PRSL01E- PRINCIPLES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE

Reinforced concrete is a logical union of two materials:

• Plain Concrete – Possesses high compressive strength but little tensile strength.

• Steel Reinforcement – Possesses high tensile strength but little compressive strength.

Reinforced concrete structures consist of a series of members (components) that interact to support the
loads placed on the structures. The components can be broadly classified into:

1. Floor Slab – are the main horizontal elements that transmit the gravity loads (dead loads and
live loads) and lateral loads (Wind and Seismic) to the vertical framing supports of the structure.
They can be proportioned such that they act in one direction (one-way slabs) or proportioned so
that they act in two perpendicular. They can be:
a) Slabs on Beams
b) Waffle Slabs
c) Slabs without beams (Flat Plates) resting directly on columns
d) Composite slabs on joists
2. Beams – are structural elements that transmit the tributary loads from slabs to vertical
supporting columns. They are normally cast monolithically with the slabs and are structurally
reinforced on one face (the lower tension side), or both (top and bottom faces). As they are cast
monolithically with the slab, they form a T-beam section (interior beams) or an L-beam section
(exterior beam).
3. Columns – vertical elements that support the structural floor system. They are compression
members subjected, in most cases, to both bending and axial load and are of major importance
in the safety considerations of any structure.
4. Walls – are the vertical enclosures for the building frames. They are not usually or necessarily
made of concrete but any material that esthetically fulfills the form and functional needs of the
structural system. Additionally, structural concrete walls are often necessary as foundation
walls, stairwell walls, and shear walls that resist horizontal wind loads and earthquake-induced
loads.
5. Foundations – are the structural concrete elements that transmit the weight of the
superstructure to the supporting soil. They could be in many forms:
a) Isolated Footing
b) Combined Footing
c) Mat Foundations
d) Strip or Wall Footing
e) Piles (Driven or Bored)

Materials and Properties

Concrete

Plain concrete is made by mixing cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, water, and admixtures.
Structural concrete can be classified into:
 1. Lightweight concrete – with unit weight from about 1350kg/m^3 to 1850kg/m^3 produced
from aggregates of expanded shale, clay, slate, and slag.
2. Normal weight concrete – with unit weight from about 1800kg/m^3 to 2400kg/m^3 produced
from the most commonly used aggregates – sand, gravel, crushed stone.
3. Heavy weight concrete – with unit weight from about 3200kg/m^3 to 5600kg/m^3 produced
from materials such as barite, limonite, magnetite, ilmenite, hematite, iron, and steel punching
or shot. It is used for shielding against radiations in nuclear reactor containers and other
structures.

Compressive Strength

• The strength of concrete is controlled by the proportioning of cement, course and fine
aggregates, water, and various admixtures. The most important variable is water-cement (w/c)
ratio.
• Concrete strength (f’c) – uniaxial compressive strength measured by a compression test of a
standard test cylinder (150mm diameter by 300mm high) on the 28th day as per ASTM C31/C39.

Stress-Strain Relationship: Typical curves for specimen (150x300mm cylinders) loaded in compression
at 28 days.

Lower-strength concrete has greater deformability (ductility) than higher- strength concrete
(length of the portion of the curve after the maximum stress is reached at a strain between
0.002 and 0.0025).

Ultimate strain at crushing of concrete varies from 0.003 to as high as 0.008.

 In usual reinforced concrete design fc’ of (24 to 35 MPa) are used for non-prestressed
structures.
 fc’ of (35 to 42 MPa) are used for prestressed concrete.
 fc' of (42 to 97 MPa) are used particularly in columns of tall buildings.

Tensile Strength

Concrete tensile strength is about 10 to 15% of its compressive strength. The strength of concrete in
tension is an important property that greatly affects the extent and size of cracking in structures.

Tensile strength is usually determined by:

1. Split-cylinder test (ASTM C496) – a standard 150x300mm compression test cylinder is placed on
its side and loaded in compression along a diameter. The splitting tensile strength, fct, is
computed as: 𝑓𝑐𝑡 =
2. Tensile strength in flexure, Modulus of Rupture (ASTM C78/C293) – a plain concrete beam
150x150mmx750mm long is loaded in flexure at the third points of 600mm span until it fails due
to cracking on tension face. Modulus of rupture, fr, is computed as: 𝑓𝑟 = = =

It is accepted (ACI 9.5.2.3) that an average value for fr may be taken as: 𝑓𝑟 = 0.62λ 𝑓𝑐′
Modulus of Elasticity, Ec

• Measurement of a material’s elasticity

• Material’s resistance to non-permanent, or elastic deformation.

• Modulus of elasticity of concrete varies with strength (unlike that of steel).

• Empirical formula given by Aci-8.5.1 𝐸𝑐 = 0.043𝑊𝑐 .

𝑓𝑐′

• For normal concrete, Ec shall be permitted to be taken as; 𝐸𝑐 = 4700 𝑓𝑐′

Creep and Shrinkage

Creep - time dependent deformations due to sustained loads. Concrete is elastic only under loads of
short duration, and inelastic due to additional deformation with time.

Shrinkage – is the volume change during hardening and curing of the concrete and is unrelated to load
application. The main cause of shrinkage is loss of water as the concrete dries and hardens.

Steel Reinforcement

• Yield strength is about 15 times the compressive strength of common structural concrete and
well over 100 times its tensile strength.
• Steel reinforcement may consist of:
o Bars (plain or deformed bars) – commonly used in construction.
o Welded Wire fabric – used in thin slabs and thin shells.
o Wires – are used for prestressed concrete
• The “Grade” of steel is the minimum specified yield stress (point) expressed in MPa (ksi).
• The modulus of elasticity of steel is constant for all types of steel. The ACI code has adopted a
value of Es = 200,000 MPa (29 000 000 psi)

Working Stress Design Method (1900 – 1960)

• In the working stress method, a structural element is so designed that the stresses resulting from the
action of service loads (also called working loads) and computed by the mechanics of elastic members
do not exceed some predesignated allowable values.

• The working stress method may be expressed by the following: 𝑓 ≤ 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤

Strength Design Method (1960 – present, with few exceptions)

• In the strength design method (formerly called ultimate strength method), the service loads are
increase by factors to obtain the load at which failure is “imminent”. This load is called the factored load
or factored service load. The structure or structural element is then proportioned such that the strength
is reached when the factored load is acting. The computation of this strength considers the nonlinear
stress-strain behavior of concrete.

The strength design method may be expressed by the following,

𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 ≥ [𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑠]

Where the “strength provided” (such as the moment strength) is computed in accordance with the
provisions of a building code, and the “strength required” is that obtained by performing a structural
analysis using factored loads.

Safety Provisions

Structures and structural members must always be designed to carry some reserve load above what is
expected under normal use. Such reserve capacity is provided to account for a variety of factors, which
may be grouped in two general categories:

1. Factors relating to overload.

• Overload may arise from changing the use for which the structure was design, from
underestimation of the effects of loads by oversimplification in calculation procedures, and
from effects of construction sequence and methods.
• In strength design method, the member is designed to resist factored loads, which are
obtained by multiplying the service loads by load factors. Different factors are use for
different loadings. Because dead loads can be estimated quite accurately, their load factors
are smaller than those of live loads, which have a high degree of uncertainty. Several load
combinations must be considered in the design to compute the maximum and minimum
design forces. Reduction factors are used for some combinations of load to reflect the low
probability of their simultaneous occurrence. The ACI code presents specific values of load
factors to be used in the design of concrete structures.

2. Factors relating to understrength (that is, less strength than computed by acceptable calculating
procedures).

• Understrength may result from adverse variations in material strength, workmanship,

dimensions, control, and degree of supervision.
• In addition to load factors, ACI code specifies another factor to allow an additional reserve in
the capacity of the structural member. The nominal strength is generally calculated using
accepted analytical procedure based on statistics and equilibrium. However, in order to
account for the degree of accuracy within which the nominal strength can be calculated, and
for adverse variations in materials and dimensions, a strength reduction factor, phi, should
be used in the strength design method.
• Overload – Load Factors
• Understrength/ Under capacity – Strength Reduction Factors
• A safe design is achieved when the structure’s strength, obtained by multiplying the nominal
strength by the reduction factor, phi, exceeds or equals the strength needed to withstand
the factored loadings (service loads times their load factors).
• The requirement for strength design may be expressed:
Design strength > Factored load (i. e., required strength)
∅𝑃𝑛 ≥ 𝑃𝑢
∅𝑀𝑛 ≥ 𝑀𝑢
∅𝑉𝑛 ≥ 𝑉𝑢
where Pn, Mn, and Vn are "nominal" strengths in axial compression, bending
moment, and shear, respectively, using the subscript n.
 Pu, Mu, and Vu are the factored load effects in axial compression, bending moment,
and shear, respectively, using the subscript u.
Given a load factor of 1.2 for dead load and a load factor of 1.6 for live load, the
overall safety factor for a structure loaded be a dead load, D, and a live load, L, is
. .
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 = ( )
∅

Two different types of problems arise in the study of reinforced concrete:

1. Analysis (Investigation)
 Given a cross section, concrete strength, reinforcement size and location, and yield strength,
compute the resistance or strength. In analysis, there should be one unique answer.
2. Design
 Given a factored design moment, normally designated as Mu, select a suitable cross section,
including dimensions, concrete strength, reinforcement, and so on. In design there are many
possible solutions.

Working Stress Design Method

Historically the Design method of (Working stress, Allowable Stress, or Service loads) is the first method
used in design of Steel and Reinforced Concrete Structures.

The Method is Using (Working or Service Loads) & (Working or Allowable Stress) for design.

Working or Service Loads mean: The ordinary daily loads that expected to be applied on specific
structures (without any factors of increasing the loads or factor of safety).

Working or Allowable Stress means: The level of stresses that would be Accepted by the “Designer” or
more accurately by the “Code” in the specific member of the structure, that give some Factor of Safety
against the failure or against unacceptable deformation or deflection.
Although the recent codes are using another method for design (The Ultimate Strength Method), the
method of Working Stress is still important for the following reasons:

1. The method still being used in Steel Structures, Prestress Concrete, and some other applications.
2. It is necessary to calculate the serviceability of the concrete structures (Cracks & Deflection).

Strength (Ultimate) Design Method

The following are the assumptions for Strength Design Method:

1. Strains in reinforcement and concrete are directly proportional to the distance from neutral axis.
This implies that the variation of strains across the section is linear, and unknown values can be
computed from the known values of strain through a linear relationship.
2. Concrete sections are considered to have reached their flexural capacities when they develop
0.003 strain in the extreme compression fiber.
3. Stress in reinforcement varies linearly with strain up to the specified yield strength. The stress
remains constant beyond this point as strains continue increasing. This implies that the strain
hardening of steel is ignored.
4. Tensile strength of concrete is neglected.
5. Compressive stress distribution of concrete can be represented by the corresponding stress-
strain relationship of concrete. This stress distribution may be simplified by a rectangular stress
distribution.

Reinforced Concrete Beam Behavior

Consider a simply supported and reinforced concrete beam with uniformly distributed load on top.
Under such loading and support conditions, flexure-induced stresses will cause compression at the top
and tension at the bottom of the beam. Concrete, which is strong in compression, but weak in tension,
resists the force in the compression zone, while steel reinforcing bars are placed in the bottom of the
beam to resist the tension force. As the applied load is gradually increased from zero to failure of the
beam (ultimate condition), the beam may be expected to behave in the following manner:

Stage I: before cracking

Stage I: when the applied load is low, the stress distribution is essentially linear over the depth
of the section. The tensile stresses in the concrete are low enough so that the entire cross-
section remains uncracked and the stress distribution. In the compression zone, the concrete
stresses are low enough (less than about 0.5 f) so that their distribution is approximately linear.

Stage II: cracking stage, before yield, working load

Stage II: On increasing the applied load, the tensile stresses at the bottom of the beam become
high enough to exceed the tensile strength at which the concrete cracks. After cracking, the
tensile force is resisted mainly by the steel reinforcement. Immediately below the neutral axis, a
small portion of the beam remains uncracked. These tensile stresses in the concrete offer,
however, only a small contribution to the flexural strength. The concrete stress distribution in
the compression zone becomes nonlinear.

Stage III: ultimate and failure stage

 Stage III: at nominal (so, -called ultimate) strength, the neutral axis has moved farther up- ward
as flexural cracks penetrate more and more toward the compression face. The steel
reinforcement has yielded and the concrete stress distribution in the compression zone
becomes more nonlinear. Below the neutral axis, the concrete is cracked except for a very small
zone.

At the ultimate stage, two types of failure can be noticed:

1. If the beam is reinforced with small amount of steel, ductile failure will occur. In this type of failure,
the steel yields, and concrete crushes after experiencing large deflections and lots of cracks.

2. On the other hand, if the beam is reinforced with a large amount of steel, brittle failure will occur.
The failure in this case is sudden and occurs due to the crushing of concrete in the compression zone
without yielding of steel and under relatively small deflections and cracks. This is not a preferred mode
of failure because it does not give enough warning before final collapse.

Types of Failure

Three types of failure of structural member can be expected depending on the percentage of steel used
in the section.

1. Tension-Controlled Section
Steel may reach its yield strength before the concrete reaches its maximum strength,
In this case, the failure is due to the yielding of steel reaching a high strain equal to or greater
than 0.005. The section contains a relatively small amount of steel and is called a tension-
controlled section.
2. Balanced Section
Steel may reach its yield strength at the same time as concrete reaches its ultimate strength.
3. Compression-Controlled Section
Concrete may fail before the yield of steel, due to the presence of a high percentage of steel in
the section. In this case, the concrete strength, and its maximum strain of 0.003 are reached,
but the steel stress is less than the yield strength, that is, fs is less than fy. The strain in the steel
is equal to or less than 0.002.

Strain Limits
1. Compression-controlled sections are those sections in which & at nominal strength is equal to or
less than the compression-controlled strain limit (the compression- controlled strain limit may
be taken as a net strain of Ey = 0.002 for fy=400 MPa) at the time when concrete in compression
reaches its assumed strain limit of 0.003, (= 0.003). This case occurs mainly in columns subjected
to axial forces and moments.
2. Tension-controlled sections are those sections in which the Et is equal to or greater than 0.005
just as the concrete in the compression reaches its assumed strain limit of 0.003
3. Sections in which the & lies between the compression-controlled strain limit of 0.002 (for fy =
400 MPa) and the tension-controlled strain limit of 0.005 constitute the transition region.
4. The balanced strain condition develops in the section when the tension steel, with fy the first
yield, reaches a strain corresponding to its yield strength, fy or Es = fy/Es, just Es as the
maximum strain in concrete at the extreme compression fibers reaches 0.003.
Note that in cases where strain is less than 0.005 namely, the section is in the transition zone, a value of
the reduction lower than 0.9 for flexural has to be used for final design moment, with a strain not less
than 0.004 as a limit.

For transition region ∅ may be determined by linear interpolation:

∅ = 0.75 + (𝜀𝑡 − 0.002)50 − 𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠

250
∅ = 0.65 + (𝜀𝑡 − 0.002) − 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
3
Shear Design Failure

 When aa simple beam is loaded, bending moments and shear forces develop along the beam.
 To carry the loads safely, the beam must be designed for both types of forces.
 Flexural design is considered first to establish the dimensions of the beam section and the main
reinforcement needed (as previously discussed).
 The beam is then designed for shear. If shear reinforcement is not provided, shear failure may
occur.
 Shear failure is characterized by small deflections and lack of ductility, giving little or no warning
before failure.
 On the other hand, flexural failure is characterized by a gradual increase in deflection and
cracking, thus giving warning before total failure.
 The design for shear must ensure that shear failure does not occur before flexural failure.

Critical Section for Shear Design

 In a beam loaded on the top flange and supported on the bottom (as shown in the figure), the
closest inclined cracks that can occur adjacent to the supports will extend outward from the
support at roughly 45 degrees.
 Loads applied to the beam within a distance d from the support in such a beam will be
transmitted directly to the support by the compression fan above the 45-degree cracks and will
not affect the stresses in the stirrups crossing the cracks shown.
 For non-prestressed members, sections located less than a distance d from the face of the
support may be designed for same shear Vu, as that computed at a distance d.
 This is permitted only when:
1. The support reaction, in the direction of the applied shear, introduces compression into the
end regions of a member.
2. The loads are applied at or near the top of the beam.
3. No concentrated loads occur within d from the face of the support.

Two Types of Torsion

1. Primary Torsion (Equilibrium Torsion or Statically Determinate Torsion)

-Exist when the external load has no alternative load path but must be supported by torsion. For
such cases, the torsion required to maintain static equilibrium can be uniquely determined.
2. Secondary Torsion (Compatibility Torsion or Statically Indeterminate Torsion)
 -Arises from the requirements of continuity, that is, compatibility of deformation between
adjacent parts of a structure. For this case, the torsional moments can be found based on static
equilibrium alone.

Types of Columns
1. Based on loading, columns may be classified as follows:
a. Axially loaded columns, where loads are assumed acting at the center of the column
section.
b. Eccentrically loaded columns, where loads are acting at a distance e from the center of
the column section. The distance e could be along the x- or y-axis, causing moments
either about the x- or y-axis.
c. Biaxially loaded columns, where the load is applied at any point on the column section,
causing moments about both the x- and y-axes simultaneously.
2. Based on length, columns may be classified as follows:
a. Short columns, where the column's failure is due to the crushing of concrete or the
yielding of the steel bars under the full load capacity of the column.
b. Long columns, where buckling effect and slenderness ratio must be taken into
consideration in the design, thus reducing the load capacity of the column relative to
that of a short column.
3. Based on the shape of the cross-section, column sections may be square, rectangular, round, L-
shaped, octagonal, or any desired shape with an adequate side width or dimensions.
4. Based on column ties, columns may be classified as follows:
a. Tied columns containing steel ties to confine the main longitudinal bars in the columns.
Ties are normally spaced uniformly along the height of the column.
b. Spiral columns containing spirals (spring-type reinforcement) to hold the main
longitudinal reinforcement and to help increase the column ductility before failure. In
general, ties and spirals prevent the slender, highly stressed longitudinal bars from
buckling and bursting the concrete cover.
5. Based on frame bracing, columns may be part of a frame that is braced against sidesway or
unbraced against sidesway. Bracing may be achieved by using shear walls or bracings in the
building frame. In braced frames, columns resist mainly gravity loads, and shear walls resist
lateral loads and wind loads. In unbraced frames, columns resist both gravity and lateral loads,
which reduce the load capacity of the columns.
6. Based on materials, columns may be reinforced, prestressed, composite (containing rolled steel
sections such as I-sections), or a combination of rolled steel sections and reinforcing bars.
Concrete columns reinforced with longitudinal reinforcing bars are the most common type used
in concrete buildings.

Code Limitations

The ACI Code presents the following limitations for the design of compression members:

1. For axially as well as eccentrically loaded columns, the ACI Code sets the strength- reduction
factors at ∅ = 0.65 for tied columns and ∅ = 0.75 for spirally reinforced columns.
2. The minimum longitudinal steel percentage is 1%, and the maximum percentage is 8% of the
gross area of the section (ACI Code, Section 10.9.1). Minimum reinforcement is necessary to
 provide resistance to bending, which may exist, and to reduce the effects of creep and shrinkage
of the concrete under sustained compressive stresses. Practically, it is very difficult to fit more
than 8% of steel reinforcement into a column and maintain sufficient space for concrete to flow
between bars.
𝐴𝑠𝑡
≤ 𝜌𝑔 = ≤ 0.08
𝐴𝑔
3. At least four bars are required for tied circular and rectangular members and six bars are
needed for circular members enclosed by spirals (ACI Code, Section 10.9.2). For other shapes,
one bar should be provided at each corner, and proper lateral reinforcement must be provided.
For tied triangular columns, at least three bars are required.
4. The ties shall be arranged that every corner and alternate longitudinal bar shall have lateral
support provided by the corner of s tie having an included angle of not more than 135° and no
bar shall be farther 150 mm clear on either side from such a laterally supported bar. The
minimum concrete cover in columns is 40 mm.
5. The minimum of volumetric spiral reinforcement ratio which defined as the ratio of the volume
of spiral steel to the volume of core concrete, Ps, according to the ACI Code, Eq. 10.5, and as
explained in Section 10.9.3, is limited to 𝜌𝑠 = 0.45 ( − 1)
6. The minimum diameter of spirals is 10 mm, and their clear spacing should not be more than 75
mm nor less than 25 mm, according to the ACI Code, Section 7.10.4. Anchorage of spiral
reinforcement shall be provided by 1 1/2 extra turns of spiral bar or wire at each end of a spiral
unit.
7. Ties for columns must have a minimum diameter of Ø 10 mm to enclose longitudinal bars of Ø
32 mm or smaller and a minimum diameter of Ø 13 mm for larger bar diameters (ACI Code,
Section 7.10.5).
8. Spacing of ties shall not exceed the smallest of:
 48 times the tie diameter,
 16 times the longitudinal bar diameter, or
 the least dimension of the column.

Prestress Loss

1. ELASTIC SHORTENING OF CONCRETE (ES)

Concrete shortens when a prestressing force is applied. As the tendons that are bonded to the
adjacent concrete simultaneously shorten, they lose part of the prestressing force that they
carry.
2. STEEL STRESS RELAXATION (R)
Stress-relieved tendons suffer loss in the prestressing force due to constant elongation with
time, as discussed in Chapter 2. The magnitude of the decrease in the prestress de- pends not
only on the duration of the sustained prestressing force, but also on the ratio fpi/fy of the initial
prestress to the yield strength of the reinforcement. Such a loss in stress is termed stress
relaxation.
3. CREEP LOSS (CR)
Experimental work over the past half century indicates that flow in materials occurs with time
when load or stress exists. This lateral flow or deformation due to the longitudinal stress is
termed creep.
4. SHRINKAGE LOSS (SH)
As with concrete creep, the magnitude of the shrinkage of concrete is affected by several
factors. They include mixture proportions, type of aggregate, type of cement, curing time, time
between the end of external curing and the application of prestressing, size of the member, and
the environmental conditions. Size and shape of the member also affect shrinkage.
5. LOSSES DUE TO FRICTION (F)
Loss of prestressing occurs in post-tensioning members due to friction between the ten- dons
and the surrounding concrete ducts. The magnitude of this loss is a function of the tendon form
or alignment, called the curvature effect, and the local deviations in the alignment, called the
wobble effect.
6. ANCHORAGE-SEATING LOSSES (A)
Anchorage-seating losses occur in post-tensioned members due to the seating of wedges in the
anchors when the jacking force is transferred to the anchorage. They can also occur in the
prestressing casting beds of pretensioned members due to the adjustment