PN Junction as Photo Voltaic Cell

When N-type and P-type materials are brought together in contact with each other forming a PN junction,
the electron in the N type region, being very numerous, will diffuse into the P-type region giving rise to
diffusion current. Similarly, holes from P-type region diffuse into the N-type region and both electrons and
holes recombine. As a result, positive ions created near the junction edge in N-region, which are fixed at
lattice point and are immobile. Similarly, holes from the P-region diffuse in the N-region creating negative
ions in P-region near the junction edge.
If more holes try to diffuse across the junction, they are repelled by positive ions near the junction edge in
the N-region. Similarly, the electrons from the N-region attempting to diffuse across the junction are repelled
by negative ions in the P-region near the junction edge. Thus, an equilibrium condition is attained, which is
represented in Fig.1 (a). Fig.1 (b) shows the potential profile in the depletion region and (c) indicates the
carrier densities of N-type and P-type respectively.

Fig. 1. The structure of a semiconductor n-p junction

This accumulation of opposite charges on two sides of the junction results in the creation of an electric
potential across it, known as potential barrier. The strength of the barrier potential depends on the substrate
material and doping concentration. The region up to which the ionized immobile impurity ions are extended
is called the depletion region as shown in Fig.2 (a). Fig.2 (b) and (c) show what happens to the band
structure of P-type and N-type materials and Fig.2 (d) represents the situation after the junction has been
formed.
 Fig.2 energy band diagrams of P-type, N-type and P-N junction

The highest filled electron energy at absolute zero is the Firmi-energy and the Firmi level must remain
constant across the interface region since it must have the same value every where in the device. This
means that in order to accommodate the band structure of the P-type material on the left and N-type
material on the right, the band must be bent in a manner shown in Fig. 2 (d).

The equation that applies to the PN-junction for the relationship between the junction current flow,
ID and
imposed voltage V , is

( )
qV
kT
I D =I 0 e −1 ⋯⋯⋯(1)
where
I 0 = reverse saturation current (some times called dark current)
q= electronic charge
k = Boltzmann constant
T = temperature
I
This relation ship is some times shown schematically as curve-1 in Fig.3 (a). The saturation current 0 is
obtained when a large negative voltage is applied across the diode. When light energy of frequency υ such

that
hυ≥E g (where h= plank ‘ s constant and E g = band gap) is applied on the junction itself turns into
a voltage source or generator of electric power. The minority carrier generated by the absorption of photons
cross over the junction by diffusion in the negative direction of the concentration gradient. Fig.3
 Fig. 4 A Silicon solar cell

Fig. 5 Cross section of silicon solar cell

Fig.6 A silicon solar cell with load resistance

Fig. 7 Top view of a single crystal silicon solar cell with grid fingers and bus bars

Fig.8 Solar cells (a) Multi-crystalline silicon (b) Single crystal silicon
Ideal Characteristics of Solar Cell
The equivalent circuit of an illuminated ideal solar cell is shown in Fig. 3(a).

Fig. 3 (a). Current-voltage characteristics of a photovoltaic solar cell. (b) Maximum Power rectangle

Fig.3 (c) Equivalent Circuit of a solar cell

In this circuit the diode represents the junction (before photon generates carrier current appears) and the
current generator represents the photon generated current. If a load resistor is connected across the cell as

shown in the Fig.3 (a) then the net current through the resistance
R L is given by

( )
qV L

I L =I R−I 0 e kT −1 ⋯⋯⋯(2 a )

( )
VL
V1
=I R−I 0 e −1 ⋯⋯⋯(2b)
kT
V 1=
where q
I R = light generated current
V L= voltage across the resistance R L
I L = current through resistance R L
I 0 = saturation current
Equation (2) represents the load current of an ideal solar cell. Curve-2 in Fig.3 (b) is the graphical
representation of equation (2). The curve appears to be normal diode curve-1 as shown in Fig.3 (b) (dark
characteristics) shifted along the negative current axis. The part of the curve i.e. now in the 4 -th quadrant is
the indicative of how the device will function as a power generator. Fig.3 (c) illustrates the standard method
of representing such a curve. For each, at a given illumination intensity, there will be a point where the
maximum power delivered to the load and the cell is operated at or near this point. The maximum output
power can be found by inscribing under the illuminated I-V curve the largest rectangle possible.
(V , I )
Fig.3 (c) describes the coordinate point m m . The area of the rectangle is m ( V ×I )
m and this is the
maximum power that can be derived from the device for the particular illumination level for which the I-V
curve is made. The more closely the I-V curve is to a square shape, the greater will be the power obtainable
from the device.

The power delivered to the load by the device is

P L=V L×I L⋯⋯⋯(3 )
where
V L= voltage across R L
I L = current through R L
The condition for maximum power is
dP L dI L
=I L +V L =0
dV L dV L
dI L IL
=− ⋯⋯⋯(4 )
or
dV
L VL
Thus at maximum power point the negative slope of the generator characteristic equal the slope of the line.
From the equation (2) it can be shown that
(i) Open circuit solar cell ( V OC ) :
I =0 , then from equation (2) we get open circuit voltage,
For open circuit solar cell L

( )
kT I
V OC = ln R +1 ⋯⋯⋯(5 )
q I0
(ii ) Short circuit solar cell ( I SC ) :
V =0 , then from equation (2) we get short circuit current
For short circuit solar cell L
I SC =I L=I R ⋯⋯⋯(6 )
An ideal load characteristics is given in Fig.4 and gives a relationship between
V L and I L .
(iii) Maximum Power Point (MPP):

Fig.9 Maximum Power Point Rectangle

The power obtained from solar cell

[ ( )]
qV L

P L=V L×I L=V L× I R−I 0 e kT −1 ⋯⋯⋯(7 )

Maximum power can be obtained by properly adjusting
R L and then from equation (7)
 dP L
=
d
V × I R −I 0 e
dV L dV L L
[ { (
qV L
kT
−1 )}]
( )
VL VL
1 V1 V
=V L −I L e + I R −I 0 e 1 =0
V1
or
VL

( )
VL V
I0 +1 e 1 =I R
V1
or
VL
V1 IR
e =

or
I0
( VL
V1
+1
)
VL IR
=ln

( )
V1 VL
I0 +1
V1
or
IR
∴ V L =V 1 ln

( )
VL
I0 +1
V1

Since this voltage

V L is the maximum power voltage, let us denote this by V m then
IR
V m=V 1 ln

( )
Vm
I0 +1
V1

( ) ( )
IR Vm
=V 1 ln −V 1 ln 1+ ⋯⋯⋯(8 )
I0 V1
Putting this value of maximum power point voltage in equation (2) we get the maximum power point current
Im

( )
Vm
V
I m=I R−I 0 e 1 −1 ⋯⋯⋯(9 )
Again from equation (2) we get ( for open circuit condition
I L =0 & V L=V OC )
V OC V OC
IR V1 V1
=e −1≈e ⋯⋯⋯( 10)
I0
IR
Putting this value of
I0 from equation (10), into (8) we get

( )
Vm
V m=V OC−V 1 ln 1+ ⋯⋯⋯(11)
V1
 ( )
Vm V1 Vm
∴ =1− ln 1+ ⋯⋯⋯( 12)
V OC V OC V1
From equation (10) again we get
V OC
−
V1
I 0 =I R e ⋯⋯⋯( 13 )
Vm
>> 1
Putting this into equation (9) and considering
V1 then

( )( )
V OC V
m
− V m−V OC
V1 V1 −
I m=I R− I R e e −1 ¿ I R −I R e
V1
⋯⋯⋯( 14 )

Since for ideal cell

I SC =I R at short circuit condition then
V m−V OC
V1
I m I R −I R e
=
I SC I SC
V m −V OC
V1
I −I e
= R R
IR Since
I SC =I R
V m−V OC
V1
=1−e ⋯⋯⋯(15 )
From equation (11)

( )
V m−V OC Vm
=−ln 1+
V1 V1
V1
=ln ⋯⋯⋯(16 )
V m +V 1
Substituting this value into equation (15) we obtain
Im V1
=1− ⋯⋯⋯(17)
I SC V m +V 1
Using equation (12) and (17) one can obtain the values of voltage and current at maximum power point if
V OC I
and SC of the cell are known.
(iv ) Fill Factor (FF):
The maximum load power can be determined from
Pm=V m×I m=V OC I SC FF⋯⋯⋯(18 )
where
V m= voltage at maximum power point
I m= current at maximum power point
V OC = open circuit voltage of the cell
I SC = short circuit current of the cell
FF = fill-factor
Now the fill-factor of the cell can also determined from equation (18)

(v ) Efficiency of the cell ( η ) :

The efficiency of the cell is defined as

Output power P m
η= = ⋯⋯⋯(19 )
Input power Pi
where
Pi ={ ( total irradiance of AM 1. 5 spectrum ) ×r }× A
with A= area of the cell in m 2 and

r = a factor which is equal to

( 827 kW/m2 )
1000 kW/m 2
⋯⋯⋯(20 )

then
Pi = (1kW/m2)×(Area of the cell in m 2 )
Solar constant and Air-mass
Solar constant is the radiant power per unit area perpendicular to the direction of the sun outside the earth’s
atmosphere but at the mean earth-sun distance (Fig.1a).
The value of solar constant is 1.37kW/m2 and this describes the solar irradiance in space. This radiation is
referred to as the Air-mass zero radiation or AM 0 radiation (Fig.1a) and is taken as the standard spectrum
outside the Earth's atmosphere.
AM 0 is typically used to predict the expected performance of solar cells in space. AM 0 is also important
for satellite application of solar cell.

Fig.1 (a) Definition of Solar constant and Air-mass

The Commission of the European Communities has given a name to the standard spectrum of sunlight at
the Earth's surface: AM 1. 5 G (where G stands for "global" and includes both direct and diffuse radiation)
or AM 1. 5 D (which includes direct radiation only). The number 1 . 5 indicates that the length of the path
of sun light through the atmosphere is1 .5 times that of the shorter path when the sun is directly overhead.
AM 1. 5 G is a typical solar spectrum on the earth surface on clean day which, with total irradiance of
1 kW /m2 is used for the calibration of solar cells and modules.
The ratio of any actual path length (Fig.3a) to the minimum (this is shortest when the sun is directly
overhead) path length is known as the optical air-mass. This is expressed by
1
= ⋯⋯⋯(21 )
Air-mass
cosθi
θ =0 (Fig.1b) then
When the sun is overhead (at the earth surface) at the zenith (Fig.2) i.e. i
Air-mass = 1 expressed as AM 1
0
0 θ =60 .1 (Fig.1b) then
When the sun is at 60 . 1 i.e. i
Air-mass = 2 expressed as AM 2
 Fig.1 (b) Definition of Air-masses

Fig.2 Angles for the description of the position of the sun and determination of air-mass

Fig.3 Earth surface in a plane

Air-mass AM 1. 5 corresponds to an angle of 48 . 20 between the solar radiation and the zenith (Fig.2),
which can be considered as typical value.
0
0 θ =48 . 2 then
i.e. when the sun is at 48 . 2 i.e. i
 Air-mass = 1.5 expressed as AM 1.5
The total irradiance of the AM 1. 5 spectrum amounts to 827 W/m 2. To be used to as standard sunlight, the
AM 1. 5 solar spectrum is multiplied by a factor 1000/827 in order to increase the total irradiance to 1000
W/m2, which is about the maximum power density received at the earth surface. The peak power of a

photovoltaic installation is the power generated under this standard AM 1. 5 (1 kW /m2 ) sunlight and is
expressed in peak watts.

The easiest way to estimate the air-mass is to measure the length of the shadow S produced by a vertical
structure of height H on the surface of the earth as shown in Fig.3 (b) and can be expressed by

√ ( HS ) ⋯⋯⋯(22)
2
= 1+
Air-mass