation and
demodulation.
There are two types of modems
Internal modem: It is fixed within the computer.
External modem: It is connected externally to a computer like a peripheral
device.

2.Hub
It is device used to connect several computers together(Generally used in star
topology).
There are two types of hubs
1. Active hubs: It regenerates the incoming signals before sending the data on
to its destination.
2. Passive hubs: It pass the signals without any change.
3.Switch: It is device which provides connection between workstations, servers
and peripherals through cables.

4.Repeater: During long distance transmission, signals may get weakened.

Repeaters are used to strengthen these signals and to retransmit it.

5.Bridge:It is a device used to connect two networks of the same type( eg: LAN to
LAN) and it transmits the data to the correct destination.

6.Router: It is a device to connect two dissimilar networks. It is also known as

“super intelligent bridge” because it selects the best path for the signals to reach
the destination.
7. Ethernet card:
It is physical connection between the networks and the computer. It is LAN
architecture developed by Xerox corp.
Gateway:
It is a device that connects two dissimilar networks. Gateway is a node on a
network that server as an entrance to another network.

Wireless Vs Mobile Computing

 Wireless refers to the method of transferring information between a
computing device, such as a personal data assistant (PDA), and a data
source, such as an agency database server, without a physical connection.
 Mobile simply describing a computing device that is not restricted to a
desktop.

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Technologies used in mobile computing.

GSM:
 GSM is short for Global System for Mobile communications, which is
one of the leading digital cellular systems.
 The GSM standard for digital cell phones was established in Europe in the
mid 1908s.
 GSM uses narrowband TDMA, which allows eight simultaneous calls on
the same radio frequency.
 TDMA is short for Time Division Multiple Access, a technology for
delivering digital wireless service using time-division multiplexing (TDM).

TDMA:
 Time Division Multiple Access.
 TDMA works by dividing a radio frequency into time slots and then
allocating slots to, multiple calls. In this way, a single frequency can
support multiple, simultaneous data channels.

SIM card:
 The SIM - Subscriber Identity Module - is a chip card; the size of a first
class postage stamp.
 A SIM is a computer chip that gives a cellular device its unique phone
number.
 It has memory (16 to 64 KB), processor and the ability to interact with the
user.

CDMA:
 CDMA is short for Code-Division Multiple Access, a digital cellular
technology that uses spread-spectrum techniques.
 CDMA is a form of spread spectrum, which simply means that data is sent
in small pieces over a number of the discrete frequencies available for use
at any time in the specified range.

WLL
 Wireless in Local Loop (WLL or WiLL),
 It is meant to serve subscribers at homes or offices.
 In WLL services, the telephone provided is expected to be as good as wired
phone.
 Its voice quality must be high - a subscriber carrying out long conversation
must not be irritated with quality; one must be able, to use speakerphones,
cordless phones and parallel phones.
GPRS
 GPRS stands for General Packet Radio Service.
 GPRS is used for wireless communication using a mobile device.
 With the service you can access the internet, send emails and large data,
download games and watch movies.

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EDGE:
 The new EDGE air interface has been developed specifically to meet the
bandwidth needs of 3G. Enhanced Data rates for Global Evolution (EDGE) is
a radio based high-speed mobile data standard.
 It allows data transmission speeds of 384 Kbps.
 EDGE was formerly called GSM384.This means a maximum bit rate of 48
kbps per time slot.
 EDGE is considered an intermediate step in the evolution of 3G WCDMA.

1G,2G,3G,4G and 5G networks(G-generation)

1G Networks
 It uses analog systems
 It is designed purly for voice calls with almost no consideration of data
services.
 It was introduced 1980’s
 Speed was upto 2.4 Kbps
2G Networks
 It uses digital transmission technology
 Increased quality of service
 Improved sound quality,better security and high capacity, speed was 144
kbps
 GSM technology is used
 GPRS technology, introduced in 1990’s
3G Networks
 Introduced in 2000
 Data transmission speed increased from 144 kbps to 2 mbps
 Mobile phones are called smart phones
 Designed for higher speed internet access and various types of web
browsing applications
4G Networks
 Support for multiple application and services
 Quality of service
 Network detection and network selection
5G Networks
 It provides high bandwidth
 High resolution
 High speed for uploading and downloading
 It provides up to 25 mbps connectivity speed

Applications in networking
1. SMS
2. Chat
3. Video conferencing
4. Wi-Fi
5. Wi –Fi Hotspot
6. Wimax

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SMS(Short message service):
 Short Message Service (SMS) is the transmission of short text messages to
and from a mobile phone, fax machine and/or IP address.
 Messages must be no longer than some fixed number of alpha-numeric
characters and contain no images or graphics.

Chat: It is the method of talking to a person online by typing text messages

which is received by the recipient and he can respond back at the same time.
Nowadays video chat also available.

Video conferring: It is a set of telecommunication technologies that allow two or

more locations to communicate simultaneous using two way video and audio
transmissions.

Wi-Fi(wireless fidelity)
It connect to the internet without a direct line from PC to ISP(internet service
provider).
It used radio signals.

Wi-Fi Hotspots
It is a place that offers Wi-Fi access. The public can use a laptop, WI-FI phone or
other suitable portable devices to access the internet through a WI-FI hotspot.

Network security
It is the method of protecting the computer and information it contains from
unauthorized access, modification, damage or destruction.

Protection methods
1.Authorization
2.Authentication
3.Encrypted smart cards
4.Biometric systems
5.Firewalls

1.Authorization: This method determines whether the service provider has

granted access of the web service to the requestor, this can be done by using a
legal login-id and password. This allows only authorized users to access and use
the system.
2.Authentication: It ensures that each user accessing the service is what he
claims to be. It is done by asking a valid password.
3.Encrypted smart cards: it is handheld smart card that can generate a token
that a computer can recognize. A new token is generated every time which
cannot be used later.
4.Biometric systems: This method identifying unique characteristics of human
body such as fingerprints, voice scan, retina scan etc
5.Firewalls: A system designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a
private network is called firewall.
It can be implemented in both hardware and software or combination or both.
There are several types of firewall techniques-
Packet filter - accepts or rejects of packets based on user defined rules.

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Application gateway - security mechanism to specific application like FTP and
Telnet servers.
Circuit level gateway - applies security mechanism when a connection is
established.
Proxy Server - Intercepts all messages entering and leaving the network.

Cookies : Cookies are messages that a web server transmits to a web browser
so that the web server can keep track of the user’s activity on a specific web site.
Cookies have few parameters name, value, expiration date.
Or
Cookies are small files which are stored on a user’s computer.

Hackers and crackers :

Hackers are more interested in gaining knowledge about computer systems and
possibly using this knowledge for playful pranks.
Crackers are the malicious programmers who break into secure systems.

Cyber Law: It is a generic term, which refers to all the legal and regulatory
aspects of internet and the World Wide Web.

India’s IT Act:
In India the cyber laws are contained in the IT Act 2000. Aims to provide legal
infrastructure for e-commerce in India by governing transactions through
internet and other electronic medium.

VIRUS (Vital Information Resource Under Siege)

A computer virus is a computer program that can replicate itself and spread
from one computer to another.
Depend on the nature of a virus, it may cause damage of your hard disk
contents, and/or interfere normal operation of your computer.

Characteristics of a computer virus:

1. It is able to replicate.
2. Reduced memory or disk space.
3. Modification of data.
4. Files overwritten or damaged.
5. Hard drive erased.

Some viruses are categorized as harmless pranks, while others are far more
malicious. Broadly three types of viruses are:
1. File Infectors – These types of viruses either infect executable files or attach
themselves to a program file and create duplicate files.
2. Boot Sector Viruses – Install themselves on the beginning tracks of a hard
drive or the Master Boot Record
3. Macro Viruses – Infect data files like electronic spreadsheets or databases
of several software packages.
4. Network Viruses – These virus use protocols and commands of computer
network to spread themselves on the network. Generally they use email
or any data transfer files to spread themselves on the network.

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Virus Prevention
1. Never use a CD without scanning it for viruses.
2. Always scan files downloaded from the internet or other sources.
3. Never boot your PC from a floppy unless you are certain that it is virus free.
4. Use licensed software.
5. Password protect your PC to prevent unattended modification.
6. Install and use antivirus software.
7. Keep antivirus software up to date.

Some of the antivirus are Kaspersky , Quick heal, K7, Norton 360, Micro trend
titanium, AVG, Panda, ESET Nod32, Avast.McAFee etc.,

Cloud tecnology: Cloud technology or cloud computing as it is more commonly

known today is a computing platform widely used by Information Technology
(IT) Service Companies.

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