Chapter 8

Pile Foundations
8.1 Introduction, Classification and uses

Pile foundation, a kind of deep foundation, is actually a slender column or long cylinder made of
materials such as concrete or steel which are used to support the structure and transfer the load at
desired depth either by end bearing or skin friction.

Fig.53 Construction of Pile in group (source: google

search)
A foundation is described as 'piled' when its depth is more than three times its breadth. Pile
foundations are usually used for large structures and in situations where the soil at shallow depth
is not suitable to resist excessive settlement, resist uplift, etc.

Classification

Pile foundations can be classified based on function, materials and installation process, etc.
Followings are the types of pile foundation used in construction:

A. Based on Function or Use

1. Sheet Piles
2. Load Bearing Piles

i. End Bearing Piles

ii. Friction Piles

3. Soil Compaction Pile

B. Based on the Materials and Construction Methods

1. Timber Piles
 2. Concrete Piles
3. Steel Piles
4. Composite Piles

The following diagram is representing pile foundation types discussed above.

 Fig.54 Different types of Pile
based on function (source:
google search)

These piles are briefly discussed below.

Classification of Pile Foundation Based on Function or Use

Sheet Piles

This type of pile is mostly used to provide lateral support. Usually, they resist lateral pressure
from loose soil, the flow of water, etc. They are usually used for cofferdams, trench sheeting,
shore protection, etc. They are not used for providing vertical support to the structure. They are
usually used to serve the following purpose-

 Construction of retaining / flexible walls.

 Protection from river bank erosion.
 Retain the loose soil around foundation trenches.
 For isolation of foundation from adjacent soils.
 For confinement of soil and thus increase the bearing capacity of the soil.
Load Bearing Piles

This type of pile foundation is mainly used to transfer the vertical loads from the structure to the
soil. These foundations transmit loads through the soil with poor supporting property onto a layer
which is capable of bearing the load. Depending on the mechanism of load transfer from pile to
the soil, load-bearing piles can be further classified as flowed:

End Bearing Piles

In this type of pile, the loads pass through the lower tip of the pile. The bottom end of the pile
rests on a strong layer of soil or rock. Usually, the pile rests at a transition layer of a weak and
strong slayer. As a result, the pile acts as a column and safely transfers the load to the strong
layer.

The total capacity of end bearing pile can be calculated by multiplying the area of the tip of the
pile and the bearing capacity of at that particular depth of soil at which the pile rests. Considering
a reasonable factor of safety, the diameter of the pile is calculated.

Friction Pile

Friction pile transfers the load from the structure to the soil by the frictional force between the
surface of the pile and the soil surrounding the pile such as stiff clay, sandy soil, etc. Friction can
be developed for the entire length of the pile or a definite length of the pile, depending on the
strata of the soil. In friction pile, generally, the entire surface of the pile works to transfer the
loads from the structure to the soil.

The surface area of the pile multiplied by the safe friction force developed per unit area
determines the capacity of the pile.

While designing skin friction pile, the skin friction to be developed at a pile surface should be
sincerely evaluated and a reasonable factor of safety should be considered. Besides this one can
increase the pile diameter, depth, number of piles and make pile surface rough to increase the
capacity of friction pile.

Soil Compaction Piles

Sometimes piles are driven at placed closed intervals to increase the bearing capacity of soil by
compacting.

Sand compaction piles are one of the potential methods for improving ground stability,
preventing liquefaction, reducing settlement and similar applications. This method involves
driving a hollow steel pipe into the ground. The bottom is closed with a collapsible plate down to
the required depth and then pipe is filled with sand. The pipe is withdrawn while the air pressure
is directed against the sand inside it.

Classification of Piles Based on Materials and Construction Method

Primarily piles can be classified into two parts. Displacement piles and Non-displacement or
Replacement piles. Piles which causes the soil to be displaced vertically and radially as they are
driven to the ground is known as Displacement piles. In case of Replacement piles, the ground is
bored and the soil is removed and then the resulting hole is either filled with concrete or a pre-
cast concrete pile is inserted. On the basis of materials of pile construction and their installation
process load-bearing piles can be classified as follows:

1. Timber Piles
i. Untreated
ii. Treated with Preservative
2. Concrete Piles
i. Pre-cast Piles
ii. Cast-in-place Piles
3. Steel Piles
i. I-Section Piles and H Section
ii. Hollow Piles
4. Composite Piles

Timber Piles

Timber piles are placed under the water level. They last for approximately about 30 years. They
can be rectangular or circular in shape. Their diameter or size can vary from 12 to 16 inches.
The length of the pile is usually 20 times of the top width.

They are usually designed for 15 to 20 tons. Additional strength can be obtained by bolting fish
plates to the side of the piles.

Advantages of Timber Piles-

 Timber piles of regular size are available.

  Economical.
 Easy to install.
 Low possibility of damage.
 Timber piles can be cut off at any desired length after they are installed.
 If necessary, timber piles can be easily pulled out.

Disadvantages of Timber Piles-

 Piles of longer lengths are not always available.

 It is difficult to obtain straight piles if the length is short.
 It is difficult to drive the pile if the soil strata are very hard.
 Timber or wooden piles are not suitable to be used as end-bearing piles.
 For durability of timber piles, special measures have to be taken. For example- wooden
piles are often treated with preservative.

Concrete Piles

Pre-cast Concrete Pile

The precast concrete pile is cast in pile bed in the horizontal form if they are rectangular in
shape. Usually, circular piles are cast in vertical forms. Precast piles are usually reinforced with
steel to prevent breakage during its mobilization from casting bed to the location of the
foundation. After the piles are cast, curing has to be performed as per specification. Generally
curing period for pre-cast piles is 21 to 28 days.

Advantages of Pre-cast Piles

 They are usually of high strength.

 To facilitate driving, a pipe may be installed along the center of the pile.
 If the piles are cast and ready to be driven before the installation phase is due, it can
increase the pace of work.
 The confinement of the reinforcement can be ensured.
 Quality of the pile can be controlled.
 If any fault is identified, it can be replaced before driving.
 Pre-cast piles can be driven under the water.
 The piles can be loaded immediately after it is driven up to the required length.
 Provides high resistance to chemical and biological cracks.

Disadvantages of Pre-cast Piles

 Once the length of the pile is decided, it is difficult to increase or decrease the length of
the pile afterward.
 They are difficult to mobilize.
 Needs heavy and expensive equipment to drive.
 As they are not available for readymade purchase, it can cause a delay in the project.
 There is a possibility of breakage or damage during handling and driving of piles.
Cast-in-Palace Concrete Piles

This type of pile is constructed by boring of soil up to the desired depth and then, depositing
freshly mixed concrete in that place and letting it cure there. This type of pile is constructed
either by driving a metallic shell to the ground and filling it with concrete and leave the shell
with the concrete or the shell is pulled out while concrete is poured.

Advantages of Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles

 The shells are light weighted, so they are easy to handle.

 Length of piles can be varied easily.
 The shells may be assembled at sight.
 No excess enforcement is required only to prevent damage from handling.
 No possibility of breaking during installation.
 Additional piles can be provided easily if required.

Disadvantages of Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles

 Installation requires careful supervision and quality control.

 Needs sufficient place on site for storage of the materials used for construction.
 It is difficult to construct cast in situ piles where the underground water flow is heavy.
 Bottom of the pile may not be symmetrical.
 If the pile is un-reinforced and uncased, the pile can fail in tension if there acts and
uplifting force.

Steel Piles

Steel piles may be of I-section or hollow pipe. They are filled with concrete. The size may vary
from 10 inches to 24 inches in diameter and thickness is usually ¾ inches. Because of the
small sectional area, the piles are easy to drive. They are mostly used as end-bearing piles.

Advantages of Steel Piles

 They are easy to install.

 They can reach a greater depth comparing to any other type of pile.
 Can penetrate through the hard layer of soil due to the less cross-sectional area.
 It is easy to splice steel piles
 Can carry heavy loads.

Disadvantage of Steel Piles

 Prone to corrosion.
 Has a possibility of deviating while driving.
 Comparatively expensive.

When to use Pile Foundation

Following are the situations when using a pile foundation system can be

 When the groundwater table is high.

 Heavy and un-uniform loads from superstructure are imposed.
 Other types of foundations are costlier or not feasible.
 When the soil at shallow depth is compressible.
 When there is the possibility of scouring, due to its location near the river bed or
seashore, etc.
 When there is a canal or deep drainage systems near the structure.
 When soil excavation is not possible up to the desired depth due to poor soil condition.
 When it becomes impossible to keep the foundation trenches dry by pumping or by any
other measure due to heavy inflow of seepage.
 When it is rare to meet hard stratum at shallow depth.
 When soil has good adhesion.

Use of Pile Foundation

The major uses of pile foundations are:

1. To carry vertical compressive load

2. To resist uplift load
3. To resist horizontal or inclined load

Normally vertical piles are used to carry vertical compression loads coming from superstructures
such as buildings, bridges etc. The piles are used in groups joined together by pile caps. The
loads carried by the piles are transferred to the adjacent soil. If all the loads coming on the tops
of piles are transferred to the tips, such piles are called end-bearing or point-bearing piles.

However, if all the load is transferred to the soil along the length of the pile such piles are called
friction piles. If, in the course of driving a pile into granular soils, the soil around the pile gets
compacted, such piles are called compaction piles.

Piles are also used to resist uplift loads. Piles used for this purpose are called tension piles or
uplift piles or anchor piles. Uplift loads are developed due to hydrostatic pressure or overturning
movement.

Piles are also used to resist horizontal or inclined forces. Batter piles are normally used to resist
large horizontal loads.
8.2 Selection of Pile types

Selection of the type, length and capacity is usually made from estimation based on the soil
conditions and the magnitude of the load. Generally the foundation design is made on the
preliminary estimated values. Before the actual construction begins, pile load tests must be
conducted to verify the design values. The foundation design must be revised according to the
test results. The factors that govern the selection of piles are:
 1. Length of pile in relation to the load and type of soil
2. Character of structure
3. Availability of materials
4. Type of loading
5. Factors causing deterioration
6. Ease of maintenance
7. Estimated costs of types of piles, taking into account the initial cost, life expectancy and
cost of maintenance
8. Availability of funds

All the above factors have to be largely analyzed before deciding up on a particular type
8.3 Determination of Pile Load Capacity
8.3.1 Static approach
𝑸𝒖 = 𝑸𝒃 + 𝑸𝒔
Where,
Qu = UBC of Pile
Qb = Base or tip Resistance of Pile = qb * Ab = qu * Ab
Qs = Skin Resistance = rs * As = τ * As = fs * As
Here, rs or τ or fs is unit skin friction (ultimate)
In Case of Driven pile in sand
𝑛

𝑄𝑢 = 𝑞𝑁𝑞 𝐴𝑏 + ∑ 𝑘(𝜎𝑣 )𝑖 tan 𝛿 (𝐴𝑠 )𝑖

𝑖=1

In Case of Driven pile in clay

𝑄𝑢 = 𝑐𝑁𝑐 𝐴𝑏 + 𝛼𝑐𝐴𝑠

Load Bearing capacity of bore holed pile in sand

𝑛

𝑄𝑢 = 𝑞𝑁𝑞 𝐴𝑏 + ∑ 𝑘(𝜎𝑣 )𝑖 tan 𝛿 (𝐴𝑠 )𝑖

𝑖=1

Load Bearing capacity of bore holed pile in clay

𝑄𝑢 = 𝑐𝑁𝑐 𝐴𝑏 + 𝛼𝑐𝐴𝑠 ′
Where,
𝐴𝑠 ′ = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Bearing capacity of bore holed pile based on N- Value
 𝑄𝑢 = 133𝑁𝐴𝑏 + 0.67𝑁′𝐴𝑠
Where, 𝑄𝑢 = 𝑈𝐵𝐶 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑁
𝐴𝑏 = 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚2
𝐴𝑠 = 𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 (𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒)𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚2
N = Average corrected N value below pile tip
N’= Average corrected N value along pile length
𝑄𝑢 𝑄𝑢
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑄𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 = =
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 4
8.3.2 Dynamic approach
1. Engineering news formula
𝑊𝐻
𝑄𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 =
𝐹(𝑆 + 𝐶)

Where,
 W = Weight of Hammer
 H = Height of fall
 S = Avg. penetration per blow
 F = FOS = 6
 C = Empirical constant
 = 2.5 for drop hammer
 = 0.25 for single and double acting hammer
2. Hiley formula method (ISI method)
𝑛ℎ 𝑊𝐻𝑛𝑏
𝑄𝑢 =
(𝑆 + 𝐶/2)
𝑛𝑏 = 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝑊 + 𝑒2𝑃
𝑛𝑏 = 𝑖𝑓 𝑊 > 𝑒 ∗ 𝑃
𝑊+𝑃
𝑊 + 𝑒 2𝑃 𝑊 − 𝑒𝑃 2
𝑛𝑏 = −[ ] 𝑖𝑓 𝑊 < 𝑒 ∗ 𝑃
𝑊+𝑃 𝑊+𝑃
Where,

• 𝑛𝑏 = 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑤

𝑊+𝑒 2 𝑃
• 𝑛𝑏 = 𝑖𝑓 𝑊 > 𝑒 ∗ 𝑃
𝑊+𝑃

𝑊+𝑒 2 𝑃 𝑊−𝑒𝑃 2
• 𝑛𝑏 = 𝑊+𝑃
− [ 𝑊+𝑃 ] 𝑖𝑓 𝑊 < 𝑒 ∗ 𝑃

• W = Weight of Hammer
 • H = Height of fall
• S = Avg. penetration per blow
• C = Total elastic compression
• 𝑛ℎ = Efficiency of hammer blow
= 65% for double acting steam hammer and
= 100% for drop hammer
 P = Weight of Pile, helmet
 E = Coefficient of Restitution
 F = Factor of safety = 2 or 2.5

The product of 𝑛ℎ H is called effective fall of hammer.

3. Janbu formula method
𝑛𝑊𝐻𝑛𝑏 1
𝑄𝑢 = ∗
𝑆 𝐾𝑢
Where,
1
𝛼𝑒 2
𝐾𝑢 = 𝐶𝑑 [1 + (1 + ) ]
𝐶𝑑
𝑊𝑝
𝐶𝑑 = 0.75 + 0.15
𝑊
𝑛𝑊𝐻𝐿
𝛼𝑒 =
𝐴𝐸𝑠 2
𝛼𝑒 = 𝐸𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐻 = 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙
𝑊 = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟
𝑊𝑝 = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑒
𝐿 = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑒
𝐴 = 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑒
𝐸 = 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝑆 = 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

8.4 Pile Capacity by in-situ test

8.5 Pile Load Test

Objectives:
I. To determine load bearing capacity of pile
 II. To determine the value of
a) Ultimate load on pile
b) Safe load on pile
c) Settlement under different value of load.

Procedure as per IS 2911 part IV (2013)

• The set up consist of two anchor piles provided with an anchor girder or reaction girder at
their top.
• The test pile is installed between the anchor piles as like foundation pile is installed. The
test pile should be at least 3B or 2.5m clear from anchor pile.
• The test is conducted after a rest period of 3 days after the installation in sandy soil and
period of 1 month in silt and soft clays.
• The load is applied through hydraulic jack resting on reaction girder or truss. The
measurement of pile movements are taken with respect to fixed reference mark.
• The load is applied in equal increment of about 20% of the allowable load.
 • Settlement should be recorded with 3 dial gauges provided.
• Each stage of loading is maintained till the rate of movement of pile top is not more than
0.1mm per hour in sandy soil and 0.02mm per hour in case of clayey soil as maximum of
2 hours.
• Under each load of increment, settlements are observed at 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 60
minutes.
• The loading should be continued up to twice the safe load or the load at which a total
settlement reaches a specified value as per IS 2911.
• The load is removed in the same decrements at 1 hour interval and the final rebound
recorded 24 hours after the entire load has been removed.
• Plot a graph of Load vs. Settlement and make curve for loading as well as unloading
obtained from a pile load test.

Calculations
• Figure shows a typical Load- Settlement curve for loading as well as unloading from a
pile load test.
• For any given load, the net pile settlement (𝑆𝑛 ) is given by,
 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑆𝑡 − 𝑆𝑒
Where,

𝑆𝑡 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡)

𝑆𝑒 = 𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑟𝑒𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑)

Results
• At ultimate load (𝑄𝑢 ), the load settlement curve becomes either linear as in curve (2) OR
• There is sharp break as shown in curve (1)
• The safe load is usually taken as one-half of the ultimate load.
But According to IS 2911,
• The safe load is taken as one half of the load at which the total settlement is equal to 10%
of pile diameter, OR
• Two third of final load at which the total settlement is 12 mm, whichever is less.
8.6 Group action of Piles
Group pile is essentially a friction pile where number of piles are driven to develop sufficient
friction and they are combined at top with the help of pile cap above this cap the structure is
built. Load carrying capacity is obtained by considering:
4. Piles are acting individually where load carrying capacity of group pile is
𝑄𝑢(𝑔) = 𝑛 ∗ (𝑄𝑢 )1
𝑄𝑢(𝑔) = 𝑛 ∗ 𝛼𝑐𝜋𝑑𝐿
5. Piles are acting as a whole, called block consideration.
In above relation, c is cohesion, α is adhesion factor, n is number of pile in group, d is diameter
of each pile and L is length of each pile.
8.7 Group efficiency of piles (Efficiency of Pile group)
It can be defined as the ratio of load carried by group of friction piles to the sum of load carried
by each friction pile.
When several closely spaced piles are grouped together, it is reasonable to expect that the
pressure developed in the soil as a resistance will overlap. The bearing capacity of pile group
may or may not be equal the sum of the bearing capacity of individual piles forming a group.
Theoretically the load carried by group of friction pile is the product of load carried by each
friction pile and number of piles. But, the actual load carrying capacity of a group of friction pile
is obtained by multiplying the quantity n*Qu1 by a reduction factor called the efficiency of pile
group.
i.e. 𝑄𝑢𝑔 = 𝜂𝑔 (𝑛 ∗ 𝑄𝑢1 )

Where, Qu1 = Load carried by each friction pile

n = Number of piles.
ηg = Efficiency of pile group
However no reduction due to grouping occurs in end bearing piles.
The efficiency of pile group depends up on:
6. Length of pile, diameter of pile,
7. Pile material, spacing of pile,
8. Number of piles in a row and
9. Number of rows of piles etc.
According to Dr. Converse Labarre, the efficiency of pile group can be given by formula as
follows:
𝜃° (𝑛 − 1)𝑚 + (𝑚 − 1)𝑛
𝜂𝑔 = 1 − [ ]
90° 𝑚∗𝑛
Where, m = Number of rows of pile in pattern
n = Number of piles in one row
𝑑
𝜃 = tan−1 ( 𝑠 )

Here, d = Diameter of pile

S = Spacing of pile
Example, Let us consider a pile group consist of 16 piles arranged in square pattern (as shown in
figure below) having diameter = 50cm and spacing as 1.5m, then

𝑑 50
𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 ( ) = 18.43°
𝑠 150
m = 4 and n= 4, then efficiency of pile group is
18.43° (4 − 1)4 + (4 − 1)4
𝜂𝑔 = 1 − [ ] = 0.69 = 69%
90° 4∗4

Efficiency of pile group can also be obtained by Feld’s rule. According to this rule, the value of
each pile is reduced by 1/16th due to the effect of the nearest pile in each diagonal or straight row
of which the pile is in a member. i.e.
16 − 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝜂𝑔 =
16
Examples:
(i) In case of two piles: Number of influence for each pile = 1
16 − 1 15
𝜂𝑔 = = = 0.9375 = 93.75%
16 16

(ii) In case of three piles: Number of influence for each pile = 2

16 − 2 14
𝜂𝑔 = = = 0.875 = 87.5%
16 16

(iii) In case of four piles: Number of influence for each pile = 3

 16 − 3 13
𝜂𝑔 = = = 0.8125 = 81.25%
16 16

(iv) In case of five piles: Number of influence for each corner pile = 3, and Number of influence
for center pile = 4
(16 − 3) (16 − 4)
∗4+ ∗1
𝜂𝑔 = 16 16 = 0.8 = 80%
(4 + 1)

(v) In case of 6 piles in rectangular pattern: Number of influence for each corner pile = 3, and
Number of influence for side middle pile = 5
(16 − 3) (16 − 5)
∗4+ ∗2
𝜂𝑔 = 16 16 = 0.77 = 77%
(4 + 2)

(vi) In case of 9 piles in square pattern: Number of influence for each corner pile = 3, Number of
influence for side middle pile = 5 and Number of influence for center pile = 8

(16 − 3) (16 − 5) (16 − 8)

∗4+ ∗4+ ∗1
𝜂𝑔 = 16 16 16 = 0.722 = 72.2%
(4 + 4 + 1)

(vii) In case of 16 piles in square pattern: Number of influence for each corner pile = 3, Number
of influence for side middle pile = 5 and Number of influence for center pile = 8
 (16 − 3) (16 − 5) (16 − 8)
∗ 4 + ∗ 8 + ∗4
𝜂𝑔 = 16 16 16 = 0.6718 = 67.18%
(4 + 8 + 4)

8.8 Negative skin friction

Negative skin friction is usually a downward shear drag acting on a pile or pile group because of
downward movement of surrounding soil relative to the piles. This shear drag movements are
anticipated to occur when a pile penetrates into compressible soil layer that can consolidate.
Factors that cause negative skin friction on piles and pile group

 Newly placed fill material on compressible soil before the completion of consolidation.
 If fill material is loose cohesion-less soil
 When fill material is deposited over layer of soft soil or peat.
 Lowering groundwater which increases the effective stress causing consolidation of soil
with resultant settlement and friction force being developed on the pile.

Effect of negative skin friction on piles and pile groups

 Negative skin friction contributes to the uneven settlement of piles or pile group.
 For piles in compressible soils where pile capacity is contributed by both point resistance
and shaft adhesion, the problem of negative skin friction should be considered a
settlement problem.
 In bearing piles where the settlement of the pile is negligible, negative skin friction
becomes a pile capacity problem.

Negative skin friction in single pile

The negative skin friction in single piles can be computed using the following expressions:

Negative skin friction of piles in cohesive soil

𝐹𝑛 = α ∗ c ∗ 𝐴𝑠 = α ∗ c ∗ (π ∗ d ∗ 𝐿𝑐 ) = αcP𝐿𝑐

𝐹𝑛 = P𝐿𝑐 𝑐𝑎

Where,

Fn : Negative skin friction

P : Perimeter of the Pile
 Lc : Pile length in compressible soil
α : Adhesion factor or Mobilization factor
c : Undrained Cohesion of soil
Ca : Unit adhesion = α.c

Here, α is adhesion factor and c is undrain cohesion of compressible layer

Negative skin friction of piles in cohesion less Soils

𝐹𝑛 = 𝐾 ∗ ̅̅̅
𝜎𝑣 ∗ tan 𝛿 ∗ 𝐴𝑠

(0 + 𝛾𝐿𝑐 )
𝐹𝑛 = 𝐾 ∗ ∗ tan 𝛿 ∗ 𝜋𝑑𝐿𝑐
2

Where,

K: Lateral earth pressure coefficient

γ: Unit weight of soil
δ: Angle of friction between pile and soil = 1/2φ to 2/3 φ
Lc : Pile length in compressible soil

Negative skin friction on pile groups

Negative skin friction in pile groups equal to the greater of following two equations:

𝐹𝑛𝑔 = 𝑛𝐹𝑛 … … … (𝑎) ′𝑂𝑅′

𝐹𝑛𝑔 = 𝑄𝑏 + 𝑄𝑠

𝐹𝑛𝑔 = 𝛾𝐿𝑐 𝐴𝑔 + 𝑐𝑃𝑔 𝐿𝑐 … … … (𝑏)

Where,

γLc = q = Overburden pressure at the base of unconsolidated fill

cu = Undrained cohesion of compressible layer
n: Number of Piles in group
Pg: Perimeter of pile group
γ: Unit weight of soil
Ag: Area of pile group within the perimeter Pg.
Lc : Pile length in compressible soil
 Fig.55 Negative skin friction and group pile (source: google search)

8.9 Construction of piles

The construction or installation method of pile at site mainly depends on pile type to be installed
as per design. The equipment required and method for the purpose varies as given below:
1. Driven Piles
The following piles comes under this category:
a) Steel Piles i.e. H-section and pipe piles
b) Precast concrete or prestressed concrete piles, either solid or hollow section
c) Timber piles

2. Driven cast-in-situ piles

This method involves driving of steel tube to the required depth with the end closed by a
detachable conical tip. The tube is then concreted and the shell is simultaneously withdrawn. In
some cases the shell may not be withdrawn.
3. Bored cast-in-situ piles
In this method, first of all boring is done either by augur boring or percussion boring. After the
boring is completed, the bore hole is concreted with required reinforcement.
1. Pile Driving Equipments
2. A pile frame
3. Piling winch
4. Impact hammers
a) Drop Hammer
b) Single acting hammer`
 c) Double acting hammer
d) Diesel hammer
e) Vibratory hammer
5. Jetting piles