Unit -1 (Ncert 1 & 2) 2021

Q: What is electrostatic?
Ans: The branch of physics which deals with properties of charges or charged bodies, when at rest.
Q: Define electric charge.
A:It is an intrinsic property of an elementary particle, of matter, which gives rise to electric force
between various objects. It is a scalar quantity.
Q: What are the different types of charged bodies?
Ans:
1. Positive charge body: A body is said to have positive charge if it has less number of electrons.
2. Negative charge body: A body is said to have negative charge if it has more number of
electrons.
Q: What are the different methods of charging a body?
A: There are three ways of charging a body:
1. BY CONDUCTION: In this method one uncharged body is in contact with the other charged
body so that the charge flows from charged to uncharged one until equal amount of charge
formed on both the bodies.
2. BY INDUCTION: In this method the charged body is placed near the uncharged body, due to
the charge of first body, equal but in opposite sign, charge is induced on the second body.
In induction there is no change in the mass of body.
3. BY FRICTION: Two bodies rub on each other and during rubbing electrons transfer from one
body to other there by forming the charges.
POSITIVE CAHRGE NEGATIVE CHARGE
GLASS ROD SILK CLOTH
FUR OR WOOL EBNOITE, RUBBER, AMBER
DRY HAIR PLASTIC COMB
WOOL PLASTIC
Q: Write the different properties of electric charge.
A:
1. CONSERVATION OF CHARGE :
According to this charge can neither be created nor be destroyed but it can transfer from one body to
other body. The total charge of an isolated system is constant.
2. QUANTISATION OF CHARGE:
According to this the charge on anybody (produced by any method) is always an integral multiple of
charge of electron i.e q = ± n e , n I
3. INVARIANCE OF ELECTRIC CHARGE:
It means charge is independent of frame of reference i.e whether charges is at rest or moving with
some speed its magnitude remains same i.e qstatic = qmotion
4. ADDITIVE NATURE:
Charges are added like scalars i.e they do not obey vector law of addition.
NOTE:
It is observed that neutron and protons are made up of two elementary particles called quarks having
charge (Up quark) and (down quark)
Q: What are point charges?
A:When the linear sizes of charged bodies are much smaller than the distance separating them, the
size may be ignored and the charged bodies are called point charges.
Q: State coulomb’s law.
A: According to this law the electrostatic force between two point
charge bodies at rest is directly proportional to product of their
charges and inversely proportional to square of distance between their centre’s

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i.eF or F =
where k is a constant of proportionality whose value depends upon the system of units selected.
IN C.G.S SYSTEM:
In this system value of k is one i.e k = 1, F = dyne
IN SI SYSTEM:
k= where ε called permittivity of medium which is given by = 0
where 0 = Absolute permittivity = 8.85 x 10-12 CN-1m-2
= Relative permittivity or dielectric constant of medium or specific inductive capacity.
For air or vacuum =1
k= = = 9 X 109 k = 9 X 109
Fair =
For medium; Fmedium= = =

Fmedium= ----------------- (2)

Q: Define dielectric constant or relative permittivity.
A: We know the force between two charges when placed in some medium is given by
Fmedium=
It is defined as the ratio of the coulomb’s force F between two point charges placed in air to the
coulomb’s force between the same charges placed in the medium separated by the same distance from
each other.
Q: If the force between two point charges is F. what will be change in the force if a cardboard inserted
between the charges.
Ans: Decreases
Q: What is the value of dielectric constant for a conductor?
A: Infinity
Q: Write the unit and dimension of charge.
A:In S.I: We know Fair = , Let q1 = q2 = 1C and r =1m
9
Fair = 9 × 10 N
1C is that charge which when placed at a distance of 1m from another charge of same magnitude in
vacuum experiences an electrical force of 9 X 109N.
C.G.S UNIT: It is stat coulomb and 1C = 3 X 109SC
NOTE:
Coulomb’s ‘ law is Newtonian in nature i.e it obeys Newton’s 3rd law
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = -- ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Q: State principle of superposition in electrostatic.
A:It states that when a number of charges are interacting, the total force on a given charge is vector
sum of the forces exerted on it by all other charges. Let q1,q2 _ _ _ _ _ _,qn be the charges having
position vectors r1,r2,_ _ _ _ ,rn. Now the total force on charge q1 is the vector sum of the other forces
i.e
= ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ +⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + _ _ _ _ _ +⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Thus the force on any charge due to a number of other charges is the vector sum of all the forces on
that charge due to the other charges, taken one at a time. The individual forces are unaffected due to
the presence of other charges. This is termed as the principle of superposition
Q: What are the limitations of coulomb’s law?

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A:It is valid only under the following conditions:
1. The electric charges must be at rest.
2. The electric charges must be point charges.
3. The separation between the charges must be greater than the nuclear size(10-15m) because for
distances < 10-15m, the strong nuclear force dominates over the electrostatic force.

Q: Define electric field.

A: The region or space surround a charge where the other charge experiences the force due to first
charge is called electric field.
Q: Define electric field intensity.
A: The electric field intensity at any point in the electric field is defined as the force experienced by a
unit + ve charge placed at that point.
i.e ⃗ where q is called test charge and is infinitesimally small, so that the presence of this
charge may not effect the electric field of source charge.
RESULT:
1. There are two types of charges one is source charge which produces the electric field and other
is test charge whose magnitude is +1.
2. Whenever a charge q is placed inside the electric field of some other charge then it is acted
upon by the force which is given by F= qE.
3. The electric field due to source charge is independent of magnitude of test charge.
4. It is a vector quantity having direction in the direction in which a unit +ve test charge moves if
free to do so.
5. To find the direction of electric field keep fixed the source
charge and free the test charge, the direction in which test
charge moves is the direction of electric field.
Q: Find the expression for the electric field due to a point charge.
A: Consider a point charge Q placed at the origin . Let q be test charge
placed at point P at a distance ‘r’ from Q such that the force
̂
experienced by this test charge due to Q is = where ̂ is unit
vector along OP
̂ ̂
= or ⃗ =
E= or E =
The graph of electric field due to point charge and square of the distance
of test charge from source charge is as shown above:
Q: Write unit and dimension of electric field.
A: The S.I unit of electric field is Newton per coulomb (NC-1)
or volt per meter(Vm-1) and dimension is [MLT-3A-1].
Q: What are electric lines of force and write its different properties.
A: It is a curve drawn in such a way that the tangent at each point on the curve gives the direction of
electric field at that point.
OR
It is an imaginary straight or curved path along which a unit +ve charge tends to move if it is free to do
so.
PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC LINES OF FORCE:
1. These lines starts from +ve charge and end on the –ve charge.
2. These are imaginary lines.

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3. The tangent at any point to the electric line of force , gives the direction of electric field at that
point.
4. Two electric lines of force can never intersect each other. If they intersect then at point of
intersection there will be two tangents at single point which is not possible.
5. These lines cannot have sudden break ∵ that break shows the absence of electric field.
6. Electric lines of force contract lengthwise to represent attraction between two unlike charges.
7. Lines of forces are straight when they represent electric field due to an isolated charge and are
curved when they represents more than one charge placed nearby.
8. Electric lines of force exert lateral (sideways) pressure on each other and hence repel each
other to represent.
9. These lines do not pass through the conductor.
10. These lines always normal to the surface of the conductor.
11. These never form the closed loops.
ELECTRIC LINES OF FORCES DUE TO DIFFERENT CHARGES:

Q: Define electric dipole.

A: An electric dipole is a pair of equal and opposite point charges q and –q separated by some distance
say ‘2a’. The distance ‘2a’ called dipole length.
Q: Define electric dipole moment:
A: It is defined as the product of magnitude of either charge with the distance between them. i.e p = q
x 2a. It is a vector quantity whose direction from –ve to +ve charge.
Q: Write unit and dimension of electric dipole moment.
A:S.I SYSTEM: Cm, C.G.S SYSTEM: Stat Coulomb cm and dimension: [ ]
Q: What is an ideal dipole?
A: An ideal dipole is that whose charge is infinity and size tends to zero so that dipole moment
remains constant.
Q: Find the expression of electric field at a point lies on axial line of an electric dipole.
A: Let us consider an electric dipole having charges –q and +q separated by distance ‘2a’. Let P be a
point at a distance ‘r’ from centre of dipole, where test
charge is placed. Let OP = r and AP = r + a and BP = r - a.
Electric field at P due to charge at A is = - ( ) along
PA
Electric field at P due to charge at A is = ( )
along
PX
Now | | | | ∵ charge at B is closer to test charge
Net electric field E = | | - | | = ( ) ( )
E = kq4ra/(r2-a2)2 = kq2a2r/(r2-a2)2 Also p = q 2a
Eaxial = ( )
Forshort dipole i.e when r >>a then a2 can be neglected Eaxial = ( )
Q: Find the expression of electric field at a point lies on equatorial line of an electric dipole.

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A: Consider an electric dipole of charge q and –q separated by a distance ‘2a’. Let at point P the test
charge is placed such that OP = r. Now the electric field due to
charge at A, at a point P is =-( )
along PA
= ( )
along PC
Let = DPA = θ EA can be resolved into two components.
Similarly EB can be resolved in to two components
EB cosθ and EB sinθ. Since the magnitude of EB and EA is equal so
component of sinθ being equal and opposite cancel out each other.
So resultant electric field is given by Eeq = |EA|cosθ + |EB|cosθ
Since |EA|= |EB| So Eeq = 2|EA|cosθ =( )
cosθ = ( )
cosθ
From figure cosθ = ( )
Eeq= ( )
=( )
For short dipole i.e r>>a, then a2 can be Neglected Eeq=
It is clear from the above expression that for a short dipole that Eaxial = Eequitorial.
Q: Find the expression for the torque acting on a dipole placed in uniform electric field.
A: Consider an electric dipole of charge of magnitude q and

separated by a distance ‘2a’ placed in uniform electric field in such a way that it makes an angle θ as
shown. Force exerted on charge +q by field E =qE and the force exerted on charge +q by field E =-
qE. Ftotal = +qE –qE =0
Hence the net translating force on a dipole in uniform electric
field is zero. But two equal and opposite forces act at different
points of the dipole. They form a couple which exerts a torque.
Torque = either force x perpendicular distance between two
forces
τ = qE X 2a sinθ = (q x 2a)Esinθ = pEsinθ (∵ p = q x2a )
τ = pEsinθ
In vector form ⃗
The direction of τ is that in which a right handed screw would advance when rotated from p to E.
Hence when dipole placed in uniform electric field it rotates the dipole in the direction of electric field.
SPECIAL CASES:
We know τ = pEsinθ
Case1:
When θ = 0 or 180, then τ =0(minimum) i.e It means if the dipole placed in such a way that its axis is
parallel or anti parallel to electric field then net torque acting on it is zero. the net force on the dipole is
zero.
Case2:
When θ = 90 then τ = pE (maximum) i.e When dipole axis is perpendicular to electric field then
maximum torque acts which tries to rotate the dipole in the direction of electric field.
Under what condition the torque will be maximum and minimum. Represents it
diagrammatically.
: What is the net force and torque acting on electric dipole when placed in uniform and non
uniform electric field?
Q: What happens when an electric dipole placed in non uniform electric field?

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A: When a dipole is placed in a non
uniform electric field the net force
acting on the dipole is not zero but
still torque acts on the system is
zero.
Case1:
When p is parallel to E i.e θ =0 or
180 then τ = 0 so no torque acts on the dipole but still some force acts on the dipole.
When p is parallel to E the dipole has a net force in the direction of increasing field.
When p is anti parallel to E then force is in the direction of decreasing field.
Q: Find the expression for the work done in rotated a dipole in external electric field.
A: The work done in rotating the dipole from one orientation to another is stored in the form of energy
called potential energy of the dipole. We know torque acting on the dipole when placed in a uniform
electric field is
τ = pEsinθ
Work done in rotating the dipole against the torque is
dW = τ dθ or dW = pEsinθdθ
Let the dipole rotated from θ1 to θ2 then work done is W = ∫
W = pE[ ] = -pE[cosθ2-cosθ1]
If the dipole is initially at right angle to E i.e θ1 = 90 and finally it makes an angle θ with E i.e θ2 = θ,
then W = - pEcosθ
This work done is stored as potential energy and is a scalar quantity and is given by U = - ⃗
Clearly the potential energy is the dot product of the dipole moment and electric field and hence is a
scalar quantity.
Q: Under what condition the potential energy stored in the dipole will be maximum or minimum
Or
Q: Write the conditions for stable and unstable equilibrium when an electric dipole placed in external
electric field.
Ans: We know potential energy = - p E cos
a) For stable equilibrium  = 0 then U = - p E
b) For unstable equilibrium  = 180 then U = + p E
Q:What will be the change in potential energy if the dipole moves from stable to unstable
equilibrium?
A: Increases
Q: Discuss the motion of charged particle in electric field.
A: Consider a charge particle of charge q and mass ‘m’ placed in an electric field such
that the force acting on it is given by: F = qE or ma = qE a= qE/m --------------(1)
If E is uniform then its acceleration is constant along the direction of E
Case1:
When initial velocity is along the direction of electric field:
Let u be initial velocity along the direction of electric field
then v = u + at-------(2)
put (1) in (2), we get v = u + qEt/m
Case 2:
When initial velocity is perpendicular to electric field:
Consider a charge particle of charge q, mass m moving with velocity
v along OX.
Let electric field along OY. Now ax=0 and ay=qE/m = constant

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Let at any time ‘t’ the particle is at point P then x = ut [∵ ax =0]
y = uyt+1/2ayt2
= o + ½ (qE/m)t2 Also t = x/u
y = ½ qE/m(x/u)2
which is an equation of a parabola.

Q: Define area vector.

A: Small area of a surface can be represented by a vector called area vector.
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂ , where ̂ is the unit vector normal to the given surface.
Q: Define electric flux.
A: It is defined as the number of electric lines of force crossing through an
area in a direction perpendicular to that area.
It is a scalar quantity.
Mathematically the electric flux through a given surface equals to the surface integral of electric field
over that surface i.e ∮ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
Φ = E dScos
a) If  = 0 then υ = maximum and
b) If  = 90 then υ = minimum and =0
Q: What are the types of fluxes?
A: There are two types of fluxes:
1. POSITIVE FLUX:
Flux is said to be +ve when there is net outward flow of lines of force of electric field through a given
surface.
2. NEGATIVE FLUX:
Flux is said to be -ve when there is net inward flow of lines of force of electric field through a given
surface
Q: Write unit and dimension of flux.
A: We know ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = Nm2C-1 = Weber(Wb) and dimension: [ML3T-3A-1]
Q: State and prove gauss’s theorem.
A: It states that total electric flux through a closed surface enclosing a charge is equal to 1/εo times the
total charge enclosed within that surface. ∮ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = qnet/εo
PROOF :
FOR SPHERICAL SYMMETRIC SURFACE:
Consider a point charge q is placed at the centre of sphere of radius
‘r’.
Let E be the electric field at point P on the surface of sphere and is
̂
given by ⃗ =
Cut the small element of this sphere of area ‘dS’ such that electric flux
coming out from this surface is
∮ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∮ =∮ = ∮ = x 4πr2 = q/ εo
= q/ εo
FACTS:
Gauss’s theorem is valid for stationary as well as moving charges where as coulomb law holds for
stationary charges.
For any medium ∯ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
Q: Define gaussian surface.

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A: For a given charge distribution, it is a closed surface, enclosing that charge distribution such that
electric field due to that charge distribution is everywhere normal to all points on the closed surface
and has a constant magnitude at all points of that closed surface.
Q: Find the expression for electric field due to long
straight line charge distribution.
A: Consider a very long and straight wire of uniform
linear charge density λ. To calculate electric field E at a
point P, at a distance ‘r’ , from the line draw an
imaginary cylinder of radius ‘r’ and length ‘L’ around
that charged line as shown.
The charge enclosed by the surface q = λL---(1)
According to Gauss’s theorem Φ = = ------(2)
Also υ = ∯ ⃗⃗⃗ .⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∬ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ∬ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
+∬ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
=∬ +∬ +∬
= E∬ = E x area of the curved surface
= E x 2πrL--------(3)
Compare (2) and (3) we get : E x 2πrL = or E=
Q: Find electric field due to uniformly charged infinite non conducting sheet.
A: Consider an infinite non conducting sheet of +ve charges having a uniform charge density σ. Now
choose a ,Gaussian surface in the
form of, cylinder of area of cross
section ‘A’ through the observation
point.
Now υ = ∯ ⃗⃗⃗ .⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∬ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ +
∬ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ +∬ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
=∬ +∬ +
∬
=E∬ +E∬ = ES + ES
= 2ES----(1)
But according to gauss’s law Φ =
= -----(2)
Compare (1) and (2) we have 2ES = or E =
So electric field is independent of observation point.
Q: Find the expression for electric field due to two infinite plane parallel
sheets of charges.
A: Consider two infinite parallel sheets A and B with uniform charge
density
σ1 and σ2 .Let σ1>σ2 >0. Now electric field pointing from left to right taken
as +ve, while right to left taken as –ve. There are three regions.
In region I: EI = E1 + E2 = - -

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In region 2: EII = -
In region 3: EIII = +
SPECIAL CASE:
If σ1= +σ and σ2 = - σ then EI = EIII = 0 and EII =
Q: Find the electric field due to uniformly charged conducting thin spherical shell(hollow sphere).
A: AT POINT OUTSIDE THE SHELL:
Consider a +ve charge q distributed uniformly on the
surface of a spherical shell of radius R. Let P be a point
outside the shell at a distance ‘R’ from the centre of
shell as shown. Draw a Gaussian surface of radius r
such that
υ = ∯ ⃗⃗⃗ .⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∯ =∯ = E x 4πr2-----
(1)
Also Φ = -----(2)
Comparing 1 and 2 we have:
E x 4πr2 =
E= ---- (3)
Also if σ be the surface charge density then
q = σ x 4πR2
E= or E=
When r = R i.e point lies on the surface of sphere then E =
AT POINT INSIDE THE SHELL:
When point P lies inside the sphere then E =0 because there is
no charge inside the conducting sphere.
Q: Deduce of coulomb’s law from gauss’s law.
A: Consider an isolated charge ‘q’ enclosed by a closed
spherical surface of radius ‘r’. Let P be any point on this
surface. Cut small element of this surface of area dS such that
electric flux from this element is
υ = ∯ ⃗⃗⃗ .⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∯ = or E x 4πr2 = or E =
---- (1)
This is the electric field at point P. Now placed another point charge q0 at
point P such that electric force acting on it F = E or F =
Q: Define electrostatic potential at a point due to a point charge and find its expression.
A:The electric potential at a point due to a point charge is defined as the work done per unit charge, in
moving it from infinity to that point, against the electric force due to an electric field (without
acceleration) irrespective to the path followed i.e V = W∞B/q0
EXPRESSION:
Consider the electric field due to point charge +q
placed at O. Suppose at any instant the test charge is
at point A.
The work done in displacing the charge through the small distance dx is dW = - ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
dW = (q0E)dxcos180

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dW = - q0Edx [∵ cos180 = -1 ]
now the charge is at point B so E = kq/x2
dW = - q0kqdx/x2
Now work done in moving the charge from infinity to point
A is given by
W∞B = ∫ ∫
W∞B = * + or W∞B =

Or W∞B =

W∞B/q0 = kq/rA
VA = kq/rA =
In case the point A is at a distance r then V = . . . . . .. . . . (A)
Potential is a scalar quantity.
Figure shows how the electrostatic potential (1/r) and the electrostatic field (1/r2 ) varies with r.
Q: Define unit of electric potential.
A:In S.I system its unit is volt
We know V = W∞B/q0 = J/C
Therefore electrostatic potential at a point is said to be
1 volt if 1 joule of work is done in moving the charge
of 1C from infinity to that point against the electric
field.
In c.g.s system the unit of potential is stat volt.
Dimension:
V = W∞B/q0 = [ML2T-3A-1]
Q: Find the expression for the potential due to group of point charges.
A:The electrostatic potential at a point P due to number of charges q1,q2,q3------- lying at a distance
r1,r2,r3 -----
from point P is given by:V = V1 + V2 + V3 ----------
V= + + + -------------

Q: Prove that electric field as a negative gradient of potential.

A: Consider two point A and B in the electric field of a point charge +q placed at a point O. Let q0 be
test charge placed at A, work done in moving the test charge from A to B is given by
dW = - q0Edx [ -ve sign shows that work is done against the electric force]
dW/q0 = -Edx
Also by definition of potential difference dV = dW/q0
dV = - Edx or E =
This is the relation between electric field and potential.
We thus arrive at two important conclusions concerning the relation between electric field and
potential:
(i) Electric field is in the direction in which the potential decreases steepest.
(ii) Its magnitude is given by the change in the magnitude of potential per unit displacement normal to
the equipotential surface at the point.
FACT
Another unit of electric field is Vm-1.
Q: Define electrostatic potential difference.

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A:The electrostatic potential difference between two points A and B in an electric field is defined as
the amount of work done per unit +ve test charge in moving it from one point to other point against
the electric force due to electric field i.e. VB – VA = WAB/q0
where VA and VB be the electric potential at a point A and B.
EXPRESSION:
Consider a source charge +q placed at a origin O having radial
electric field. Let a test charge q0 is placed at P such that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Small work done in moving the test charge through a small distance
dl is
dW = ⃗⃗⃗ or dW = - q0 ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ or dW = - q0Edlcosθ
In ∆QPN dr = dlcosθ
dW = -q0Edr
Also E = kq/r2
dW = - q0kqdr/r2
Now the work done in moving a test charge from A to B is
WAB = ∫ = -q0 ∫ = * +

WAB/q0 = kq* +
VB – VA = kq* +
Note:
The work done by the electric force in closed path is zero i.e it is conservative force.
Q: Define unit of potential difference.
A: In S.I system its unit is volt
We know V = WAB/q0 = J/C
Therefore electrostatic potential at a point is said to be 1 volt if 1 joule of work is done in moving the
charge of 1C from one point to other point against the electric field.
Q: What are equipotential surfaces?
A: Any surface which has same electric potential at every point on it is called equipotential surface. It
may be the surface of the body or the surface of the simply. The equipotential surface for different
charges is:

Properties of equipotential surface:

1. No work is done in moving the test charge over an equipotential surface. We know VB – VA =
WAB/q0
Since two points on the equipotential surface is at the same potential i.e.VA = VB so WAB = 0.
2. The electric field is always at right angle to equipotential surfaces. Since WAB = 0 ∫ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ =
0 which isonly possible if E and dl both are perpendicular to each other.
3. Equipotential surfaces help to distinguish region of strong field to those of weal field.
We know E = - dV/dr or dr = - dV/E since dV is constant therefore dr therefore spacing
between theequipotential surfaces will be lesser in the region where the electric field is more or
stronger or vice versa.

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4. These surfaces give the direction of electric field. We know E = - dV/dr-ve sign show that
direction of electric field is that in which decrease in electric potential is fastest. Therefore
direction of electric field is from the equipotential surfaces which are close to each other.
5. No two equipotential surface can intersect because if they intersect then at the point of
intersection there will be two values of electric potential which is not possible.
Q: Define electrostatic potential energy of system of charges. Find its expression.
A:It is defined as the amount of work done to bring the charges constituting the system to their
respective position from infinity.
EXPRESSION:
Consider two point charges q1 and q2 lying at point A and B having position vectors r1 and r2.Firstly
remove the two charges to infinity. Now bring the charges q1to their respective position A from
infinity. For this no work is required. This charge produces the potential which is given by : V =
Now move the charge q2 from infinity to their respective positions B. since the
charge q2 is moves in the electric field of charge q1 so work is done. Hence
electric potential energy of system of two charges is given by:U = (electric
potential due to q1 at B) x q2
U= |⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
Similarly for three charges:
First we take three charges at infinity. Now bring the charge q1 to their
respective position. No work is done. Now bring q2, now W12 =
Now bring the charge q3. Now this charge in the influence of two charges q2 and q1 so work done in
this case is:
W13 = and W23 =
U = W12 + W23 +W13
U= + +=
It is clear from the above result that Electric potential energy = charge x potential
Q: Find the electric potential at any point due to an electric dipole.
A:Let AB be an electric dipole of length ‘2a’ and P be any point where OP = r. Let θ be angle between
r and dipole axis. From A draw a perpendicular AC meeting at C produced by PO. Similarly BD is
perpendicular drawn on OP.
In ∆AOC = cosθ or OC = acosθ

In ∆BOD = cosθ or OD = acosθ

If r >>a then AP~ PC = OP + OC = r + acosθ
Also BP ~ PD = OP – OD = r – acosθ
If V be electric potential at A and B,
Then V = VA + VB= * +or V = kq* +
or V = ( But p = q2a ; V = (
) )
⃗⃗⃗ ̂
If r>>a then a2 = 0 or V = or
SPECIAL CASE:
1. If point lies on axial line of dipole i.e.θ = 0 cos0 = 1V = i.e. V α
2. If point lies on the equatorial line then cos90 = 0 so V = 0

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Q: What are conductors?
A:The substances which allow the flow of charge through them are called conductors. In conductors
the electrons are the carriers for the flow of charge. E.g Silver , copper, iron etc.
Q: Discus the behavior of conductor in the external electric field.
A:
1. Net electric field in the conductor is zero:
A conductor contains large number of free electrons. When it is placed inside the electric field,
each electron experiences a force (-q0E) in a direction opposite to direction of applied electric
field. So all the –ve charges will collect towards the +ve plate and all +ve charge will collect
towards the –ve plate, thereby creating an electric field EP opposite to the external electric
field.
Ep has magnitude as that of E0 and opposite to the direction of E0 so that net electric field
inside the conductor is zero.
2. Electric field outside the conductor is perpendicular to the surface of conductor.
3. Net charge in the interior of conductor is zero as according to Gauss’s Law ∮ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
sinec inside the conductor electric field is zero so = 0 or q = 0.
4. Charge always resides on the outer surface of the conductor.
5. Electric potential is constant for the entire of conductor as we know E = , But E = 0
inside the conductor so dV/dr = 0 so dV = 0 or V = constant. Therefore potential is constant
atthe surface as well as the interior of the conductor.
6. At any point on the surface of conductor the electric field is proportional to surface charge
density. Surface charge density may be different at the different points.
Consider a conductor having a surface charge density σ on its small surface
dS .Let us draw a Gaussian Surface as a cylinder.
Now υ = ∮ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ES -------(1)
Also υ = ------------(2)
Compare (1)and (2) we have ES = or E = or E α σ
7. The interior of a conductor can have no excess charge in static situation.
Q: What is electrostatic shielding?
A: The phenomenon of protecting the body from electrical effect by putting
it inside the cavity of conductor is known as electrostatic shielding. i.e. why
during lighting it is safer to sit inside a car.
Q: Define electrical capacitance.
A:The ability to store charge by a conductor is called as its electrical
capacitance.
We know when a charge is given to conductor then its potential raises.
Let q be charge given to the conductor so its potential raises by V then it is found that
q α V or q = CV
where C is a constant called capacitance of conductor.
We know q = CV
if V =1 then C = q
So capacitance is numerically equal to charge require to raise the potential of conductor through one
unit.
It is a scalar quantity.
Q: Write the unit of capacitance.
A:In S.I system the unit of capacitance is Farad. Or 1 Farad = 1C/1V
A conductor is said to have capacitance 1F if one Coulomb of charge raises its potential by 1Volt.
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Dimension of C: [M-1L2T4A2]
FACTS:
1. Electrostatic unit of capacitance in c.g.s system is stat Farad.
2. 1statFarad= 1statCoulomb/1statvolt
3. 1F = 9 x 1011statFarad
4. Electromagnetic unit of capacitance is abFarad
5. 1abFarad = 1abCoulomb/1abvolt
6. abFarad = 109Farad
7. For a given capacitor C = q/V but V  q. The plot between V and q
is as shown. Hence capacity of a given conductor always same but it depends
on dielectric, shape etc.
Q: Find an expression for the capacitance of an isolated conducting sphere.
A: Consider an isolated spherical conductor of radius ‘r’ having charge q as shown.
Now the potential at any point P on the surface of the conductor due to assume charge +q
at centre is V = kq/r =
Now C = q/V = qr/kq or C = 4πε0 r
Note:
From the above expression it is clear that the other unit of absolute permittivity is Fm-1
Q: What is capacitor?
A:It is a device for storing a large quantity of charge and is the combination of two conducting bodies
separated by insulating medium. It may be spherical, cylindrical and parallel plate.
NOTE:
1. If Q be the charge given to one of the plate of the conductor, an equal amount of charge is
induced on the other plate. Net charge on capacitor is zero.
2. Also the electric field inside the conductor is directly proportional to charge. It means if charge
double electric field will also doubled.
Q: What is the principle of capacitor?
A:Consider a metal plate I and given to it positive charge so
that potential becomes maximum. Now another plate II is
placed near plate I. Due to induction negative charge will
appear on the nearer face of plate II, which lowers the potential
of I. An equal amount of +ve charge appears on the farthest
side of plate II, which increases the potential of I. Now earth
the plate II so that all the +ve charge flows inside the earth.
Now the potential of metal plate I decrease. To increase it more
charge is given to plate of I indicates that capacity of a
conductor increases by a small amount when another uncharged
conductor is placed.
FACTS:
1. The two metallic conductors are called as coating of capacitor.
2. The insulating medium between twoplates is called dielectric.
3. If the insulating medium is air, then it is called as air capacitor.
4. If the dielectric constant k has value for medium then capacity, C = kCair
5. If W is the work done in taking unit +ve charge from conductor 2 to conductor 1
against the field, then potential difference is proportional to charge Q i.e. V α Q or Q α
V or Q = CV or C = Q/V
6. The ratio Q/V is constant and this constant is called capacitance.
Q: Find the expression for the capacity of parallel plate capacitor.

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A: Let us consider two conducting plates having each of area A separated by a
distance d as shown. If +Q charge is given to plate A then –Q charge will induce
on the left side of plate B. If σ be the surface charge density of plates then
electric field between the plates is given by E = σ / ε0 ---- (1)
Also the electric field between the plates is given by E = - dV/dr---(2)
Since the electric field is uniform between the plates is uniform so E = V/d
where V is the potential difference between two plates. V = Ed -----(3)
Now C = q/v = q/Ed = qε0/σd = σAε0/σd or C =
This is the required expression for the capacity when the medium between the plate is air.
FACTS:
1. If the medium between the plates filled with some dielectric of dielectric constant k
then capacity Cmedium= k Cair
2. We know the capacity in case parallel plate capacitor is given by C =
If A=1m2 and d= 1mm then C = 8.85 x 10-9F
To make capacitor of capacity 1F we need the plates of area of separation 1cm(say)
then A = Cd/ε0 = 109m2 which is about 30km in length and breadth. Therefore it is
impossible to make capacitor of capacity 1F.
Q: Find the expression for the capacity when capacitors are connected in series.
A:. If +q charge is given to capacitor then by induction an equal amount of –ve charge induced on the
other plate. Similarly by induction other plates induced same
amount of charge.
If V1, V2 , V3 be the potential differences between the plates of
three capacitors then V = V1 + V2 +V3
Now V1 = q/C1, V2 = Q/C2, V3 = q /C3
If Cs be the total capacity of the combination then
or
Q: Find the expression for the capacity when capacitors are connected in parallel.
A:Let C1,C2,C3 be three capacitors connected in parallel as shown. Let V be the potential across the
individual capacitor. If q1, q2 and q3 be the charge induced across the
capacitors C1, C2 and C3 then total charge Q = q1+q2+q3
If Cp be the total capacity of the combination then
CpV = C1V +C2V+V3V or CP = C1+C2+C3
It is clear from the above discussion that capacity increases when
capacitors are connected in parallel.
Q: Find the expression for the energy stored in parallel plate capacitor.
A: In order to establish the charge on the capacitor work has to be done on the charge. This work done
is stored in the form of potential energy of charges. Such a potential energy is called energy of
capacitor
EXPRESSION:
Consider a capacitor of capacitance C. At any stage let the charge on the capacitor is q.
Potential on the capacitor = V = q/C
Small amount of work done in giving an additional charge dq is dW =Vdq = q/Cdq
Total work done in giving a charge Q to the capacitor is W = ∫ [ ] =
U = for series combination. Also q = CV orU = for parallel combination
Also C = q/V orU = ½ qV
Q: Prove that the total energy stored in the combination of capacitor is same.

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A:In series combination U = where

U = ½ q2 [ ]
U=
U = U1 + U2+ ----------------------+ Un
where U1, U2--------Un be the energies stored in individual capacitors.
In parallel combination U = where Cp = C1+C2 + -------Cn
U= [ C1+ C2 + -------+Cn]
U=
U = U1+U2 + --------------------+ Un
It is evident from the expressions that energy stored either in series or in parallel combination is same
and in each case it is equal to the sumof energy stored in the individual capacitors.
Q: Find the expression of energy density in parallel plate capacitor.
A:It is defined as the energy stored per unit volume in the region between the plates of the capacitors.
i.e. U = where A be the area ofplates and d be the separation between the
plates.
Now C = also V = Ed or U = ½ ε0E2
Q: Define common potential and find its expression.
A: When two capacitors charged to different potentials are connected by a conducting wire, charge
flows from the one at higher potential to other at lower potential. This flow continues till their
potential becomes equal. The equal potential of two capacitors is called common potential.
Suppose C1, C2 be the capacity of two capacitors charged to potentials V1 and V2.
Total charge before sharing q = C1V1 + C2V2
If V is their common potential on sharing the charges then total charge after sharing
q = C1V + C2V = V(C1+C2)
According to conservation of charge , total charge of an isolated system is constant.
Therefore on comparing we have (C1+ C2) V = C1V1 + C2V2
V=
Q: Prove that there is loss of energy in sharing the charges.
A:Whenever two conductors are connected by a conducting wire then there is loss of energy in the
form of heat energy of wire. If we have two conductors having capacity C1 and C2 and common
potential V then Common potential, V =
Total energy before sharing E1 = ½ C1V12 + ½ C2V22
Total energy after sharing E2 = ½ C1v2 + ½ C2V2
E2 = ½ (C1+C2)V2= ½ (C1+C2)[ ]2
( )
Loss of energy is E1- E2 = >0
( )
E1- E2> 0 or E1> E2
Hence the total energy after contact is somewhat less than total energy before contact. This loss of
energy appears in the form of sparking and hence heat produced.
Q: What are dielectrics?
A: Dielectrics are the non conducting materials which transmit the electric effect without conducting.
Depending on the types of molecules we have two types of dielectrics.
(i) Polar dielectrics

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(ii) Non polar dielectrics
In non conducting materials in which induced charges are produced on their faces on the application of
electric field. The purpose of dielectric is to increase the capacity of a
capacitor.
Q: What are polar molecules?
A:A molecule in which the centre of +ve charge (average position of
protons) does not coincide with centre of – ve charges(average position of electrons) when no external
field is applied is called polar molecule. E.g HCl, H2O, NH3 etc. It possesses the net electric dipole
moment and hence behaves as a dipole.
Q: What are non polar molecules?
A: A molecule in which the centre of +ve charge (average
position of protons) coincide with centre of – ve charge
s(average position of electrons) when no external field is applied
is called polar molecule. So it possess net dipole moment equal
to zero. E.g N2, O2, CH4 etc. It has symmetrical shape.
Q: What is the effect of external electric field on the polar molecule/ polar dielectrics?
A:We know polar molecule possess permanent dipole moment even
in the absence of electric field. In the absence of electric field all the
dipoles are rotated in such a way that the net dipole moment is zero.
When electric field is applied then each dipole experience a torque
which rotates all the dipoles in the direction of electric field. The
dipole moments of all molecules get added and hence the substance
has finite net dipole moment in the presence of electric field.
Q: What is the effect of external electric field on the non polar molecule/ non polar dielectrics?
A:Since the dipole moment of these molecule is zero so when
electric field is applied a +ve charge experiences a force in the
direction of applied electric field and –ve charge experience the
force in the opposite direction of applied electric field. As a result
+ve charge pulled in the direction of electric field and –ve charge in
opposite direction of electric field thereby creating some distance
between the two charges. Hence non polar becomes polar molecule and is called induced electric
dipole and possesses electric induced dipole moment. It disappears as the electric field is removed.
Q: Discuss polarization of dielectric slab.
A:Polarization of a dielectric slab is the process of inducing equal and opposite charges on two
opposite faces of the dielectrics on the application of electric field.
Consider a parallel plate capacitor as shown. The electric field between the
conducting plates is E = σ / ε0
Suppose a dielectric slab of non polar molecule introduced between the plates. When
it is introduced the centre of +ve and –ve charges get displaced from each other. On
the left face a net –ve charge –qi and on the right face a +ve charge +qi appears .
These charges are called induced charges.
These induced charges set up an internal electric field inside the dielectric called
polarization field(Ep) So net electric field inside the dielectric slab is
E = E0 - Ep
So the net value of electric field gets reduced.
Note:
In case of conductors the net electric field is zero.
Q: Define dielectric constant.

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A:The ratio of external applied electric field to the reduced value of electric field i.e electric field
insde the dielectric is called dielectric constant. k = E0/E =
Since E0> E therefore k is always more than one.
Q: Define atomic polarizablity.
A:It has been found that in case of dielectric the induced dipole moment is directly proportional to
applied electric field i.e. p  E0or p = ε0E where  is called atomic polarizablity.
Q: Define polarization density.
A:The induced dipole moment developed per unit volume in a dielectric slab, on placing it inside the
electric field is called polarization density.
P=
If σp be the surface charge density of polarized charges and A be the area of the dielectric slab and ‘d’
be the separation between the polarized charges then
p = qp x d = σpx A x d = σp x V or P = σp V/V or P = σp
Hence the magnitude of polarization vector is equal to the surface charge density of polarized charges.
Polarization density also called polarization vector.
Q: Define electric susceptibility.
A:It has been found that electric polarization vector P is directly proportional to reduced value of
electric field i.e. p E or p = Eε0
where E is a constant called electrical susceptibility.
It has no unit.
Q: Find the relation between dielectric constant and electric susceptibility.
A:We know when dielectric is introduced between the plates of capacitor then reduced value of
electric field is E = E0 - Ep or E0 = E + Ep = E + σp/ε0 = E(1+ )
Also σp = P. E0/E = 1+ P/E ε0
Also ΧE = P/Eεo and k = E0/E
or K = 1 + ΧE
This is the required relation.
FACT:
Dielectric constant also called specific inductive capacity or relative permittivity of a dielectric.
Q: Find the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with a conductor /
conducting dielectric slab inserted between its plates.
A:We know the capacity of a capacitor with air as a medium is C =
When a conducting slab of area A and thickness t < d is introduced between the
plates the charges induced on the outer surface of conducting slab. Since E = 0
inside the conductor. So the original electric field exist for the region ( d – t) so
that the potential differences between the plates V = E0( d – t) [∵ V = Ed]
V= ( ) ( )or Cnew = Q/V = Q/ ( ) or
Cnew = ( = = C/(1-t/d) or Cnew =
) ( ) ( )
Clearly Cnew> C i.e. capacity increase when a conducting slab is introduced.
Q: Find the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with a non- conducting dielectric slab inserted
between its plates.
A:We know the capacity of a capacitor with air as a medium is C =
When a non- conducting slab of area A and thickness t < d is introduced so that due to polarization
electric field of the dielectric slab the net electric field becomes E = E0 - EP

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Now the potential difference between two plates V = E0( d – t) + Et
V = E0( d – t) + E0t/k or V = E0[d – t+ ]
But E0 = σ/ε0 = Q/ε0A
V = Q[d – t+ ]/ε0A
Now Cnew = Q/V = Q/ Q[d – t+ ]/ε0A
Cnew = or Cnew =
* ( )+ * ( )+
Clearly Cnew>C which shows the capacity of capacitor increases on the
introduction of dielectric slab.
1. If t = d then C = ∞
2. When a dielectric slab is introduced in between the plates of a charged capacitor with
battery connected across the conductor plates then
(i) capacity increases
(ii) potential V remain constant
(iii) Charge Q increases
(iv) electric field decreases
(v) Energy increases
3. When battery across the plates of charged is off then
(i) Capacity C increases.
(ii) Charge Q remain constant
(iii) Potential decreases.
(iv) electric field decreases
(v) Energy decreases.

Q: Define dielectric strength.

A: When a dielectric is placed in the electric field it gets polarized. In a polarized dielectric each atom
gets stretched and some strain is produced in the atom. As electric field increases strain also increases.
As strain increases then at particular instant electrons get detached from the atom which in turn
becomes a +ve ion. This is known as electric breakdown. The electrons drift towards the +ve plate of
the capacitor and +ve ions drifts towards the –ve plate. Now dielectrics no longer remain insulator.
The maximum value of electric field that can be applied to the dielectric without its electric
breakdown is known as dielectric strength. Ebreak = Vbreak/d

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