CHAPTER 4

MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM

13 hours 12 Marks
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Introduction:

A moving charge or current produces a magnetic field in the surrounding space. It was discovered by H.C.
Oersted.

Oersted observed that a magnetic compass needle is deflected when it is kept near a wire carrying an
electric current.

Consider a wire (conductor) which is perpendicular to plane of paper. When a current emerges out of the
plane of paper, then orientation of magnetic needle is as shown.

(The needle is aligned tangential to the imaginary circle as shown)

When a current moves into the plane of paper, (i.e.current direction reverses) then orientation of needle
also reverses as shown

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Note:

1. When iron filings are sprinkled around the current carrying wire, they
arrange themselves in concentric circles with the wire as the axis.
2. The deflection of needle increases on increasing the current or bringing the
needle close to the wire.
3. The laws obeyed by electricity ad magnetism were unified by James
Maxwell and they together called Electro-magnetism. (In 1864)
4. In this Chapter, we adopt the following convention (i) A current or field
(electric or magnetic) emerging out of the plane of paper is depicted by a
dot []. (ii) A current or field going into the plane of paper is depicted by
a cross [].

Rules to determine the direction of magnetic field:

1. Right hand thumb rule to determine the direction of field due to

long wire:

It states that “grasp the straight wire in right hand such that thumb in the
direction of the current, then the fingers curl around the wire gives the
direction of magnetic field.

2. Right hand thumb rule for circular wire:

It states that “curl the palm of right hand around the circular wire with the
fingers pointing in the direction of the current. Then thumb gives the direction of
magnetic field.

3. Maxwell’s righthanded screw rule:

It states that “if righthanded screw is rotated such that the tip advances, the
direction of the tip gives the direction of electric current, and the direction in which the
head of the screw is rotated gives the direction of magnetic field.”

Note-2: A static charge produces only the electric field E . But a moving charge or current produces both electric
( ) ( )
field E and magnetic field B . Magnetic field is a vector. It varies with distance (r).  It is denoted by B ( r )

Magnetic force on moving charge:

Consider a charge ‘q’ moving in an external magnetic field B ( )

Magnetic force on charge is given by

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 F = q  v  B 

F = q  vB sin  nˆ 

 F = qvB sin  nˆ  A  B = AB sin  nˆ 

 

Where, q=charge on a particle, v=velocity of charged particle, B=magnetic field,

=angle between v and B, n̂ = unit vector which gives the direction of force.

Features of magnetic force:

1. We have F=qvBsin (considering magnitude only), Magnetic force depends on q, v, B and .

2.

If =00 or =1800 Then sin=sin00=sin1800=0

 F=0 i.e. Magnetic force is zero
If the charge moves parallel or antiparallel to magnetic field, then force is zero.
3. If =900 then F=qvB
i.e., If the charge moves perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field, then force is maximum.
4. The magnetic force is zero, if charge is at rest. (F=0, If v=0)
5. Electrically neutral particle moving in a magnetic field experiences no force.
6. The magnetic force is perpendicular to both v and B and its direction is given by Screw rule or right hand
rule for vector product.

Note: Force on negative charge is opposite to that on a positive charge.

Magnetic field [B]: We have F=qvBsin [considering magnitude only]

F
 B=
qv sin 

If =900, sin900=1

F
Then, B =
qv

Magnetic field is defined as the force acting on unit charge moving perpendicular to field with unit
velocity. S.I. unit of magnetic field is tesla (T).

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 F
Define one tesla: W.K.T. B=
qv sin 

If, F=1N, q=1C, v=1ms-1 and =900

1N
Then, B =
1C  1ms −1

B=1 tesla

The magnetic field is said to be one tesla if one newton force acting on one coulomb charge moving
perpendicular to field with a velocity 1ms-1.

Note-1: Magnetic field is also called as magnetic induction or magnetic flux density.

Note-2: A smaller unit of magnetic field is gauss (G), 1G=10-4T.

Lorentz force: It is the sum of electric force and magnetic force acting on a moving charge.

Consider a point charge ‘q’ moving with velocity ‘ v ’ in the presence of external electric field 𝐸⃗ and
⃗.
magnetic field 𝐵

The force acting on ‘q’ due to E is, 𝐹𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 = 𝑞𝐸⃗

⃗ is, 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 = 𝑞[𝑣 × 𝐵

The force acting on ‘q’ due to 𝐵 ⃗]

 Total force acting on ‘q’ is, 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 + 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐

𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸⃗ + 𝑞[𝑣 × 𝐵
⃗]

𝐹 = 𝑞[𝐸⃗ + (𝑣 × 𝐵
⃗ )]

This force is given by H.A. Lorentz so it is called Lorentz force.

Magnetic force on a current carrying conductor:

Consider a straight rod carrying current kept in an external magnetic field ‘B’.

Let, L= Length of rod, I = Current flows

A= Cross sectional area of rod, volume = AL

Vd=drift velocity

n = Number of free electrons per unit volume.

 Total free electrons = n  Volume

Total free electrons = n  AL

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 Total charge = n ALe

q =neAL,

e=charge on electron

Magnetic force on a rod is

⃗ )𝐹 = 𝑞(𝑣 × 𝐵
𝐹 = 𝑞(𝑣𝑑 × 𝐵 ⃗)

⃗)
𝐹 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝐿(𝑣𝑑 × 𝐵

⃗ ×𝐵
𝐹 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣𝑑 (𝐿 ⃗)

⃗ ×𝐵
𝐹 = 𝐼(𝐿 ⃗) ( I = neAvd )

Note:

⃗ ×𝐵
1. Force acting on current carrying conductor in vector form 𝐹 = 𝐼(𝐿 ⃗)
𝐹 = 𝐼𝐿𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑛̂
Magnitude of force is F=𝐹 = 𝐼𝐿𝐵sin where,I=neAvd

2. Force acting on current carrying conductor is maximum, when =90ᴼ.

i.e., F=ILB.
3. Force acting on current carrying conductor is minimum, when =0ᴼ or =180ᴼ i.e., F=0.

Motion of a charged particle in an external magnetic field when velocity of charged particle is
perpendicular to magnetic field: (Derive an expression for radius of a circle described by the charged
particle):

When a charged particle enters perpendicular to magnetic field. It describe a circular path. Because a
magnetic force on a charge acts as centripetal force.

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The magnetic force is

F=qvB sin but  = 900, sin900=1

 F=qvB

For circular motion,

Magnetic force =Centripetal force

mv 2  mv 2 
qvB =  But, Centripetal force = 
r  r 

mv
qB =
r

mv
r=
qB

Where, r = radius of the circular path, m = mass of a charged particle

q = charge on a particle, v= velocity of a charged particle, B= magnetic field

Note:

mv
1. We have, r =
qB
qBr
 v= , Where, v=velocity of a charged particle.
m
2. We have v= r , where, =angular frequency
qBr
v m
 = =
r r
qB
= . This is the expression for angular frequency.
m
Angular frequency () is independent of velocity or energy of a charged particle.

2  2 
3. T =  = 
  T 
2m
T = . This is the expression for time period of revolution.
qB

1
4. We know that, = , where  = frequency .
T

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 qB
 = This is the expression for frequency of revolution.
2m

5. w.k.t. =2,Where, =frequency, =angular frequency

6. If the charged particle enters the field with certain angle [00, 1800, 900], then the charged particle
describes helical motion.

Let v H =Component of velocity parallel to B,

v T =Component of velocity perpendicular to B
The distance moved along the magnetic field in one rotation is called pitch (P),
𝑃
but 𝑉║ = 𝑇 T=time period

2m 2𝜋𝑚𝑣║
 P=V║T, but T= ,  𝑃= 𝑞𝐵
qB

7. The radius of circular component of helical motion is called the radius of helix.

Note:

1. An infinitesimal (very small) element of conductor carrying a current is called current element.
⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
Current element = 𝐼𝑑𝐿
I=current, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿 =length of element
Current element is a vector. S.I. unit is ampere. metre (Am)

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Biot-Savart law (Expression for magnetic field due to a current element):

In the figure,
XY is current carrying conductor
I is current in the wire
dl is length of current element
dB is magnetic field due to current element
P is the point at which dB is calculated
r is the distance between dl and P
θ is angle angle between the directions of dl and r.
According to Biot-Savart law, the magnitude of magnetic field at a
point produced by a current element is
1. directly proportional to current (i.e. dBI).
2. directly proportional to length of element(i.e. dBI).
(dBdL)
3. directly proportional to sin (dBsin).
 1
4. inversely proportional to square of the distance  dB  .
 r2 
IdL sin 
 dB 
r2
 IdLsin 
dB = 0 
4 r2
Where, 0= permeability of free space (vacuum)

Note:

1. Biot-Savart law in vector form, is

𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐵 = × × 𝑟̂
4𝜋 𝑟2
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑟𝑟̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐵 = × ×
4𝜋 𝑟2 𝑟
𝜇0 𝐼(𝑑𝐿𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)𝑟̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑑𝐵 ×
4𝜋 𝑟3

⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑟)
𝜇0 𝐼(𝑑𝐿
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑑𝐵 ×
4𝜋 𝑟3

𝑑𝐿 × 𝑟 = 𝑑𝐿𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑟̂ , r̂ = unit vector.

Where, ⃗⃗⃗⃗
2. Direction of magnetic field is perpendicular to plane containing ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑟. It is given by right hand screw
rule.
0
3. = 10−7 Tm / A ,T=tesla, m=metre, A=Ampere.
4

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  0 = 4  10 −7 Tm / A
Similarities and differences between Biot-Savart law (in magnetic field) and Coulomb’s law (in electric
field):

1. Both are long range, since both depend inversely on the square of distance from the source to the point.
2. Principle of superposition applies for both laws.
3. The electric field is produced by a scalar source, namely the electric charge. The magnetic field is produced
⃗⃗⃗⃗ (current element).
by a vector source. 𝐼𝑑𝐿
4. The electric field is along the displacement vector joining the source and the point. The magnetic field is
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ).
perpendicular to the plane containing displacement vector (𝑟) and current element (𝐼𝑑𝐿
5. There is an angle dependence in Biot-Savart law which is not present in Coulomb’s law.
If =00, sin=0, dB=0.
⃗⃗⃗⃗ is zero (along the 𝑑𝐿
i.e. magnetic field at a point in the direction of 𝑑𝐿 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ is zero).

Note: Relation between 0 , 0 and C (Speed of light):

Consider, 00 = 0  410−7 = 40 10−7 ( 0 = 410−7 )

1
 0 0 =  10−7
9 10 9

1
 0 0 =
9 109 107
1
 0 0 =
9 1016
1
 0 0 =
( )
2
3 108
1
 0 0 = Where, C=3108ms-1=speed of light
C2
1
Or C2 =
 0 0

1
C=
 0 0

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Derive an expression for the magnetic field due to a circular current loop on its axis:

Consider a circular loop carrying a steady current ‘I’. The loop is in free space and lie in y-z plane.

Let, R = radius of loop, O= centre of loop ,x=distance between ‘O’ and point ‘P’, dL= length of current
element of loop ,r = distance between ‘dL’ and ‘P’ and dB=magnetic field at ‘P’ due to current element.

According to Biot-Savart law, the magnitude of magnetic field

 0 IdLsin 
dB =  but, =900,  sin=sin900=1
4 r2

 0 IdL
 dB =  ----------------- (1)
4 r 2

 2 2
( )
1
From figure, r2=x2+R2  r = x 2
+ R 
 

 equation (1) becomes

0 IdL
dB =  2
4 ( x + R 2 )
--------------- (2)

The direction of dB is perpendicular to the plane containing ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑑𝐿𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑟. Resolving the dB into two components.

dBx=dBcos→ along x-axis (x-component), dBy=dBsin→ along y-axis (y-component)

dBy component due to current element dL is cancelled by the another dBy component due to diametrically opposite
current element dL.Thus only the dBx components survive.

i.e. dBX = dBcos

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 0 IdL R R
dBX =  2  cos  From figure, cos  = =
4 ( x + R 2 )
( x2 + R 2 )2
1
r

0 IdL R
 dBx =  2 
4 ( x + R 2 )
(x + R 2 )2
1
2

0 IdLR
dBx = 
4
(x + R 2 )2
3
2

The total magnetic field at ‘P’ due to entire loop is given by

0 IdLR
 dB x =
4

( x2 + R 2 )2
3

0 IR
B=  dL
4 ( x + R )
3
2 2 2

but, dL=2R=circumference of loop

 0 IR
 B= 
 2R
4 ( x + R
2 2
) 2

0 IR 2
B= 
acting along the axis of a coil.
2( x + R
2
)
2 2

𝜇0 𝐼𝑅 2
Note-1: In vector form, ⃗ =
𝐵 3 𝑖̂
2(𝑥 2 +𝑅 2 )2

Where, î = unit vector acting along x-axis

Note-2: Magnetic field at the centre of loop

𝜇0 𝐼𝑅 2 2
Here, x=0 ⃗ =
𝐵 3
⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐼𝑅3 𝑖̂𝐵
𝑖̂, 𝐵 ⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐼 𝑖̂
2𝑅 2𝑅
2(0+𝑅 2 )2

Note-3: Magnetic field due to current loop is always acting along its axis.

Note-4: If the coil has N number of turns, then

0 NIR 2
B= 
2( x2 + R 2 )2
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  0 NI
At the centre of coil, B = .
2R

Ampere’s circuital law: Ampere’s circuital law states that “the line integral of magnetic field around the closed
loop is equal to ‘0’ times the total current passing through the loop”.

i.e. ⃗ ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝐿 = 𝜇0 𝐼

where, 0=permeability of free space, I=total current through the surface,

dL=length of line element of boundary, B=magnetic field due to line element.
⃗⃗⃗⃗ products due to entire curve (boundary) is called line integral.
⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝐿
Note:1) Sum of all the 𝐵

⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝐿
It is denoted by ∮ 𝐵

⃗ ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
2) ∮ 𝐵 𝑑𝐿 = line integral of ⃗B
⃗ around the closed path

Note:

1. The closed curve or loop for which ampere circuital law is applied is called amperian loop.
2. Simplified form of Ampere circuital law is
BL =  0 Ie
Where, L=Length of the loop, Ie=enclosed current.

Derive an expression magnetic field due to straight infinite current carrying wire using Ampere’s circuital
law:
Let I =current flows through straight wire,

B = magnetic field at a distance ‘r’

The boundary of loop chosen is a circle,

 r=radius of circle

B is tangential to circumference of circle.

According to Ampere circuital law,

BL =  0 Ie ------ (1)

But, L=2r=circumference of circle, Ie=I

 equation (1) becomes

B2r=0I

0 I
 B=
2r

This is the expression for magnetic field due to long straight conductor (wire).

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Some important points regarding magnetic field due to long straight conductor:

0 I
1. We have, B =
2r
1
i.e. BI and B 
r
The field is directly proportional to the current and inversely proportional to the distance from the wire.
2. The field direction at any point on the circle is tangential.
3. The magnitude of field at every point on the circle is same.

Note-1:→ Cross mark shows that the current going into the plane of the paper away from the observer.

→ Dot mark shows that the current coming out of the plane of the paper towards the observer.
Note-2Field direction is clockwise. If the current is directed away from the observer.

Note-3:Field direction is anticlockwise if the current is directed towards the observer.

Solenoid: The solenoid consists of a long wire wound in the form of a helix. In the solenoid, each turn can be
regarded as a circular loop. In very long solenoid, the length is very long compared to its radius.

When current is passed through the solenoid then magnetic field is generated. The net magnetic field is
the vector sum of the fields due to all the turns.

=cross mark, =dot mark, I=current, B=Magnetic field

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 The magnetic field lines for a finite solenoid is as shown. It is clear from the circular loops that, the field
between two neighboring turns vanishes. i.e. at R, magnetic field B=0.

Field at interior midpoint ‘P’ is uniform, strong and along the axis of a solenoid. Field at exterior point
‘Q’ is weak.

Note: If the solenoid is made very longer then field outside the solenoid is zero and the field inside is uniform
and parallel to axis.

Derive an expression for Magnetic field due to a very long solenoid:

Consider a very long solenoid. The field inside the solenoid is parallel
to axis. Consider a rectangular amperian loop ‘abcd’. Along cd, the
magnetic field is zero. Along bc and ad, the field component is zero.
The field along ‘ab’ is ‘B’.

Let, n=number of turns per unit length of loop,L=length of loop,

total turns=N=n

I=current flows in each turn

 Total current enclosed is Ie=IN=InL.

 According to ampere circuital law

BL =  0 Ie ------ (1)

 B×L=0nLI (But, I=InL)

B=0nI

This is the expression for magnetic field produced by a solenoid.

N
Note: If N=Total number turns, L=length of solenoid, then number of turns per unit length is, n = .
L

Uses of solenoid: It is used to obtain a uniform magnetic field. It is used in television and synchrotron.

Note: A large field is obtained by inserting a soft iron core inside the
solenoid.

Obtain the expression for force between two parallel current carrying
conductors:

Consider two long parallel conductors ‘a’ and ‘b’ separated by a distance ‘r’
and carrying currents ‘Ia’ and ‘Ib’. the conductor ‘a’ produces the magnetic
field Ba at all points along conductor ‘b’. The righthand rule tells that the
direction of Ba is down ward [when the conductors are placed horizontally].

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Magnetic field due to conductor a is

 0 Ia
Ba =
2r

The force acting on a conductor ‘b’ due to Ba is

Fba=BaIbL ( F=BILsin, =900, sin900=1, F=BIL)

Where, L=length of conductor ‘b’

 0 Ia I b L
 Fba =
2r

Magnetic field due to conductor b is

µ𝑰
Bb= 𝟐𝝅𝒓

The force acting on a conductor ‘a’ due to Bb is

Fab=BbIaL ( F=BILsin, =900, sin900=1, F=BIL)

Where, L=length of conductor ‘b’

 0 Ia I b L
 Fba =
2r

But Fba and Fab equal and opposite

 Fba = −Fab

In general, Fba = Fab = Fba

 0 Ia I b L
 Fba =
2r
Fba  0 I a I b
=
L 2r
 0 Ia Ib
f ba =
2r
Fba
Where, f ba = = force per unit length.
L
This is the expression for force per unit length between two parallel current carrying conductors.

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Note:

1. If the currents in the two parallel conductors are in same direction, then two conductors attract each other.
2. If the currents in the two parallel conductors are in opposite direction, then two conductors repel each other.
i.e. Parallel currents attract and antiparallel currents repel.
3. Ampere is the S.I. unit of electric current.
Define ampere:

 0 Ia Ib
We have f ba =
2 r

If Ia=Ib=1A, r =1m

 0 410−7
then, f ba = =
2 2

f ba = 2 10−7 N/m

One ampere is that current which when flowing through two very long straight parallel conductors
separated by one metre in free space, experiences a force of 210−7 newton per metre of length.

Derive an expression for torque on current loop in a uniform magnetic field:

Case (i): When the plane of the loop is parallel to magnetic field.

Consider a rectangular loop ABCD in a uniform magnetic field B .

Let I be the current flows through the coil.

The two sides BC and DA are parallel to field

i.e. =00, F=0

No force acts on the AD and BC.

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 The two sides AB and CD are perpendicular to the field. i.e=900.

Force on AB is FAB = IlB (Inwards) (F=ILBsin, L=b, =900)

Force on CD is FCD = IlB (Outwards)

FAB and FCD are equal and opposite.Thus net force on loop is zero. But there is a torque on the loop due to
pair of forces FAB and FCD.Therefore torque rotates the loop.

We have,

Ʈ=F1a (Torque= Any one force  Perpendicular distance between them)

Ʈ=Fb

Ʈ = IlB x b

Ʈ= IAB Where, A=lxb = Area of loop.

This is the expression for torque on a rectangular loop.

Case 2 : When the plane of the loop is not along the field:

Force on BC, FBC = IbBsin (vertically downward)

Force on DA, FDA = IbBsin (Vertically upward)

In this case net force on BC and DA is zero.

The force on AB is, FAB = IlBSin(900) =IbB (Inwards)

The force on CD is, FCD = IlBSin(900) =IbB (Outwards)

FAB and FCD are equal and opposite but they are not collinear. Therefore, torque is produced.

 Torque is given by

Ʈ =Fbcos

Ʈ =IlBbcos =IABcos

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Where, A = l x b (Area of the loop)

For N turns, Ʈ = NIABcos

Magnetic dipole moment, M = NIA

Ʈ = MBcos = MBcos(90-θ) =MBsinθ

In vector form, Ʈ=M×B

Magnetic moment of current loop:

It is defined as the product of current in the loop and area of loop.

i.e. magnetic moment = current  area

m = IA

Magnetic moment is a vector quantity

S.I. unit is Am2 (ampere metre2)

If the loop has ‘N’ number of turns, then

m = NIA

Moving coil galvanometer (MCG):

M.C.G. is a device used to measure very small current of the order of

10-10A.

Principle of MCG: When a current carrying conductor is kept in an

external magnetic field, it experiences a torque.

Construction:

M.C.G. consists of a coil. The coil is free to rotate about a fixed axis in
a radial magnetic field. There is a cylindrical soft iron core which
makes the field radial and strong. There is a scale and pointer to note
down the deflection.

Working (Theory of MCG):

When a current flows through the coil, a torque acts on it. It is given by

 = NIABsin 

but =900,  Magnetic field is radial

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  sin900=1

  = NIAB

Where, = torque, N=number of turns in the coil, I=Current, A=Area of the coil, B=Uniform radial magnetic field

Due to above magnetic torque, the coil is rotated. As a result, the spring gets twisted. This gives restoring torque.

 Restoring torque = K

Where, K=restoring torque per unit twist

=deflection on the scale by the pointer

At equilibrium Restoring torque = Magnetic torque

K = NIAB

 NAB 
 = I
 K 

 NAB 
  is constant for a given galvanometer.
 K 

Current sensitivity of the galvanometer:

It is defined as the deflection per unit current.


 Current sensitivity=
I

S.I. unit is division / ampere (div/A)

Expression for current sensitivity:

 NAB 
We have, = I
 K 

  NAB 
 = 
I  K 

 Current sensitivity can be increased by increasing the number of turns (N).

Voltage sensitivity of galvanometer:

It is defined as the deflection per unit voltage.

Deflection
Voltage sensitivity =
Voltage

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 
Voltage sensitivity =
V

S.I. unit is division/volt.

Expression for voltage sensitivity:

 NAB 
We have, = I
 K 

  NAB  I
= 
V  K V

I
but = R, R = Resistance of the coil (galvanometer)
V

  NAB  1
 = 
V  K R

 NAB  1
 Voltage sensitivity =  
 K R

The schematic representation of galvanometer is as shown

G=Galvanometer, RG=Resistance of the galvanometer.

Ammeter: It is device used measure electric current in the circuit.

Symbol of ammeter is

Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter

A galvanometer is converted into a ammeter by connecting a small shunt resistance in parallel with it.

Let, rs=Small resistance called shunt resistance, RG= Resistance of galvanometer

i.e.Resistance of ammeter is very small. Thereforeit does not alter

the current in the circuit.

Note: Resistance of an ideal ammeter is zero.

To find the expression for shunt resistance for galvanometer:

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 Let, Ig=current required for full scale deflection, I=Current to be measured.
RG and rs are in parallel
 Potential difference across RG = Potential difference across rs

 IgRG = (I−Ig)rs

Ig R G
rs =
(I − I )
g

This is the expression for shunt resistance (low resistance).

Voltmeter: It is a device used to measure potential difference in the circuit.

The symbol of voltmeter is

Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter:

A galvanometer is connected into voltmeter by connecting a high resistance in series with it.

Where, R= high resistance connected in series,

RG=resistance of galvanometer
The effective resistance of voltmeter is

Reff = RG + R but R is very larger than RG

 Effective resistance of voltmeter is high.

Note: Resistance of an ideal voltmeter is infinity.
To find the expression for high resistance for galvanometer:

V=Voltage required to be measured, Ig= Current required for full scale deflection

Total potential difference = Potential difference across RG + Potential difference across R

V = IgRG + IgR

V = Ig(RG+R)

V
= RG + R
Ig

V
R= − RG
Ig

This is the expression for high resistance.

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