CHAPTER ONE

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

Cookies are one of the best known quick snack products (Farheena et al.; 2015). Olaoye

et al. (2007) described cookies as nutritive snacks produced from unpalatable dough that is

transformed into appetizing product through the application of heat in an oven. They are popular

examples of bakery product of ready-to-eat snack that possess several attractive features

including wide consumption, more convenient with long shelf-life and have the ability to serve

as vehicles for important nutrient (Ajibola et al.; 2015). Cookies are chemically leavened product

(Hanan, 2013). Generally, the name cookies are used in the USA and biscuit is used in the

European countries (Sivasankar, 2002). Cookies and other bakery products have now become

loved fast food products for every age-group, because they are easy to carry about, tasty to eat,

cholesterol-free, containing digestive and dietary principles of vital importance and reasonably

cheap (Farheena et al.; 2015). They can be made from hard dough, hard sweet dough or soft

dough. Examples of biscuits made from the above mentioned types of flour include crackers, rich

tea and short cake respectively (Kulkarni, 2007; Olaoye et al.; 2007; Nwosu, 2013; Farheena et

al.; 2015). Cookies are characterized by a formula high in sugar and shortening and low in water.

They differ from other baked foods like bread and cakes because they have low moisture content,

making them comparatively free from microbial spoilage and having long shelf (Hanan, 2013).

Cookies are convenient snacks product dried to a very low moisture content taken among

young people and adult to provide energy. This snack is made from unleavened dough. It is

produced from a mixture of flour and water which may contain fat, sugar and other ingredients

mixed together into dough which is rested for a period and passed between rollers to make a

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sheet (Okaka, 2009). It provides an excellent means of improving the nutritional quality of foods

through incorporation of less expensive high quality protein, minerals, vitamins and has been

employed in food product enrichment (Okafor et al., 2002). The consumption of cookies is

steady and increasing in Nigeria. It is however, relatively expensive, being made from imported

wheat that is not cultivated in the tropics for climatic reasons (Mohamed, 2000).

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 CHAPTER TWO

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Cookies

Cookies are usually produced from wheat flour and they are the same product since the

British call them cookies while the Americans call them cookies. Anyika and Uwaegbute (2005)

identified an increasing tendency among children and adults to move away from traditional

eating pattern of three meals a day to eating snacks instead of meal. Recently, the use of

composite flour as evolved in the bakery world for cake and cookies. Cookies, in combination

with ice cream, make an excellent summer desert. They may be made in advance with no danger

of spoilage and can be made in a great many varieties. Varieties depend upon the balance

between four basic ingredients: flour, sugar, shortening, and liquids (milk and/or eggs).

All cookies are more or less a variation of one basic formula. Because of its numerical

balance of ingredients, the pound cake recipe could well serve as a basis for cookie recipes.

Leavening agents, added to most varieties, have an effect on the size, color, and eating qualities.

Additional ingredients are added for flavor and texture. There are two main types of cookies,

hard and soft. Soft (soft batter) cookies contain a maximum amount of moisture. They may

require a greater percentage of eggs to produce the necessary structure. Characteristics of good

soft cookies are moistness and softness. Hard cookies contain a minimum amount of moisture.

Desired characteristics of hard cookies are crispness and brittleness (Dhingra and Jood, 2001).

The main ingredients of cookies are wheat flour, fat (margarine) and sugar and water,

while other ingredients such as milk, salt, aerating agent, emulsifier, flavor and colour can be

included. They can also be enriched or fortified with other ingredients in order to meet specific

nutritional or therapeutic needs of consumers (Ajibola et al., 2015). Flour used in making

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cookies is basically from wheat or composite flour which forms the basic ingredients of bakery

products including bread, rolls, cakes, cookies and other bakery products (Giwa and Ikujenlola,

2010).

However, the flours used in production of many bakery products are bleached (or refined

flours) which some researchers call “slow poison” owing to their associated side effect on health

on long time consumption. However, recent epidemiological studies have shown that the

consumption of whole wheat grains and whole wheat flour sometimes called graham flour and

grain-based products is associated with the reduced risk of oxidative stress related to chronic

diseases and age related disorders, such as cardiovascular diseases, carcinogenesis, type II

diabetes and obesity (Lilei et al., 2013). Most cookies in the market are made from bleached

flour, however whole grain flours from whole Kernel grains conceal an array of health benefits

attributed to the presence of antioxidants such as vitamin C, vitamin E (tecopherols and

tocotrienols) and Carotenoids (Lilei et al., 2013).

The consumption of cereal snacks foods, such as cookies, cookies, wafers and short bread

has become very popular in Nigeria especially among children. Cookies are one of the

popular cereals snack foods; apart from bread; consumed in Nigeria. They are ready-to-eat,

convenient and inexpensive food products, containing digestive and dietary principle of

vital importance. They are nutritive snacks produced from unpalatable dough that is

transformed into appetizing product through the application of heat in the oven (Olaoye et

al., 2007). In Nigeria, the consumption of ready-to-eat baked products is continually

growing and there has been an increase in reliance on imported wheat. Moreover, Nigeria

grows staple crops other than wheat such as sweet potato, cassava or yam and cereals that

4
can be used for bakery foods. It would therefore be of economic advantage if wheat flour can

be replaced with flour from tubers,

legumes and cereals hence reducing the reliance on its importation and thus enhance the

industrial utilization of local crops.

Cookies are ready-to-eat, convenient and inexpensive food snacks produced from

unpalatable dough that is transformed into a light, porous, readily digestible, and

appetizing

produce through the application of heat (Olapade and Adeyemo, 2014). Cookies are

consumed

all over the world as a snack food by children and adult alike. Cookies are a form of

confectionary product dried to a low moisture content (Okaka, 2009), soften when compared

to cookies. Cookies had been suggested as a better form of composite flour than bread

because of its ready to eat nature, wide consumption by different categories of people and

relatively long shelf-life (Tsen et al., 2013). These characteristics make protein-rich cookies

attractive in countries where protein energy malnutrition is prevalent (Chinma and Gernah,

2007), and also in areas such as child feeding programmes, low income and disaster relief

operations (Young et al., 2015). Cookies with high sensory ratings have been produced from

blends of wheat/cowpea flours (Okaka and Isieh 2010), wheat/soybean (McWalters et al.,

2003), wheat and full fat soya (Ndiefe et al., 2014). Several studies have reported the use of

wheat-based composite flour in cookies production (Kamaljit et al., 2010); Onoja et al., 2010;

Ajankau et al., 2011). All these efforts were aimed at improving the nutritional content of the

cookies and also to enhance crop utilization.

2.2 Ingredients of Cookies

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 Selection of suitable ingredients is an important step in manufacturing the food products.

It is, therefore, necessary to have proper idea regarding ingredients, their function and uses.

Cookies ingredients can be classified as binding or tenderizing materials, depending on their

expected effect on the finished product. It includes flour, water, milk solid, egg white, cocoa

powder, sugar, shortenings, leaving agents, emulsifier, starch and salt etc. (Patel et al., 2003).

2.2.1 Flour

Being the basic ingredient, flour requires the greatest attention for the quality testing. BIS

(Bureau of Indian Standards) have made specification of different flour use in the preparation of

bakery products. Since, the formation of gluten is an essential component of bread and cookies

making processes and wheat is the contributor of the protein necessary for its formation it follow

that a significant factor, which determine final product quality, comes from the wheat via the

flour from the mill. The ability to form gluten is almost unique to wheat. The level and quality of

the gluten forming proteins depend heavily on the variety, agricultural practices and

environmental effects.

Flour is the principle structure builder or binding agent in most cookie formulas. It

provides the framework around which the other ingredients are grouped in varying proportions.

Flour is a toughening agent because when it comes in contact with the liquids in the formula, the

flour proteins (gluten) form the main structure of the cookies. Either bread flour, pastry flour or

cake flour can be used to make hard and soft cookies. Hard flour may cause some types of

cookies to lack spread while cake flour may cause some cookies to spread too much. It is best to

use the type of flour specified in the formula. If a recipe call for pastry flour and it is not

available, use 50 percent bread flour and 50 percent cake flour or use all purpose flour (Ishinwu,

2005).

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 The wheat grain is broadly made up of three components:  The inner endosperm,

comprising mainly starch and protein.  The outer bran, comprising mainly protein and fibre. 

The germ, comprising protein, fibre, minerals and vitamins. Whole meal flour consists of 100%

of the wheat grain converted to flour while in the production of white flour the miller will seek to

separate the endosperm from the bran and germ (Catterall, 2018). The protein content of wheat

flour varies according to the wheat that is used by the millers and any adjustment they may make

in the mill. In general, the higher the gluten content in the wheat the higher the protein content of

the flour produced from it. The higher the protein content of flour, the better is its ability to trap

carbon dioxide gas and the larger can be the cookies volume (Chamberlain, 2014). Bran does

contain protein but this will not have the same functionally as the proteins which are present in

the endosperm. The particle size of the bran fragment is important, with smaller size causing a

greater reduction in bread volume than larger particles for the same quantity of bran. The germ

and the bran are high in less-functional proteins and in addition, it contributes natural reducing

agents, which weaken dough system (Cauvain, 2017).

The grade colour figure (GCF) of flour is a measure of the amount of bran that is present

in wheat flour. The higher the GCF the lower will be cookies volume (Cauvainet al., 2015), in

part because of the dilution effect on the functional protein content. With higher value for GCF

the crumb colour will be darker. Lipoxygenase in wheat flour is affected by variety, maturity and

environmental factor. Faubionet al., (2011) found lipoxygenase catalyzes peroxidation of

polyunsaturated fatty acid with a preference for linoleic acid. The oxidized lipids then react with

flour pigments. Lipoxygenase exists in several forms, four of which are found in soybean, a

particularly rich source of enzyme. Soybean lipoxygenase can acts on polyunsaturated fatty acid

in triglycerides, whereas wheat lipoxygenase acts only on free fatty acid (Hosney, 2016).

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Enzymatically active soy flour frequently is used as a dough supplement for its oxidative effects

in commercial bread making. Other enzymes that are present in small amounts in flour include

phytase, polyphenol oxidase, peroxidase and catalase.

2.2.2 Water

Water hydrates the gluten protein during mixing, gelatinizes starch during baking and

serves a solvent for solutes and dispersion medium for the other ingredients. The greater the

quality of gluten, the greater is the absorption. The salts in water affect the properties of dough.

Hard water containing magnesium and calcium ions may have ‘tightening effect’ and soft water

a ‘loosening effect’ on dough. The nature of water used in dough is more likely to be of

consequence in commercial cookies production than in non-commercial cookies making. Water,

besides being component of every ingredient, is also directly added into the preparation of most

of the products. In baking, water plays an important role in production by providing the

necessary medium for the physical, chemical, biological and biochemical reaction that underlie

the conversion of raw material in finished baked foods. In addition, it has decisive influence on

the overall quality and palatability of the finished baked products. It leavens the products by

converting itself into the vapour during baking. It also assists in the control of dough temperature

(Patel et al., 2003).

Water is added at the mixing stage to nearly all cookies recipes. It functions as a catalyst

because it is almost totally removed during the subsequent baking process. Water hydrates

ingredients like flour and, if conditions are right during subsequent mixing, hydrated wheat

protein changes into a viscoelastic material known as gluten. This is very important in

determining the nature of the dough, how the dough behaves in the forming processes and

8
ultimately the structure in the bakes cookies. Water also allows the solution of some ingredients

such as sugar and, in the case of chemicls, permits reactions to take place in the dough (Manley,

2018).

2.2.3 Fats

The main function of fat is incorporation of air during creaming. When fat entraps the air

in the form of minute cells and bubbles the volume increases. The ability of fat to absorb air

during mixing is called its creaming quality. Good creaming incorporates about 270% of air

when creamed with granulated sugar (Patel et al., 2003). Fat has numerous functions in cookies.

Fat act as a stabilizer, when particles of fat are spread in the dough makes it more stable. Fat also

contributes to the organoleptic qualities of cookies such as flavor and aroma. The added fat will

surround the gluten network formed in the dough. This will aid in the lubrication of gluten

during sheeting. As a result, the soft and more extensible dough will be formed.

Sathe et al., (2011) and Gupta (2018) observed significant decrease in hardness of control

and soy cookies. This was apparently due to mellowing action of fat on protein, which increased

the spread and reduced hardness, compactness of cookies. Singh et al., (2017) standardized fat

(20-35%) and sugar (28-43%) in soy cookies and observed that with increasing level of fat, the

thickness of cookies decreased whereas diameter, weight spread ratio and percent spread factor

of Product increased gradually irrespective of soy flour incorporation in formulation.

2.2.4 Sugar

Sugar is essential component of cookies. Sugar functions not only as a nutritive agent but

also as a texture, colouring agent and means of controlling spread. Singh et al. (2000)

standardized the level of sugar in soy fortified cookies and found that with the increasing level of

sugar up to 37% in formulation, attributes such as weight, diameter ratio and percent spread

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factor of cookies increase whereas thickness and hardness of product decreased irrespective of

soy flour incorporation. A significant increase in spread ratio of control and soy cookies was

observed. with the each increment of 3% sugar in formulation. Greater spread at higher level of

sugar was attributed to melting of sugar crystal causing spread action (US wheat Associates,

2018). Higher level of sugar in a cookie recipe leads to shortness and tenderness, thereby

reducing the hardness mainly due to its action in dispersing the flour gluten (US Wheat

Associates, 2018).

Sugar in some form is used in all cookie recipes. It is an important tenderizing ingredient.

Undissolved sugar crystals melt during baking which contributes to the flow or spread of the

cookies (Ishinwu, 2005). The finer the granulation, the less the cookie will spread. On the hand,

the larger the granulation, the more the cookie will spread. Powdered sugar is used when a fine-

grained compact interior with little spread is desired.

Sugar affects the rate of hydration of gluten proteins by competing with wheat protein for

the water present. Bohn (2019) found the decreased rate of hydration with elevated level of sugar

need not result in decreased extent of hydration if the mixing time is increased to permit

maximum dough development. The contribution of sucrose to sweetness of bread is due to

fructose produced through inversion rather than to the sucrose itself. Henry (2016) stated that all

of sucrose in cookies formula can be replaced by high fructose corn syrup (HFCS). it wasfound

that the addition of an optimum concentration of a carbohydrate hydrolyzing enzyme preparation

such as barely, wheat is important in absence of added sugar. Although HFCS is colourless, the

effect can be somewhat market in highly coloured cakes, such as devils food (Saussele,2016) and

can be avoided use of leavening system that are sufficiently acidic to control carbonyl amine

reactions (Volpe and Meres, 2016).

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 With HFCS at 50 and 100% replacement level, Koepselet al. (2010) found high ratio

white layer cakes. Sugar is used principally as sweetening agent in the preparation of cookies. In

addition to the pure sugar, crude sugar (i.e. brown coloured sugar), corn syrup and honey are also

used. Sugar being hygroscopic in nature, absorbs and retains the moisture. The products remains

moistened for a longer time. It caramelizes when heated, which provides dark brown colour to

the product (Patel et al., 2003).

2.2.5 Whole milk powder

Whole milk powder is used in the cookies manufacturing because of its extended shelf

life and consistent quality as compared to fresh and other forms of milk. It is most important

moistening agent. The crust colour and water retention power of cookies are improved by the

milk sugar, i.e. lactose. Milk powder contain casein as a principal protein, it also contain all the

essential amino acids hence it improve the nutritional quality of the cookies (Patel et al., 2003).

2.2.6 Salt

The basic function of salt in cookies is to contribute flavor. Salt also have inhibiting

effect on the formation of gluten during mixing. Salt imparts taste and makes the products

appetizing and palatable. It lowers the caramelization temperature of cake batter and cookies

dough and, thereby, improves the crust colour and bloom (Patel et al., 2003). There is strong

relationship between the levels of salt and yeast in a given recipe. Salt has a significant effect on

the osmotic pressure of the yeast cell and can be used to control the rate of fermentation. The

more salt we use in a given recipe the more yeast will be needed to achieve a given proof time

(Williams and Pullen, 2018).

2.2.7 Eggs

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 Eggs are both tenderizers and tougheners in cookie baking. Egg yolks contain a very

large percentage of fat which helps to tenderize the cookie. On the other hand, the egg white acts

as structure builders because of the proteins which coagulate during baking. Eggs also contribute

moisture. Some cookie recipes such as macaroon coconut cookies call for egg whites. Whole

eggs contribute the combined characteristics of shortness, aeration, and tenderness (Ishinwu,

2005).

2.2.8 Emulsifiers

Emulsifiers are natural or synthetic substances that promote the formation and improve

the stability of emulsion, e.g., dispersion of fat droplets in aqueous solution of water droplets in a

continuous lipid phase. In some cases, they can be used to improve wetting properties-change the

surface active agents are widely employed in the baking industry for these purposes (Matz,

2016). They are also referred to as surface active agents, crumb softeners to as surface active

agents and dough conditioners. Lecithin, mono and diglycerides, polyhydric alcohol esters,

diacetyl tartaric acid esters of fatty acids, acyl – lactylates, polysorbate 60 etc., are the approved

emulsifiers (Sharma et al., 2003).

Lecithin, a mixture of phospholipids, is found widely distributed in nature but is

commercially performed as a contaminant in crude soybean oil at the present time .It exists

performed as a contaminant in crude soya bean oil, and the commercial method of preparation

involves precipitation from the oil and subsequent purification. It may also be further processed

by bleaching, etc. Lecithin is the least expensive of the emulsifier. Mixed with adsorbent to

improve dispensing and mixing at point of use, or standardized by blending with small amount of

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oil. Commercial grades of lecithin are classed according to total phosphatides, colour and

fluidity. The concentration of phosphatides in commercial lecithin ranges between 54% and

72%. The product specifications usually report the concentration of phosphatides as percentage

acetone insoluble. Color is stated as unbleached, single bleached and double bleached. The

bleaching process tends to reduce the effectiveness of lecithin as a surface active material. The

consistency will be plastic or fluid Lecithin can be dispersed in water to form hydrates, and

similar responses occur with propylene glycol. Glycerineetc (Matz, 2016).

2.3 Cookies produced from composite flour

Among ready-to-eat snacks, cookies/cookies possess several attractive features, including

a wider consumption base, relatively long shelf life, greater convenience and good eating quality

(Hooda and Jood, 2005). The growing interest in these types of bakery products is due to their

better nutritional properties and the possibility of their use in feeding programmes and

catastrophic situations such as starvation or earthquakes. In many countries, cookies are prepared

with fortified or composite flour to increase their nutritive value (Gonzalez-Galan et al., 2011) –

for example, the high-protein cookies made using composite flours that include blends of soy

bean (Shrestha and Noomhorm, 2002) with field pea and defatted peanut replacing the wheat

flour by up to 30 g/100 g and with chickpea and lupin by up to 20 g/100 g (Faheid and Hegazi,

2011). Legumes are higher in nutrients, especially in protein (18–24%), than cereal grain (Noor

Aziah et al., 2012). Cowpea and peanut flour have been reported to successfully replace up to

20% wheat flour in cookies.

Noor Aziah et al. (2012) reported the incorporation of chickpea flour and mung bean

flour into wheat flour does not change the functional properties but increases the protein,

13
resistant starch content and acceptability of cookies. However, aftertaste was found to be

pronounced in the mung bean and chickpea cookies (Noor Aziah et al., 2012).

Saeed et al. (2012) reported that a proportion of 90:10 of plain wheat flour and sweet

potato flour produced good results without any adverse effect on the physical and sensory

characteristics of cookies. It has been established that cookies’ spread is strongly correlated to

the water absorption capacities of the flour. Since the water absorption capacity of sweet potato

flour (2.375 ml/g) is higher than that of wheat flour (1 ml/g), rapid partitioning of free water to

hydrophilic sites of sweet potato flour is presumed to be higher than that of wheat flour (Saeed et

al., 2012). It was also noted that sweet potato flour improved the flavour and texture of cookies

and can significantly improve the dietary fibre and mineral contents of the product (Saeed et al.,

2012).

2.4 Quality test for cookies flour and dough

2.4.1 Flour test

Routine laboratory analyses on flour include moisture, ash and nitrogen determination.

AACC (2013) method is used for crude fat. The degree of flour granules affects other properties

of flour and thus particle size distributions are frequently of interest. Most particle size

distribution data however are obtained by sedimentation method based on particle that if particle

sizes are alike in density, their rate of settling from a suspension varies with their diameter, the

procedure for assessing rate of sedimentation and type sedimentation. AACC (2013) method is a

centrifugal method. Several flour tests are based on the relation of hydration capacity to quality

and quantity of gluten protein. In a sedimentation test of hydration capacity (AACC, 2013), a

relatively small amount of flour is suspended in a dilute lactic acid-isopropanol solution: the

suspension is allowed to stand in a graduated cylinder. The volume of sedimentation read after

14
five minutes is indicative of hydrogen capacity. Amylolytic activity is studies also with

amyloggraph of a similar instrument.

2.4.2 Rheological tests

The Alveograph or Chopin extensiometer is an apparatus that measures dough

extensibility and resistance to expansion. A thin sheet of dough is clamped between two metal

plates, the upper plate having a circular hold through which the dough can expend while the

lower plate is provided with an air valve leading to a small air chamber. Pressure in the chamber

is increased at constant rate and pressure in the chamber is increased at constant rate and pressure

is recorded. Temperature is maintained at 77oF. The manometer record normally shows rapid

initial rise in the pressure as the dough sheet resists expansion, than a decline is noticed as the

thinning sheet lose strength and stretches, forming a bigger balloon. Ultimately bubble bursts and

graph shows a sudden complete loss of excess pressure. Volume of bubble indicates baking

strength of flour (Matz, 2016). Extensiograph measure the resistance to stretching of a cylinder

of flour-water dough. Dough samples may be measured at various intervals after mixing to show

changes in extensibility with tie. In this way one can know a response of dough in the bakery and

quality of final product. Force required to stretch the dough is automatically plotted against the

distance if stretches, so that a curve is drawn (Kauret al., 2004).

2.4.3 Dough test

The farinograph (AACC, 2013) is widely used instrument for dough test based on

principle that the extent of water absorption by flour during mixing, the consistency of dough,

the time required for the development of maximum dough stiffness and the resistance of mixed

to breakdown all are related to flour quality.

2.4.4 Baking test

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 Baking test is the final test to judge flour for quality for a particular end product. Flour

test baking procedures are chosen in relation to the ultimate purpose for which flour is intended

i.e. bread making, cake making, cookies making. The test is the final criteria by which quality of

bread, cake and cookies flour are judged (Kauret al., 2004). Baking involves three major changes

to the dough piece in its transformation into a cookies. These changes are: an increase in

thickness (the development of an open internal structure); development of a reddish brown

surface coloration (due, principally, to the Milliard reaction); and a significant reduction in

moisture. All of these changes are accomplished by the supply of heat to dough piece. If the heat

is not supplied at the optimum rate one or all of desired change will be different from that which

is the target (Manley, 2018).

2.5 Compositional Effect on Quality Characteristics of Cookies

added defatted soy flour at 5-15% level in wheat flour and studied the rheological

characteristics of dough. The value of farinograph, amylograph, extensiograph showed that

defatted soy flour could be added in wheat flour up to 15% without affecting its cookies making

properties. Prabhavatiet al. (2013) studies the effect of baking on protein quality of high protein

cookies made from wheat and groundnut flour supplemented with lysine rich flour such as

soybean, wheat germ and pea. They found baking caused 13-35.3% loss in protein efficiency

ratio (PER) in various type of cookies. They developed high protein cookies using wheat,

groundnut and soybean flour in ratio of 55:20:25. The percentage of moisture, crude fibre, ash,

protein (N  6.25) and reducing sugar were found to be 7.5, 0.52, 3.25, 15.8 & 4.9 respectively.

Calcium and phosphorous content of cookies were 439 and 228g/100g, respectively.

Calcium and phosphorous content ion baked and unbaked cookies was 4.8 and 4.8g/100g

protein, respectively. Whereas the available lysine in cookies was 3.44g/100g. Scientist

16
evaluated the high protein cookies prepared by adding 33% defatted soy flour and 27% peanut

butter. The proximate composition of protein was 1.5%, fat 22.4%, moisture 4.7%, ash 2.4%,

fibres 1.5% and carbohydrates 54.21%. The calculated energy content of cookies was 48

kcal/100g. Addition of soy and peanut butter substantially improved the micronutrient except

thiamines were 5.25 times higher than those in wheat flour. The Ca, P and Fe, content of cookies

were 49.1, 1.82 and 2.76mg/100g, respectively (Kauret al., 2004).

Satheet al. (2011) evaluated the physico-chemical properties of wheat flour and crackers

made from it with different percentage of fat (40, 60, 70 and 80%). 60% percent incorporation of

fat was found to yield good quality crackers. The chemical composition of wheat flour and

crackers having 60% fat was as follows, moisture 7.6% and 3.25%, protein 10.0% and 17.48%,

fat 10.0% and 32.4%, ash 0.44% and 1.10%, starch 70.04% and 48.7%, and reducing sugar

0.12% and 0.81%. The available lysine content of wheat flour and flour by soy flour (10-20%).

The protein content increased from 8.47% to 10.55% as against 6.50% in control (without soy

flour). Nochera and chadwell (2012) prepared cookies containing wheat, breadfruit flour, soy

protein, whey and found that cookies containing 10% breadfruit flour, soy protein were judged

more acceptable in flavor, color and texture.

Patel and Rao (2016) in the study on cookies baking properties of composite flours

containing varying levels of 0, 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25% untreated, heat-treated and germinated

black gram flour (BGF) separately indicated that the diameter and thickness of cookies gradually

reduced with increasing quantity of BGFs. The hardness values significantly increased on

incorporation of 25% of all the three differently processed BGFs. The organoleptic studies

inferred that 10% of untreated, 15% of heat-treated and 10% of germinated BGFs were optimum

acceptable levels for fortification. Use of 35% sugar, 22.5% fat and 0.5% sodium stearoyal-2

17
lactylate improved significantly the cookies baking quality. In general, cookies made from

composite flour

containing 15% heat treated BGF, and optimized cookies formulation were better than

those made from 10% of untreated or germinated BGFs. Singh et al. (2016) studies the cookies

prepared from the Cookies prepared from the blends containing varying proportions (0, 10, 20,

30, 40 and 50%) of defatted soy flour (DSF), using the traditional creamery method for diameter,

thickness of soy-fortified cookies increased, where as diameter, spread factor of cookies

decreased with the increasing level of DSFs. The sensory results showed that a maximum of 20%

DSF can be incorporated to prepare acceptable quality cookies.

Singh et al. (2017) evaluated soy-fortified the cookies compared for the effects of various

levels of fat (20, 25, 30 and 35%) and sugar (28, 31, 34, 40 and 43%), using the traditional

creaming method. With increasing levels of fat and sugar in the formulation, attributes such as

weight, diameter spread ratio and percent spread factor of cookies increased, whereas thickness

and hardness of the product decreased irrespective of soy flour incorporation. The results of

sensory evaluation revealed that the scores for texture and overall acceptability in control as well

as in soy cookies improved up to 30% fat level and thereafter decreased. However, the effect of

increasing levels of sugar on the texture and overall acceptability scores increased up to 37% in

control cookies and thereafter decreased, whereas in soy cookies improving effects were

observed up to maximum level of sugar.

Awasthi and Yadav (2018) studied three types of cookies viz., cookies containing 15%

de-fatted soy flour (DSF); 15% DSF with water channa whey (25:75) and 15% DSF with water

skim milk (50:50). Control cookies made from wheat flour, water and other ingredients were

used for comparison. These cookies were evaluated for their storage characteristics. The cookies

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were packed in two different types of packaging material viz., high density polypropylene film

(160 gauges) and laminate of cellophane (150 gauge) and stored under ambient conditions. The

average minimum and maximum relative humidites were 62  15.2 and 84.1  9.9%,

respectively. The cookies sample packed in laminated packaging material stored well for 30

days, whereas those packed in polypropylene films could be kept for 45 days. Onweluzo and

lwezu (2018) evaluated cookies prepared from different blends of wheat-soybean and cassava-

soybean flours. The composition, physical characteristics and sensory qualities of the cookies

were compared with wheat flour cookies prepared simultaneously. Cassava-soybean flour

cookies (1:1) had higher protein and calorific values than wheat flour cookies. Wheat-soybean

flour (1:1) cookies had twice the protein value of the wheat flour cookies and higher calorific

value. The control wheat flour cookies showed a higher spread ratio of 1.8 and lower break

strength of 1.8 kg. The cassava-fermented soybean (1:1) cookies showed comparable crispness

as break strength (1.7kg) with the control, but had half the spread ratio of the control. The wheat-

soybean cookies (1:1) had low spread ratio (1:0) and high average break strength of 2.6 kg.

Cookies containing more than 50% fermented soybean flour showed low texture and flavor

scores.

Singh et al. (2018) studied soy cookies first standardized with baking powder (0.5, 0.8,

1.1 and 1.4%) and skim-milk powder (0.8, 1.6, 2.3 and 3.1%) levels, using the traditional

creamery method. On the basis of good spread ratio and maximum overall acceptability score,

baking powder at 0.8% level and skim milk powder (SMP) at 1.6% level were incorporated in

the formulation of soy cookies. Then optimum levels of sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate (SSL) (0.3

or 0.5%) and glycerol monostearate (GMS) (0.5, 0.75 or 1.0%) were incorporated in the

formulation with three different levels of fat (20, 25 and 30%). They reported that the spread

19
ratio and overall acceptability increased, where as hardness of the product decreased with

increasing levels of SSL or GMS, irrespective of fat levels. Further, on basis of maximum spread

ratio and acceptability scores, SSL and GMS in soy cookies were standardized at 0.5% and 1.0%

levels, respectively. It was observed that both SSL and GMS could be used as shortening

replacer in soy cookies, since cookies containing 25% fat with standardized levels of GMS and

SSL had almost the same quality characteristics as those of cookies containing 30% fat without

emulsifiers.

Chauhanet al. (2018) developed and standardized the soy-fortified cookies. Soy cookies

were first standardized with baking powder (0.5, 0.8, 1.1 and 1.4) and dried skim milk (0.8, 1.6,

2.3 and 3.1) using traditional creamery method. On the basis of good spread ratio and maximum

overall acceptability score, baking powder at 0.8% and dried skim milk at (1.0%) level were

incorporated in the formulation with three levels of fat-20%, 25% and 30%. The speared ratio

and overall acceptability increased whereas hardness of product decreased with increasing level

of SSL or GMS irrespective of fat level. few workers evaluated the cookies whereas wheat flour

was partially substituted by fat free maize germ flour or soy fibre and found dietary fibre of

cookies varied from 8.2-24.9% and protein from 113-127%. Cookies formulated with 20% maize

germ flour gave the highest PER and acceptance to the consumer.

Awasthi and Yadav (2000) prepared three types of cookies (1) 15% D.S.F. (2) 15%

D.S.F. and 75: channa whey (3) 15% DSF and 50% skim milk and found that cookies containing

last two proportion had higher amount of protein than those DSF and control. Moisture, ash,

crude fibre content of soy fortified cookies with channa whey and skim milk were also higher

than those of control as well as cookies containing only D.S.F. (defatted soy-flour). Singh et al.

(2000) evaluated the wheat flour and soy-fortified cookies prepared with standardized levels of

20
ingredients and emulsifiers (SSL and/or GMS) for chemical composition, in vitro digestibility

and PER. Addition of 20% defatted soy flour in the recipe increased the protein, ash, crude fibre,

calcium, phosphorus, iron, sugar (reducing and non-reducing) and available calcium,

phosphorus, iron, sugar (reducing and non-reducing) and available lysine contents of cookies. No

trypsin inhibitor activity was found in soy cookies but had marginally higher non-enzymatic

browning than the control samples. The in vitro digestibility values of control and soy cookies

were found to be 68.46% and 83.82% respectively. The PER of soy cookies (1.41) had improved

to a greater extent, which could be attributed to the higher levels of protein and available lysine

content in defatted soy flour.

Gandhi et al. (2001) evaluated replacement of wheat flour up to 40% level with defatted

soy flour in the standard sweet cookies recipe, which increased the protein content from 6.02 to

14.8%, bending hardness from 3.60 to 9.80 N and cutting hardness from 6.02 to 23.04 N of the

cookies. Sensory evaluation showed that all of the cookies from various blends were acceptable

with no significant difference among them. Selvarajet al. (2002) studied on cookies containing

finger millet flour indicated that a moisture content of 5% equilibrating to 32% Rh was critical

with respect to storage stability of the product. Shelf life periods of cookies were 75 and 50 days

at 90% Rh, 38oC, when packed in double pack of polypropylene/pearlised BOPP and metalized

polyester/poly laminate pack, respectively and over 120 days at 60% Rh, 27oC in both types of

packs. Their sorption characteristics and shelf life were comparable to that of conventional

glucose cookies.

Prasad et al. (2004) evaluated the nutritional quality of cookies enriched with spray dried

egg powder, before and after storage for 6 month under ambient temperature (20-30oC). The

food intake, weight gain of rats and PER of the cookies enriched with spray dried egg powder

21
were evaluated by rat feeding trails and compared with those from popular brand cookies.

Protein enrichment resulted in a 3-fold increase in the PER value compared to control. Egg

although being an excellent source of protein, the PER value was not found to be at par with

casein because of the fortification being done at low levels, to maintain acceptable sensory

attributes. It is suggested that these cookies can form a good substitute for eggs for armed

personnel stationed in remote areas. Further, the product may find use as protein rich cookies for

infants and children.

CHAPTER THREE

3.1 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Cookies manufacture is no longer considered a craft but a full fledged technology,

developed after a full understanding of the various processes involved with the help of basic

principle of science and engineering. All over the world, manufacturing equipment has bee

replaced by new and advanced automatic machines with high outputs. In some of the foreign

countries cookies manufacturing has been computerised. There is a huge demand of these

22
cookies. Irrespective of rural or urban area, it is the choice of consumer and hence the cookies is

the largest consumed processed product in Nigeria.

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